CHAPTER 1

Lesson 1 Intellectual Revolutions that Defined Society

Scientific Revolution
Science is an old the world itself. These is no individual that can exactly identify when and where science
began. From the genesis of time. Science has existed. It is always interwoven with the society. So how can
science be defined?
1. Science as an idea. It includes ideas, theories, and all available systematic explanation and
observations about the natural and physical world.

3. Science as a body of knowledge. It is a subject or a discipline, a field of study, or a body of

knowledge that deals with the process of learning about the natural and physical world. This is what
we refer to as school science.

4. Science as a personal and social activity. This explains that science is both knowledge and activities
done by human beings to develop better understanding of the world around them. It is a means to
improve life and to survive in life. It is interwoven with people's lives.

Human beings have embarked in scientific activities in order to know and understand everything
around them. They have persistently observed and studied the natural and the physical world in order
to find meanings and seek answers to many questions. They have developed noble ideas, later known
as philosophy, to provide alternative or possible explanations to certain phenomena. Humans also used
religion to rationalize the origins of life and all lifeless forms.

The idea of scientific revolution is claimed to have started in the early 16th century up to the 18th
century in Europe. Why in Europe?

The probable answer is the invention of the printing machine and the blooming intellectual
activities done in various places of learning, and the growing number of scholars in various fields of
human interests. This does not mean, however, that science is a foreign idea transported from other
areas of the globe. Anyone who can examine the history of science, technology, medicine, and
mathematics is aware that all great civilizations of the ancient world had their own sophisticated
traditions and activities related to these disciplines.

Scientific revolution was the period of enlightenment when the developments in the fields of
mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry transformed the views of society about
nature. It explained the emergence or birth of modern science as a result of these developments from
the disciplines mentioned. The ideas generated during this period enabled the people to reflect, rethink,
and reexamine their beliefs and their way of life. There is no doubt that it ignited vast human interests
to rethink how they do science and view scientific processes.

Scientific revolution was the golden age for people committed to scholarly life in science but it was
also a deeply trying moment to some scientific individuals that led to their painful death or
condemnation from the religious institutions who tried to preserve their faith, religion, and theological
views. Some rulers and religious leaders did not accept many of the early works of scientists. But these
did not stop people especially scientists to satisfy their curiosity of the natural and physical world.

Figure 1. Influences on Scientific Revolution

The scientific revolution is very significant in the development of human beings, transformation of the
society, and in the formulation of scientific ideas. It significantly improved the conduct of scientific

1
investigations, experiments, and observations. The scientific revolution also led to the creation of new
research fields in science and prompted the establishment of a strong foundation for modern science. In
many ways, the scientific revolution transformed the natural world and the world of ideas.

Some Intellectuals and their Revolutionary Ideas

To further understand what exactly happened during the scientific revolution, it is important to
examine the different individuals whose ideas have shaken and contested the dominant theories and
ideas during this period—the truths of their time. Scientists in all periods of time are driven by their
curiosity, critical thinking, and creativity to explore the physical and natural world. Their love for
science is driven by their deep passion to know and to discover.

Figure 2. Variables that Influence the Development of Science Ideas, Science Discoveries, and
Technology

Scientists are not driven by clamor for honor and publicity. They are ordinary people doing
extraordinary things. Some scientists were never appreciated during their times, some were sentenced
to death, while others were condemned by the Church during their time. In spite of all the
predicaments and challenges they experienced, they never stopped experimenting, theorizing, and
discovering new knowledge and ideas. In this part of the lesson, three notable scientists are discussed.
For sure, there were many scientists who worked before and after these individuals. However, it is
important to note that these men, particularly through their ideas, had shaken the world.

Nicolaus Copernicus One of the Renaissance men, particularly in the field of science, is Nicolaus
Copernicus. Knowledge about the nature of the universe had been essentially unchanged since the
great days of Ancient Greece, some 1,500 years before Copernicus came on the scene (Gribbin, 2003).
This continued up to the Renaissance period. In one important way, Copernicus resembled the Greek
ancient philosophers or thinkers he did not do anything extensive such as observing heavenly bodies or
inviting people to test his ideas. His ideas were an example of what is presently called as a thought
experiment. By the time he finished his doctorate degree, Copernicus had been appointed as canon at
Frombork Cathedral in Poland. Despite his duty as a canon, he had plenty of time to sustain his interest
in astronomy. Copernicus was strongly influenced by a book entitled Epitome published in 1496 by a
German author, Johannes Mueller. This book contains Mueller's observations of the heavens and some
commentary on earlier works especially that of Ptolemy.

Copernicus's idea and model of the universe was essentially complete in 1510. Not long after that,
he circulated a summary of his ideas to his few close friends in a manuscript called Commentariolus
(Little Commentary). There was no proof that Copernicus was concerned about the risk of persecution
by the Church if he published his ideas formally.

Copernicus was a busy man. His duty as a canon and as a doctor affected his time to formally
publish his work and advance his career in astronomy. The publication of his book De revolutionibus
orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) in 1543 is often cited as the start of the
scientific revolution.

In his book, he wanted a model of the universe in which everything moved around a single center
at unvarying rates (Gribbin, 2003). Copernicus placed the Sun to be the centerpiece of the universe. The
Earth and all the planets are surrounding or orbiting the Sun eachyear. The Moon, however, would still
be seen orbiting the Earth. Copernicus's model of the Earth orbiting around the Sun automatically
positioned the planets into a logical sequence.

