Postharvest Handling Definition of Terms

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Postharvest Handling of Durables and Plantation Crops

Definition of terms:

Post-production- a general term applied to handling of crops from harvest to the


time they reach the consumers.

Post harvest handling- a specific term for the movement of commodities and
operations involved from harvest to meal preparation or to food processing.

Durable Crops – are the crops that could last for a year. These includes the grains,
cereal, and legumes like peanut, mungbean and soybean.
Plantation crops – are those crops which are cultivated on extensive scale.

Post-harvest. The period between maturity of the crop and the time of its final
consumption.

Food loss. Any change in the availability, edibility, wholesomeness or quality of


food that reduces its value to humans.

Direct loss. Loss by spillage or consumption by insects, rodents and birds.

Indirect loss. Loss caused by a lowering of quality leading to rejection as food.


This type of loss may be locally defined and related to custom.

Losses of crop product. Crop products may be lost from the food chain at any or
all of the periods between planting and preparation for immediate consumption.
Three general periods have been identified.

(a) Pre-harvest losses occur before the harvesting process begins and may be due to
such factors as insects, weeds or diseases afflicting the crop.

(b) Harvest losses occur during the harvesting process and may be due, for
example, to shattering and shedding of the grain from the ears to the ground.

(c) Post-harvest losses occur during the post-harvest period.

Post-production losses. Losses consisting of the combined harvest losses and post-
harvest losses.

Food. Those commodities which people normally eat: the weight of wholesome


edible material, measured on a moisture-free basis, that would normally be
consumed by humans.
Grain loss. The loss in weight, occurring over a specified period and expressed on
a moisture-free basis, of grain which would otherwise have been available as
human food.

Moisture content (mc). The quantity of free water in a specified material.


Materials of organic origin are defined for scientific purposes as consisting of dry
matter and water. Loss of moisture during drying is not a food loss. Moisture
content is expressed either as a decimal ratio or as a percentage in one of two ways.

Wet basis (wb). The moisture content is defined as the ratio of the weight of water
to the total weight of dry matter and water. This is the most commonly used
method in agriculture.

Dry basis (db). The moisture content is defined as a ratio of the weight of water to
the dry-matter weight. This method is normally used in scientific laboratory work.

Storage

Farmers produce crop products. Some of these require some processing before
becoming suitable as food for humans. Crop products become available during
different short periods of the year, but people wish to consume the food steadily
throughout the year. Some form of storage is therefore required.

The storage requirements of crops show wide variation. For durables, such as
cereal grains, the requirements are comparatively simple; while for perishable
crops, such as fruit or vegetables, the cost of providing long-term storage is very
high. Such difficulties may be overcome either by lengthening the production
season of the perishables, or by partially or completely processing them into a
more concentrated form.

Storage requirements

The crop product must be stored so that:

(a) the quality does not deteriorate during the storage period;

(b) the quantity in storage is not unintentionally reduced;

(c) it is secure against pests, diseases and physical loss; and

(d) it is accessible at the time and in the quantity required.

The main crop products which may require storage facilities are:

durables (cereal grains)


perishables (fruits and vegetables)

semi-durables (roots and tubers)

Agents causing deterioration of stored produce

The main agents causing deterioration of stored produce are:

1. Microorganisms (fungi, bacteria and yeasts)


2. Insects and mites
3. Rodents
4. Birds
5. Metabolic activity

Fungi

The most important type of microorganism causing or supporting crop


deterioration. Although belonging to the plant kingdom, fungi possess no
chlorophyll and are therefore unable to manufacture their own food by
photosynthesis. Thus, they live on other living bodies as parasites; or on inactively
alive or dead bodies as saprophytes. Parasitic fungi may cause diseases in the host
body, while saprophytic fungi degrade or destroy the body on which they feed.
Saprophytic fungi are more important in relation to stored durable crops.

Bacteria

Not generally a problem with dry-stored durables. They may, however, invade
already damaged portions of the crop product during storage, and multiply.