2
 In his model, Copernicus outlined two kinds of planetary motion:

(1) the orbits of Venus and Mercury lay •inside the orbit of the Earth, thus, closer to the Sun;
and

(2) the orbits of Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter lay outside the Earth's orbit, thus, farther from the
Sun.

From this model, he would work on the length of time it will take for each planet to orbit once around
the Sun. The result would form a sequence from Mercury, with a shortest year, through Venus, Earth,
Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn with the longest year. He placed the planets in order of increasing distance from
the Sun. One of the great problems in the (:opernicus model, however, was the position of the stars. I he
stars cannot be placed in a fixed position like crystals in a distance sphere. Copernicus is also a courageous
man. Although the Copernican model makes sense now, during those times, it was judged to be heretic
and therefore it was an unacceptable idea to be taught to Catholics. The Catholic Church banned the
Copernican model and was ignored by Rome for the rest of the 16th century.

THINK ABOUT THESE QUESTIONS

1. What is the contribution of Copernicus in the philosophy of science?
2. Do you think thought experiment is still useful in science in the present time?
3. Do you think the Church should intervene in scientific activities?
Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin is famous for his theory of evolution. He changed our concept of the world's creation and
its evolution. Johnson (2012) described Darwin as a genius who came from a line of intellectually gifted and
wealthy family. He developed his interest in natural history during his time as a student at Shrewsbury
School. He would also spend time taking long walks to observe his surroundings while collecting
specimens and he pored over books in his father's library (Gribbin, 2003). According to Johnson, Darwin
went to the best schools but was observed to be a mediocre student. He struggled in his study in medicine
and ministry, which his father has imposed to him. Darwin's life soon changed when one of his professors
recommended him to join a five-year voyage through the HMS Beagle on the Islands of Galapagos. Darwin
published his book The Origin of Species in 1589. This book is considered to be one of the most important
works in scientific literature. Darwin collected many significant materials in order to present his theory
with overwhelming evidence. His book presented evidence on how species evolved over time and
presented traits and adaptation that differentiate species. Like many, other scholars, Darwin accumulated
many pertinent materials and data that he could ever possibly need to substantiate his theory.

Darwin's observational skills as a scientist were extraordinary that moved beyond the realms of plants and
animals into the realms of humans. His book The Descent of Man was so impressive yet very controversial.
He introduced the idea of all organic life, including human beings, under the realm of evolutionary
thinking. This replaced the dominant views of a religious or biblical design that places human beings in a
privileged position of having been created by God. Darwin's theory of evolution scientifically questioned
this view. Darwin's accomplishments were so diverse that it is useful to distinguish two fields to which he
made major contributions: evolutionary biology and philosophy of science. More than these works, what
made Darwin truly remarkable was his courage to challenge religious and unscientific ideas that are
deemed to be prominent during those days. His unorthodox way of pursuing science gave more value to
evidence-based science. Darwin provided a different framework for doing scientific activities. It is a science
marked by observation and experiment.

1. What is Darwin's contribution to modern science?

2. How can Darwin's evolutionary theory influence the following fields in modem times:
Economy, Agriculture, Political, Science, Religion

Sigmund Freud

3
 Freud is a famous figure in the field of psychology. Rosenfeld (1980) also describe him as a towering
literary figure and a very talented communicator who did his share to raise consciousness of the civilized
world in psychological matters.

However, apart from these, Freud also made a significant contribution in the scientific world
through the development of an important observation method to gather reliable data to study human’s
inner life. This method is popularly known as the method of psychoanalysis. The scientific hypothesis he
formulated formed the essential fundamental version of this method. For Freud, this method of
psychoanalysis is a scientific way to study the human mind and neurotic illness. It is no doubt that admits
all questions on his works that led to some sort of academic controversy, his method of psychoanalysis had
great impact on the scientific way of understanding human nature.

Freud is not traditional thinker. According to Weiner (2016), his method of psychoanalysis was
proven to be effective in understanding some neurological conditions that were not understood by
medicine at that time. His method was unorthodox focusing on human sexuality and the evil nature of
man. This posed immense challenges to scholars and ordinary citizens of his time. To some, they found his
ideas not easy especially in his explanations of human activity.

Freud was born in a much later period from the scientific revolution but his contribution to
knowledge can be seen in many aspects of the human scene, including art, literature, philosophy, politics,
and psychotherapy. Whether he is more of a psychologist or scientist is for people to decide. The fact
remains that Freudian ideas and theories are still considered nowadays as a great inspiration to examine
human mind and behavior in a more scientifically accepted way.

THINK ABOUT THESE QUESTIONS

1. By looking for other sources and literatures, what are the and controversies or questions on Freud's
ideas?
2. How can you describe Freudian ideas as a scientist?
3. If Freud is still alive, what do you think are the major changes he would make to his theory?

Cradles of Early Science

Development of Science in Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central America from i Southern Mexico up to the border
of South America. There is no doubt that the Mesoamerican region is rich in culture and knowledge prior
to the arrival of its European colonizers,

The Maya civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for approximately 2,000 years.
These people are known for their works in astronomy. They incorporated their advanced understanding of
astronomy into their temples and other religious structures. This allows them to use their temples for
astronomical observation. For example, the pyramid at Chichen Itza in Mexico is situated at the location of
the Sun during the spring and fall equinoxes.

Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies was advanced for their time, as
evidenced by their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using astrological cycles in planting and
harvesting. The Mayans are also known for measuring time using two complicated calendar systems. These
calendars were very useful for their life especially in planning their activities and in observing their
religious rituals and cultural celebrations.

The Mayans also developed the technology for growing different crops and building elaborate cities
using ordinary machineries and tools. They built hydraulics system with sophisticated waterways to
supply water to different communities.

Furthermore, they used various tools and adapt themselves to innovations especially in the field of arts.
The Mayans built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints made from a mineral
4
called mica. They are also believed to be one of the first people to produce rubber products 3,000 years
before Goodyear received its patent in 1844. The Mayans are considered one of the most scientifically
advanced societies in Mesoamerica. They are also famous as one of the world's first civilizations to use a
writing system known as the Mayan hieroglyphics. They were also skilled in mathematics and created a
number system based on the numeral 20. Moreover, they independently developed the concept of zero and
positional value, even before the Romans did.

The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. The Incas made advanced scientific ideas
considering their limitations as an old civilization. The following were scientific ideas and tools that they
developed to help them in everyday life:

1. roads paved with stones;

2. stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters;
3. irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of land;
4. calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting season;
5. the first suspension bridge;
6. quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret; and
7. Inca textiles since cloth was one of the especially prized artistic achievements.

Following the Inca, the Aztec civilization has also made substantial contributions to science and technology
and to society as a whole. Some of their contributions are the following:

1. Mandatory education. The Aztec puts value on education; that is why their children are mandated to
get an education regardless of their social class, gender, or age. It is an early form of universal or
inclusive education.
2. Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. In the Mayan culture. they
used it as currency. The art of Aztec valued the cacao beans highly and made it as p their tribute to
their gods.
3. Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication that could prevent muscle
spasms and relax muscles, which could help during surgery.
4. Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which the land was divided into
rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.
5. Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting season.
6. Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems.

Development of Science in Asia

Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many ancient civilizations. It is a host to
many cultural, economic, scientific, and political activities of all ages. In the field of science, technology,
and mathematics, great civilizations have stood out: India, China, and the Middle East civilizations. These
civilizations were incomparable in terms of their contributions to the development of knowledge during
their time.

India

India is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water and fortified by huge mountains in its
northern boarders. The Indians creatively developed various ideas and technologies useful in their
everyday lives. They are known for manufacturing iron and in metallurgical works. Their iron steel is
considered to be the best and held with high regard in the whole of Roman Empire.

India is also famous in medicine. For example, Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine that originated
in ancient India before 2500 BC, is still practiced as a form of alternative medicine. They discovered some
medicinal properties of plants that led them to develop medicines to cure various illnesses. Some ancient
texts, like the Susruta Samhita, describes different surgical and other medical procedures famous in
Ancient India. Ancient India is also notable in the field of astronomy. They developed theories on the

5
configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting Earth, and the year of 360 days with 12 equal
parts of 30 days each. Sama (2008) noted that their interest in astronomy was also evident in the first 12
chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written in the 12th century. According to Sama (2008), this ancient
text covered topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three
problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and
settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with
the fixed stars; and the paths of the Sun and Moon. Ancient India is also known for their mathematics.
Bisht (1982) noted that the earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appeared
in the Indus Valley Civilization. The people of this civilization, according to Bisht (1982), tried to
standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy and designed a ruler, the Mohenjo-daro
ruler.

Clifford (2008) and Bose (1998) pointed out that Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata
(476-550), in his Aryabhatiya, introduced a number of trigonometric functions, tables, and techniques, as
well as algorithms of algebra. In 628 AD, another Indian, Brahmagupta, also suggested that gravity was a
force of attraction, and lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along
with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world (Clifford, 2008; Bose,
1998). Another Indian named Madhava of Sangamagrama is also considered as the founder of
mathematical analysis (Joseph, 1991).

China

China is one of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions in many areas of life like
medicine, astronomy, science, mathematics, arts, influenced many of its neighbor countries like Korea,
Japan, Philippines, greatly philosophy, and music, among others. Chinese civilizations have•Vietnam,
Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, and other countries that belong to the old Silk Road.

The Chinese are known for traditional medicines, a product of centuries of experiences and
discovery of the Chinese people. They discovered various medical properties and uses of different plants
and animals to cure human illness. An example is the practice of acupuncture.

In terms of technology, the Chinese are known to develop many tools. Among the famous
discoveries and inventions of the Chinese civilizations were compass, papermaking, gunpowder, and
printing tools that became known in the West only by the end of the Middle Ages (Davies, 1995). They also
invented other tools like iron plough, wheelbarrow, and propeller, among others. They developed a design
of different models of bridges (Zhongguo ke xue yuan, 1983), invented the first seismological detector, and
developed a dry dock facility (Needham et al., 1971).

In the field of astronomy, the Chinese also made significant records on supernovas, lunar and solar
eclipses, and comets, which were carefully recorded and preserved to understand better the heavenly
bodies and their effects to our world (Mayall, 1939). They observed the heavenly bodies to understand
weather changes and seasons that may affect their daily activities. They used lunar calendars, too. The
Chinese are also known in seismology. This made them more prepared in times of natural calamities.

China made substantial contributions in various fields. The list of their discoveries and inventions is
overwhelming. These contributions were made along with mathematics, logic, philosophy, and medicine.
However, cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into modern science.
According to Needham (1986), it may have been the religious and philosophical framework of Chinese
intellectuals them unable to accept the ideas of laws of nature.