Insects

Many species of insect are found in stored crop products, but only a few cause
damage and loss. Some may even be beneficial because they attack other insect
pests. It is important to be able to identify accurately the main insect species in
order to assess their effect on the stored product and to devise the necessary control
measures.

Rodents

Rodents prefer not to live in grain stores because there is no drinking water.
Although they can subsist without freely available water, the climate in the store is
too dry for them to multiply rapidly unless they can leave the store to find water
and return easily. Rodents consume grains and damage sacks and building
structures, but they contaminate much greater quantities of grains with urine and
droppings than they consume. They are controlled by poisoning and by preventing
their access to the stored commodities.

Birds

Like rodents, birds consume some grain but also contaminate a greater quantity
with their droppings. Losses caused by birds are avoided by preventing their access
to the stored commodities.

Metabolic activity

The crop product is living material, and its normal chemical reactions produce
heat and chemical by-products. Heat is also generated by insects, mites and
microorganisms which, if present in large numbers, may lead to a significant rise in
the temperature of the stored product.

Controlling the agents causing deterioration

The agents causing deterioration (with the exception of a few anaerobic species)
require moisture, oxygen and an equable temperature in order to multiply and
thereby damage the product.

Such agents are controlled by keeping one or more of these factors at levels which
prevent (or at least deter) their growth or by measures such as the application of
insecticides, or fungicides (e.g. propionic acid).

Reduction of moisture content

The rate of metabolic activity is significantly reduced in most cereals if the grain
moisture content is reduced to 14 percent; below 8 percent, metabolic activity
practically ceases. Drying is therefore a standard treatment for wet cereal crops
before storage. Drying requires energy to evaporate the moisture, and air
movement to remove the resultant water vapour. The energy may be derived from
burning fossil fuel or wood, or from solar energy, as in sun-drying. It may also be
derived from ambient air that is not fully saturated with vapour (as in the crib
drying of ear maize). Air movement may arise through convection currents caused
by very small temperature differences, by a general air movement such as wind or
a breeze, or by artificial means such as a fan. Drying processes are well
documented and results can be reliably predicted.

Reducing oxygen.
Bulk grain may be stored in airtight containers to exclude oxygen. If the grain is
wet (17-20 percent), metabolic activity soon exhausts the initial oxygen supply and
the grain will not deteriorate in feeding quality. The germ, however, is destroyed
and anaerobic fermentation may lead to unacceptable taints. Such grain is only
used for animal feeding. If the grain is dry (12-13 percent ), it may be stored for
several years, with careful management. In controlled (modified)-atmosphere
storage, nitrogen or carbon dioxide is often used to replace the original air when
the container is first loaded.

Controlling temperature

Levels of insect activity and general metabolic activity rise with increasing
temperatures up to 42°C. The maintenance of low temperatures in the bulk grain
mass by using modern refrigeration techniques has been used successfully to
control deterioration and maintain viability of the stored grain. The method is used
in specialized fields such as seed storage and storage of grain for brewing.
Equipment and running costs are high.

Chemical control

The bulk grain is treated with an organic acid or with gaseous ammonia. This
sterilizes the grain and kills the germ, and generally leaves an odour disagreeable
to humans in the grain, which is then used for stock feed. Insecticide and fumigant
treatments may also be considered as chemical control methods.