Middle East Countries

The Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims. With the spread of Islam in the 7th
and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, or what is called the Golden Age of Islam lasted until
the 13th century. The common language of Arabic, access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, and
their proximity to India were contributory to the intellectualization of the Muslims and provided their
6
scholars knowledge to create innovations and develop new ideas. But contrary to the Greeks, Muslim
scientists placed greater value on science experiments rather than plain-thought experiments. This led to
the development of the scientific method in the Muslim world, and made significant improvements by
using experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical
orientation. A Muslim scientist named Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the Father of Optics, especially
for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light.

In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the
concept of the algorithm while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of
his publications. What is now known as the Arabic Numeral System originally came from India, but
Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of
decimal point notation.

Muslim chemists and alchemists also played an important role in the foundation of modern
chemistry (Durant, 1980). In particular, some scholars considered Jabir ibn Hayyan to be the "Father of
Chemistry" (Derewenda, 2007; Warren, 2005).

In the field of medicine, Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first
physician to conduct clinical trials (Jacquart, 2008). His two most notable works in medicine, the Book of
Healing and The Canon of Medicine, were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in
Europe during the 17th century. Among his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature
of infectious diseases and the introduction of clinical pharmacology (Craig & Walter, 2000).

LESSON 2 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND NATION-BUILDING

Lesson Objectives

At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

• discuss the role of science and technology in Philippine nation-building;

7
• evaluate government policies pertaining to science and technology in terms of their contributions to
nation-building; and
• identify actual science and technology policies of the government and appraise their impact on the
development of the Filipino nation.

INTRODUCTION

This lesson will discuss the influence of science and technology in the development of the
Philippine society. It identifies government programs, projects, and policies geared toward boasting the
science and technological capacity of the country. This lesson will also include discussions on Philippine
indigenous science and technology.

Brief Historical Background of Science and Technology in the Philippines

The history of science and technology in the Philippines started way back before the country gained
its independence from the American colonizers. Before the coming of the Spanish colonizers, the
early inhabitants of the archipelago had their own culture and traditions. They had their own belief
system and indigenous knowledge system that keeps them organized and sustained their lives and
communities for many years.

Science, in pre-Spanish Philippines, is embedded in the way of life of the people. Scientific
knowledge is observed in the way they plant their crops that provide them food, in taking care of animals
to help them in their daily tasks, and for food production. Science is observed in the way they interpret the
movements of heavenly bodies to predict seasons and climates, and in organizing days into months and
years. They use science in preparing the soil for agricultural purposes and like any other ancient cultures,
they discovered the medicinal uses of plants.

Technology is used by people in building houses, irrigations, and in developing tools that they can
use in everyday life. They developed tools for planting, hunting, cooking, and fishing; for fighting their
enemies during war or tribal conflicts; and for transportation, both on land and on waterways. They also
developed technologies in creating musical instruments.

The different archeological artifacts discovered in different parts of the country also prove that the
Metal Age also had a significant influence on the lives of early Filipinos. The sophisticated designs of gold
and silver jewelry, ceramics, and metal tools proved that their technological ideas helped in the
development of different tools. Also, trading with China Indonesia, Japan, and other nearby countries
have influenced their lives by providing different opportunities for cultural and technological exchange '

All these ancient practices in science and technology are considered now as indigenous science or folk
science.

When the Spaniards colonized the country, they brought with them their own culture and practices. The
established schools for boys and girls and introduced the concept of subjects and disciplines. It was the
beginning of formal science and technology in the country, known now as school of science and
technology.

Learning of science in school focuses on understanding different concepts related to the human
body, plants, animals, and heavenly bodies. Technology focuses on using and developing house tools used
in everyday life.

Life during the Spanish era slowly became modernized, adapting some Western technology and
their ways of life. The Filipinos developed ways to replicate the technology brought by the Spaniards using
indigenous materials. Medicine and advanced science were introduced in formal colleges and
universities established by the Catholic orders.

8
 The galleon trade has brought additional technology and development in the Philippines. Although
it is only beneficial for the Spaniards, these trades allowed other ideas, crops, tools, cultural practices,
technology, and Western practices to reach the country. Some Filipino students who were able to study in
Europe also contributed to the advancement of medicine, engineering, arts, music, and literature in the
country.

The Philippines, being one of the centers of global trade in Southeast Asia during that time, was
considered to be one of the most developed places in the region. Although the country is blessed with these
developments, the superstitious beliefs of the people and the Catholic doctrines and practices during the
Spanish era halted the growth of science in the country.

The Americans have more influence in the in the of science and technology in the
Philippines compared to the Spaniards. They established the public education system, improved the
engineering works and the health conditions of the people. They established a modem research university,
the University of the Philippines, and created more public hospitals than the former colonial master. The
mineral resources of the country' were also explored and exploited during the American times.
Transportation and communication systems were improved, though not accessible throughout the country.

The Americans did everything to “Americanize” the Philippines. They reorganized the learning of
science and introduced it in public and private schools. In basic education, science education focuses on
nature studies and science and sanitation, until it became a subject formally known as “Science”. The
teaching of science in higher education has also greatly improved and modernized. Researches were don to
control malaria, cholera, and tuberculosis and other tropical diseases.

The desire of the Americans to develop the human resources of the Philippines to serve their
own interests is, somehow, beneficial in t e country. These allowed American scholars to introduce new
knowledge and technology in the country. The Protestant church missions in different places in the country
also brought hospitals and schools to far-flung areas. Little by little, these efforts built a stronger
foundation for science and technology in the country.

However, World War II has destabilized the development of the country in many ways.
Institutions and public facilities were turned into ashes, houses were burned, and many lives were
destroyed. The country had a difficult time to rebuild itself from the ruins of the war. The human spirit
to survive and to rebuild the country may be strong but the capacity of the country to bring back what was
destroyed was limited. The reparation funds focused on building some institutions and public facilities like
schools, hospitals, and transportation systems. The reparation money from Japan was also concentrated on
building highways and in providing technological training and human resource development in the
country.

Since the establishment of the new republic, the whole nation has been focusing on using its limited
resources in improving its science and technological capability. It has explored the use of ODA or Overseas
Development Allocations from different countries to help the country improve its scientific productivity
and technological capability. Human resource development is at the heart of these efforts focusing on
producing more engineers, scientists, technology experts, doctors, and other professionals in the country.

The development of science and technology in the Philippines, based on its brief history, is shaped
by several factors and influences. Like in the history of science in the other countries, it is always shaped by
human and social activities, both internal and external.

9
Figure 3. Influences in the Development of Science and Technology in the Philippines

Science and technology may have significant impact on the lives

of the people and in the development of the Philippine society. However, improving the quality of science
education still remains as a big challenge in the country. School science from basic education to graduate
education is improving slowly, and there are only few students enrolling in science and technology
courses.

Think about these questions

1. What are the significant contributions of the Spaniards and Americans to the development of
science and technology in the Philippines?
2. What can you say about the state of science and technology during the Spanish and American
period?
3. How does school science shape science and technology in the country?

Government Policies on Science and Technology

The Philippine government introduced and implemented programs, projects, and policies to boost the area
of science and tecin0 0 The goal is to prepare the whole country and its people to mee demands of a
technologically driven world and capacitate the peop e live in a world driven by science.

Padilla-Concepcion (2015) reported that in 2015, in response to the ASEAN 2015 Agenda, the
government, particularly the Department of Science and Technology (DOST), has sought the expertise of
the National Research Council of the Philippines (NCRP) to consult various sectors in the society to
study how the Philippines can prepare itself in meeting the ASEAN 2015 Goals. As a result of the
consultation, the NCRP is expected to recommend policies and programs that will improve the
competitiveness of the Philippines in the ASEAN Region.

The NCRP clustered these policies into four, namely:

1. Social Sciences, Humanities, Education, International Policies and Governance
• Integrating ASEAN awareness in basic education without adding to the curriculum
• Emphasizing teaching in the mother tongue
• Developing school infrastructure and providing for ICT broadband
• Local food security
2. Physics, Engineering and Industrial Research, Earth and Space Sciences, and Mathematics
• Emphasizing degrees, licenses, and employment opportunities
• Outright grants for peer monitoring
• Review of R.A. 9184
• Harnessing science and technology as an independent mover of development
3. Medical, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical Sciences
Ensuring compliance of drug-manufacturing firms with ASEAN-harmonized standards by full
implementation of the Food and Drug Administration
• Creating an education council dedicated to standardization of pharmaceutical services and care
• Empowering food and drug agencies to conduct evidence based research as pool of information
• Allocating two percent of the GDP to research

10
• Legislating a law supporting human genome projects 4. Biological Sciences, Agriculture, and Forestry
• Protecting and conserving biodiversity by full implementation of existing laws
• Use of biosafety and standard model by ASEAN countries
• Promoting indigenous knowledge systems and indigenous people's conservation
• Formulation of common food and safety standards
There are also other existing programs supported by the Philippine government through the DOST. Some
of these projects are the following:

• Providing funds for basic research and patents related to science and technology. The government
funds basic and applied researches. Funding of these research and projects are also from the Overseas
Development Aid (ODA) from different countries.

• Providing scholarships for undergraduate and graduate studies of students in the field of science and
technology. Saloma (2015) pointed out that the country needs to produce more doctoral graduates in the
field of science and technology, and produce more research in these fields, including engineering.

 Establishing more branches of the Philippine Sciene School System for training young Filipinos in
science and technology.
 Creating science and technology parks to encourage academ and industry partnerships.
 Balik Scientist Program to encourage Filipino scientists abroad to come home and work in the
Philippines or con uc research and projects in collaboration with Philippine-based scientists.
 Developing science and technology parks in academic campuses to encourage academe and
industry partnerships.
 The establishment of the National Science Complex and National Engineering Complex within the
University of the Philippines campus in Diliman. These aimed to develop more science and
technology and engineering manpower resources needed by the country. They also aimed to
produce more researches in these fields.
 The Philippine-American Academy of Science and Engineering (PAASE, 2008) identified several
capacity-building programs such as:
o Establishment of national centers of excellence
o Manpower and institutional development programs, such as the Engineering and Science
Education Program (ESEP) to produce more PhD graduates in science and engineering
o Establishment of regional centers to support specific industries that will lead the country in
different research and development areas
o Establishment of science and technology business centers tn assist, advise, and incubate
technopreneurship ventures
o Strengthen science education at an early stage through the Philippine Science High School
system

In the field of education, several science-related programs and projects were created to develop the
scientific literacy of the country.

Special science classes were organized and special science elementary schools were established in
different regions. Aside from these, science and mathematics in basic education were continuously
improved. The current K to 12 education program included Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics (STEM) as one of its major tracks in the senior high school program to encourage more
students to enroll in science-related fields in college.