Losses caused by insects


1. Weight loss
As they develop on a commodity, insect pests feed continuously. Estimates of
the resultant loss vary widely with the commodity, the locality and the storage
practices involved. For grains or grain legumes in the tropics, stored under
traditional conditions, a loss in the range of 10-30 percent might be expected
over a full storage season.
2. Loss in quality/market value
Infested produce is contaminated with insect debris and has an increased dust
content. Grains are holed and often discoloured. Food prepared from infested
produce may have an unpleasant odour or taste.
Prices in traditional markets are relatively insensitive to pest-damage. Centralized
marketing and distribution of produce usually depend, however, on a grading
system which penalizes infested produce.
Export crops such as coffee, cocoa and groundnuts call for particularly high quality
standards.
3. Promotion of mould development
Insects, moulds, and the grains themselves produce water in respiration, i.e.
a breakdown of carbohydrate substrate. In humid conditions, without
adequate ventilation, mould development and "caking" can spread rapidly,
causing severe losses.
4. Reduced germination in seed material
Damage to the embryo of the seed will usually prevent germination; some
storage pests prefer to attack the embryo.
5. Reduced nutritional value
Removal of the embryo by storage pests will tend to reduce the protein
content of the grain.
Losses caused by rodents
Rodents cause food loss by consuming grains and also by contaminating far more
than they consume. They also spread diseases which may be transmitted to
humans.
Three species of rodents are major pests of stored products:
a. Rattus rattus (black rat) and Rattus norvegicus (brown rat)
b. Mus musculus (house mouse)
c. Praomys natalensis (multi-mamma/e rat)

Rats become active after dark or when the premises have become quiet. Black rats
and brown rats have a habit of following set routes as they move between the
stored product, the source of water and their normal resting place. After some time
these routes become marked by greasy traces and are easily identified. This habit
also means that rats will avoid unfamiliar objects such as traps or poisoned food,
particularly when they are first laid down.
Clues to the presence of rats include:
a. droppings
b. loose earth from burrowings
c. footprints on dusty floors
d. greasy marks on set routes of travel, e.g., on beams or along electrical
wiring
e. holed sacks with grain escaping

Control methods
Eliminating a single rat from a domestic house is very different from controlling a
large number in a group of storage warehouses. Knowledge of the habits of rats is
important in establishing effective and economic control measures.
The most effective control is to prevent access of rodents to the store. This can be
achieved by "rat-proofing", preferably as the warehouse is being constructed, but
also as a feature to be added later.
The main methods for controlling an established rodent population fall into the
categories of mechanical and chemical.
The principal mechanical method of control is by trapping. The cage trap is
preferable for godowns and should be set on the rat run. After being placed in
position and left open for several days, unbaited and unset to overcome the rats'
shyness of new features, the trap should be baited with food attractive to the rat.
This ensures maximum results
The chief chemical control is by poisoning, either through a single dose (acute
poison) or a multiple dose (chronic poison).
Single dose. Zinc phosphide is the most widely used. Two stages are essential for
effective control.
(a) Pre-baiting. The sites, baits and containers should be the same as those to be
used for the poison at the next stage. The more attractive the bait, the more
successful the control. Cooked rice, soaked wheat or maize, and flour mixed with
syrup are attractive baits. Pre-baiting should continue for three to four days; freshly
prepared bait should be provided each day.
(b) Baiting with poison. One part of zinc phosphide is mixed evenly with 20 to 40
parts of a bait similar to that used for pre-baiting. The special containers used for
pre-baiting should then be furnished with the poisoned bait and left at sunset in the
same positions as those of the pre-bait containers. The next morning the remaining
poisoned bait should be removed from the containers and destroyed. The
containers should then be replaced, after loading with pre-baiting (nonpoisonous)
material. If this is eaten it indicates that further control measures are needed and
the whole operation must be repeated. Dead rodents should be removed every day.
Multi-dose chronic poisons. These are generally blood anticoagulants causing
death by internal bleeding. Their main advantages over single-dose poisons are as
follows:
(a) rat colonies are not alarmed because deaths appear to be from natural causes,
and they will continue to ingest the poisoned bait, ultimately giving a better overall
control than single-dose poisons;
(b) such poisons do not give rise to bait-shyness, and no pre-baiting is necessary;
and
(c) such poisons are used in very small quantities, and they are slow-acting,
therefore presenting less risk of accidental ingestion by humans and domestic
animals.

The manufacturers' instructions for anticoagulants should always be closely


followed, and the bait containers located where only rodents have access. Rats are
killed in about ten days, although for mice it may take 20 days. Affected rodents
seek fresh air and water and therefore generally emerge from the store to die.
Carcasses should be disposed of carefully because any anticoagulants remaining
therein will affect scavenging animals.

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