Lately, the Commission on Higher Education launched its Philippine-Califomia Advanced

Research Institutes (PICARI) Project to allow several higher education institutions in the Philippines and
some US- based laboratories, research institutes, and universities to work on research and projects
related to science, agriculture, engineering, health, and technology. This project is hoped to strengthen
the STEM competitiveness of the country.

11
There are many other areas and fields that the country is looking forward to embark various research
and projects. The following are some of them:

1. Use of alternative and safe energy

2. Harnessing mineral resources
3. Finding cure for various diseases and illness
4. Climate change and global warming
5. Increasing food production
6. Preservation of natural resources
7. Coping with natural disasters and calamities
8. Infrastructure development
The Philippine Congress has also created various laws related to science and technology. These
laws serve as a legal framework for science and technology in the country. These laws vary according
to different themes such as: conservation, health-related, technology-building, and supporting basic
research, among others. Some laws and policies are in line with international treaties such as the United
Nations (UN), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Association
of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and other international agencies.

Figure 4. Development of Science and Technology Policies in the Philippines

As shown in the diagram, the development of policies in science and technology is shaped or
influenced by several variables: policies need to be aligned to national goals, consider international
commitments based on legal frameworks, and respond to various social needs, issues, and problems.
Science and technology policies ensure that the whole country and all people will experience the progress
that science can bring. Policies are guides to direct all efforts to a goal of developing a scientifically
advanced country.

Famous Filipinos in the Field of Science

School science is filled with names of foreign scientists- Einstein Galileo Galilei, Newton, Faraday,
Darwin, and many other Western’ scientists. We rarely hear of Filipino scientists being discussed in science
classes. Lee-Chua (2000) identified 10 outstanding Filipino scientist who have made significant
contributions in Philippine science. These scientist are also famous abroad especially in different science
disciplines: agriculture, mathematics, physics, medicine, marine, science, chemistry, engineering, and
biology.

These Filipino scientists are:

1. Ramon Cabanos Barba - for his outstanding research on tissue culture in Philippine
mangoes
2. Josefino Cacas Comiso - for his works on observing the characteristics of Antarctica by
using satellite images
3. Jose Bejar Cruz Jr. - known internationally in the field of electrical engineering; was elected as officer
of the famous Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

12
4. Lourdes Jansuy Cruz - notable for her research on sea snail venom
5. Fabian Millar Dayrit - for his research on herbal medicine
6. Rafael Dineros Guerrero III — for his research on tilapia culture
7. Enrique Mapua Ostrea Jr. - for inventing the meconium drugs testing
8. Lilian Formalejo Patena — for doing research on plant biotechnology
9. Mari-Jo Panganiban Ruiz - for being an outstanding educator and graph theorist
10. Gregory Ligot Tangonan - for his research in the field of communications technology
There are other outstanding Filipino scientists who are recognized here and abroad for their
outstanding contributions in science:
• Caesar A. Saloma — an internationally renowned physicist
• Edgardo Gomez — famous scientist in marine science
• William Padolina — chemistry and president of National Academy of Science and Technology
(NAST)—Philippines
• Angel Alcala — marine science
There are other scientists in the Philippines who were not identified in the list. Yet, the Philippines
still need more scientists and engineers, and there is a need to support scientific research in the country.
The University of the Philippines-Los Banos is a science paradise for agriculture, forestry, plant and animal
science, and veterinary science. It has produced numerous scientists and various research in the fields
mentioned. The University of the Philippines-Visayas is also a national center for marine science, fisheries,
and other related science. The University of the Philippines-Manila is a center of excellence and has
produced many researchers, doctor professionals, and scientists in the area of medical and public health.
The University of the Philippines-Diliman also has established a science and engineering complex to
develop more research and produce more scientists and engineers in the country. The government must
find ways to establish more research laboratories and research institutes. There is also a need to find ways
on how their researches are disseminated to the public.

Many of these Filipino scientists are products of good school science. It means they were taught
and inspired by great teachers. Their interests in science started to manifest during their childhood
years. Their natural environment ignited their curiosity to learn more about the natural and physical
environment. Schools and the laboratories where they studied and worked nurtured this.

Figure 5. Factors that Influence the Development of Filipino Scientists

Lesson 3 Science Education in the Philippines

Lesson Objectives:

13
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
• discuss the concept of science education; and
• identify science schools established to promote science education in the Philippines.
Introduction

The Philippines is trying its best to improve the state of science education in the country. This lesson
will discuss the concept of science education and will identify some strategies to promote science
education in the country. One of the strategies is to establish science schools that will encourage students
to pursue their career in science and technology and to nurture their gifted potentials in science.

The Concept of Science Education

Science education focuses on teaching, learning, and understanding science. Teaching science
involves developing ways on how to effectively teach science. This means exploring pedagogical
theories and models in helping teachers teach scientific concepts and processes effectively. Learning
science, on the other hand, includes both pedagogy and the most interesting aspect, which is helping
students understand and love science.

Understanding science implies developing and applying science-process skills and using science literacy in
understanding the natural world and activities in everyday life.

Getting deeper into the discourse of science education, John Dewey (2001) stressed the importance
of utilizing the natural environment to teach students. Accordingly, nature must indeed furnish its
physical stimuli to provide wealth of meaning through social activities and thinking. It is not surprising
therefore that science education is important. In fact, Marx (1994) opines that science is going to be one of
the most important school subjects in the future.

Science education is justified by the vast amount of scientific knowledge developed in this area
that prepares citizens in a scientifically and technologically driven world. Science education provides
skills and knowledge that are necessary for a person to live in what Knight (1986) describes as the age of
science and to develop a citizenry that will meet the goals of science in the society (Tilghman, 2005).
Developing a science culture is therefore an immense responsibility for schools.

Science Education in Basic and Tertiary Education

In basic education, science education helps students learn important concepts and facts that are
related to everyday life (Carale & Campo 2003; Meador, 2005; Worth & Grollman, 2003) including
important skills such as process skills, critical thinking skills, and life skills that are needed in coping up
with daily life activities (Chaille & Britain 2002) Science education also develops positive attitude such as:
the love for passion for innovative things, curiosity to study about nature and creativity (Lind, 1997).
Science education will develop a strong studying science and for considering science-related careers in the
future. This is an investment for the country to develop a scientifically cultured and literate citizenry.

In tertiary education, science education deals with developing students understanding and
appreciation of science ideas and scientific works This is done through offering basic science courses in the
General Education curriculum. Science education in the tertiary level also focuses on the preparation of
science teachers, scientists, engineers, and other professionals in various science-related fields such as
engineering, agriculture, medicine, and health sciences. The state provides scholarships to encourage more
students to pursue science courses.

Science Schools in the Philippines

One outstanding program for science education supported by the government is the
establishment of science schools in various parts of the country. There are also several government
programs implemented by the Department of Education and few private schools for science education.
14
Philippine Science High School System (PSHSS)

This is a government program for gifted students in the Philippines. It is a service institute of the
Department of Science and Technology (DOST) whose mandate is to offer free scholarship basis for
secondary course with special emphasis on subjects pertaining to the sciences, with the end-view of
preparing its students for a science career (Republic Act No. 3661). The school maintains a dormitory for
all its students.

Since its inception, the PSHSS continues to pursue its vision to develop Filipino science scholars
with scientific minds and passion for excellence. PSHSS students have proven to be a beacon of
excellence, courage, and hope for the country. They have brought honor to the Philippines through their
exemplary achievements in various international competitions and research circles. When the students
graduate from the school, they are expected to pursue degrees in science and technology at various
colleges and universities locally or abroad.

Special Science Elementary Schools (SSES) Project

The Special Science Elementary Schools (SSES) Project is in pursuance to DepEd Order No. 73 s.
2008, and DepEd Order No. 51 s. 2010. This project started in June 2007 with 57 identified elementary
school that participated or were identified as science elementary schools in the country. Since its inception,
the number have grown to more than 60 schools nationwide and this is now its sixth year of
implementation.

The SSES Project aims to develop Filipino children equipped with scientific and technological knowledge,
skills, and values. Its mission is to:

. provide a learning environment to science-incline children through a special curriculum that recognizes
the multiple intelligences of the learners;
• promote the development of lifelong learning skills, and
• foster the holistic development of the learners.
The subject Science and Health is taught in Grade 1 with a longer time compared to other subjects: 70
minutes for Grades I to III and 80 minutes for Grades IV to VI. The curriculum also utilizes different
instructional approaches that address the learning styles and needs of the learners like the use of
investigatory projects.

Quezon City Regional Science High School

The school was established on September 17, 1967. Originally, it was named Quezon City
Science High School. It was turned into a regional science high school for the National Capital
Region in 1999 The school was a product of a dream to establish a special science school for talented
students in science and mathematics. The focus of the curriculum is on science and technology.
The school still teaches the basic education courses prescribed by the Department of Education
(DepEd) for secondary education. However, there are additional subjects in sciences and technology that
students should take. The school envisions to serve as a venue in providing maximum opportunities for
science-gifted to develop spirit of inquiry and creativity. The school is well-supported the local
government unit and by the Parents and Teachers Association (PTA). The school is under the Department
of Education.

Manila Science High School

The school was established on October 1, 1963 as the Manila Science High School (MSHS). It is
the first science high school in the Philippines. The organization and curriculum of the school puts more
emphasis on science and mathematics. MSHS aims to produce scientists with souls. In order to do
15
this, humanities courses and other electives are included in their curriculum. Students are also
encouraged to participate in various extracurricular activities. The school administers an entrance exam,
the Manila Science High School Admission Test (MSAT), for students who wish to enroll. The MSAT
has five parts: aptitude in science, aptitude test in mathematics, problem-solving test in science,
problem solving test in mathematics, and proficiency in English. The school prides itself from
producing outstanding alumni and for winning various national competitions.

Central Visayan Institute Foundation

It is the home and pioneer of the prominent school-based innovation known as the Dynamic
Learning Program (DLP). The DLP is a synthesis of classical and modem pedagogical theories adapted to
foster the highest level of learning, creativity, and productivity.

The school takes pride in its Research Center for Theoretical Physics (RCTP) established in 1992,
which organizes small international workshops to foster the informal but intense exchange of ideas and
perspectives on outstanding problems in physics and mathematics.

SUMMARY

Science education deals with the teaching and learning of science and in helping the public
develop science literacy. This is important in the promotion and development of science and technology
in the country. Science education deals with the development of people in science, which is the heart of
science, technology, and society.

Lesson 4 INDIGENOUS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES

Lesson Objectives

At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

• discuss the concept of indigenous science; and

16
• discuss the contribution of indigenous science in the development of science and technology in the
Philippines.
Introduction

This lesson focuses on indigenous science and technology in the Philippines. Filipinos,
especially during the early times, tried to invent tools that will help them in everyday life. They also
developed alternative ideas in explaining various phenomena and in explaining the world around
them. This system of knowledge is called indigenous knowledge, which is the foundation of indigenous
science.

Indigenous Knowledge System

Indigenous knowledge is embedded in the daily life experiences of young children as they grow
up. They live and grow in a society where the members of the community prominently practice
indigenous knowledge. Their parents and other older folks served as their first teachers and their
methods of teaching are very effective in transmitting cultural knowledge in their minds. The lessons
they learned are intimately interwoven with their culture and the environment. These lessons
comprised of good values and life stories of people on their daily life struggles. Their views about
nature and their reflections on their experiences in daily life are evident in their stories, poems, and
songs.

Some examples of indigenous knowledge that are taught and practiced by the indigenous
people are:

• predicting weather conditions and seasons using knowledge in observing animals’ behavior
and celestial bodies,
• using herbal medicine;
• preserving foods;
• classifying plants and animals into families and groups based on cultural properties;
• preserving and selecting good seeds for planting;
• using indigenous technology in daily lives;
• building local irrigation systems;
• classifying different types of soil for planting based on cultural properties;
• producing wines and juices from tropical fruits; and
• Keeping the custom of growing plants and vegetables in the yard.

Indigenous Science

Indigenous science is part of the indigenous knowledge system practiced by different groups of
people and early civilizations (Gribbin, 2001; Mkapa, 2004; Sibisi, 2004). It includes complex arrays of
knowledge, expertise, practices, and representations that guide human societies in their enumerable
interactions with the natural milieu: agriculture, medicine, naming and explaining natural phenomena,
and strategies for coping with changing environments (Pawilen, 2005). Ogawa (1995) claimed that it is
collectively lived in and experienced by the people of a given culture.

According to Cajete (2004), indigenous science includes everything, from metaphysics to

philosophy and various practical technologies practiced by indigenous peoples both past and present.
Iaccarino (2003) and how elaborated this idea by explaining that science is a part of culture, science is done
largely depends on the cultural practices of the people.

Indigenous beliefs also develop desirable values that are relevant or consistent to scientific attitudes
as identified by Johnston (2000), namely: (1) motivating attitudes; (2) cooperating attitudes; (3) practical
attitudes; and (4) reflective attitudes. These cultural beliefs therefore can be good foundation for
developing positive values toward learning and doing science and in bringing science in a personal level.
Pawilen (2005) explained that indigenous science knowledge has developed diverse structures and

17
contents through the interplay between the society and the environment. According to Kuhn (1962),
developmental stages of most sciences are characterized by continual competition between a number of
distinct views of nature, each partially derived from, and all roughly compatible with the dictates of
scientific observation and method. Sibisi (2004) also pointed out that indigenous science provides the basics
of astronomy, pharmacology, food technology, or metallurgy, which were derived from traditional
knowledge and practices.

THINK ABOUT
1. What is your understanding of indigenous science?
2. What are examples of indigenous science practices?
3. Why do some people believe in indigenous science?
4. Do you think indigenous science should be considered science?
5. What is the role of indigenous science in the development of science and technology?

Pawilen (2006) developed a simple framework for understanding indigenous science. Accordingly,
indigenous science is composed of traditional knowledge that uses science process skills and guided by
community values and culture.

Figure 6. The Concept of Indigenous Science

1. Indigenous science uses science process skills such as observing, comparing, classifying,
measuring, problem solving, inferring, communicating, and predicting.
2. Indigenous science is guided by culture and community values such as the following:
•The land is a source of life. It is a precious gift from the creator.
• The Earth is revered as “Mother Earth.” It is the origin of their identity as people.
•All living and nonliving things are interconnected and interdependent with each other.
• Human beings are stewards or trustee of the land and other natural resources. They have a
responsibility to preserve it.
Nature is a Iriend to human beings—it needs respect and proper care.
3. Indigenous science is composed of traditional knowledge practiced and valued by people and
communities such as ethno-biology, ethno-medicine, indigenous fanning methods, and folk
astronomy.

Indigenous science science is impoant in the development of science and important technology in the
Philippines. Like the ancient civilizations, in science gave birth to the development of science and
technology as a field and as a discipline. Indigenous science helped the people in understanding life.
UNESCO s the natural environment and in coping with everyday ' Declaration on Science and the Use of
Scientific Knowledge (1999) • recognized indigenous science as a historical and valuable contribution to
science and technology.

SUMMARY

18
 This lesson discussed the concept of indigenous knowledge and its influence to the development of
indigenous science. The communities in the Philippines have maintained vast amounts of indigenous
knowledge, cultural practices, traditions, and beliefs. These include beliefs and practices ranging from
different areas such as health, environment, peace and order, agriculture, food production, astronomy,
music, and literature. The indigenous knowledge system of the people served as the foundation for the
development of indigenous science.
Even before the time of the Spanish colonization in the Philippines, various people and
communities already practiced science. They invented tools and built structures, studied the medicinal uses
of plants, observed heavenly bodies to predict seasons and weather, and used indigenous science in
agriculture. These are considered indigenous science, which is one of the foundations of modern science.

Think about these questions,

What is the role of indigenous knowledge in the development of indigenous science?
2. What is the role of indigenous science in the development of science and technology in the Philippines?
3. How do society and culture influence the development science and technology?

19