BJL2114: FILM DIRECTING I

MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY

BJL2114: FILM DIRECTING I

STUDENTS’ GUIDE

COMPILED BY J. K. GITHUA

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Table of Contents
A. INTRODUCTION TO DIRECTING .................................................................................. 4
ARTISTIC IDENTITY ............................................................................................................... 5
STYLE ........................................................................................................................................ 7
B. FILMMAKING BASICS .................................................................................................... 8
STORY ....................................................................................................................................... 9
FORM AND GENRE ............................................................................................................... 12
SCREEN LANGUAGE BASICS ............................................................................................. 16
CRAFT DEPARTMENTS ....................................................................................................... 18
DIRECTOR'S DEPARTMENT ................................................................................................ 19
SINGLE CAMERA APPROACH ............................................................................................ 21
SET PROCEDURE................................................................................................................... 22
TEST 1 ...................................................................................................................................... 25
C. STARTING THE PROJECT ............................................................................................. 27
INTERPRETING THE SCRIPT............................................................................................... 27
TRANSLATION TO THE SCREEN ....................................................................................... 29
THE TECHNOLOGY TRAP ................................................................................................... 30
TEST 2 ...................................................................................................................................... 32
D. DIRECTING THE CAMERA ........................................................................................... 33
SUBJECT SIZE ........................................................................................................................ 33
ANGLE ..................................................................................................................................... 37
PERSPECTIVE......................................................................................................................... 41
COMPOSITION ....................................................................................................................... 43
LOOK ....................................................................................................................................... 53
MOVEMENT ........................................................................................................................... 55
COVERAGE ............................................................................................................................. 59
CONTINUITY .......................................................................................................................... 61
TEST 3 ...................................................................................................................................... 67
E. DIRECTING THE ACTORS ................................................................................................ 69
THE ACTOR'S CRAFT ........................................................................................................... 70
CASTING ................................................................................................................................. 75

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REHEARSAL ........................................................................................................................... 77
DIRECTING ACTORS ON THE SET..................................................................................... 80
TEST 4 ...................................................................................................................................... 83
F. AFFECTING THE AUDIENCE ........................................................................................... 85
EXPECTATION ....................................................................................................................... 86
SUSPENSE ............................................................................................................................... 87
SURPRISE ................................................................................................................................ 92
VIOLENCE............................................................................................................................... 94
HUMOR .................................................................................................................................... 96
DYNAMIC DIALOGUE SCENES .......................................................................................... 98
STATIC DIALOGUE SCENES ............................................................................................. 101
GROUP DIALOGUE SCENES ............................................................................................. 104
TRICKS OF THE TRADE ..................................................................................................... 108

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A. INTRODUCTION TO DIRECTING

The director is the artistic leader in the making of a movie. He is charged with
translating the script to the screen and ensuring artistic integrity within the budgetary
parameters of the project. The director's primary work occurs during production, where
he directs the creative energies of the cast and crew. He is typically involved in pre- and
post-production, as well, though this varies depending upon the project. The director is
hired by and responsible to the producer.

The director of a motion picture:

translates the script to the screen
ensures artistic integrity
works within budgetary parameters

There are two schools of thought concerning the scope of the director's role. One school
views the director as the auteur (author) of a movie, while the other views him as the
leading collaborator. In recent years, the auteur theory has fallen out of favor given the
highly collaborative nature of moviemaking. The contributions of the screenwriter,
actors, and cinematographer, to name a few, are so vital that they can change the
complexion of a movie, affecting its ultimate success.

The closest a director comes to being a true auteur is at opposite extremes of the
production scale; namely, on low budget projects, where the he may oversee every
facet of production out of necessity, and on big budget projects, where he may wield a
great deal of control by virtue of his prestige. Even in these cases authorship is
arguable, since the director must rely on the skill and talent of so many other
professionals. Auteur theory is best applied using narrow criteria of, say, style or theme,
viewed over a director's full body of work.

Most directors are given broad creative control by the producer, but some are restricted
in their role. This can happen because the producer has a strong vision of what the
movie should be. A classic example is Gone with the Wind, where producer David O.
Selznick established most of the creative parameters. The director's role can also be
curtailed in the case of an on going work such as a TV show or movie sequel. For
example, the director of a dramatic TV show will have limited control over
cinematography, to stay consistent with the visual style of the show.

Though the scope of the director's role may vary from project to project, the core
function is the same: leadership. This is true whether the director is an independent
moviemaker, prestigious Hollywood type or hired gun.

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ARTISTIC IDENTITY

Your first step as an aspiring director is to identify the stories and themes that interest
you. This has two benefits. First, it provides a springboard for the selection of your
projects. Second, it allows you to work on a deeper, more personal level.

Most great directors have concentrated in one or two genres and a handful of favorite
themes. Alfred Hitchcock, for example, specialized in suspense thrillers with characters
who were often haunted by desire and guilt. Focusing in this way allows a director to
develop and refine a personalized body of work over time. This is known as an artistic
identity.

As a director, you cannot make a movie of any significance unless you have something
significant to say. Some individuals know their preferences early on, while other take
years to discover them. Both cases are normal, albeit the latter can be frustrating.
Here's a great way to start developing a foundation from which to work from:

Story

Directors eventually realize that finding a unique story is a myth. Everything has been
done in one form or another. The best approach is to find a unique perspective on an
existing story concept. In the film business this is known as a hook, because it hooks
the audience into watching the movie like bait hooks a fish!

Create a list of your favorite films and books, paying close attention to those that have
captivated you over a long period of time. Next, examine this list for patterns in the
stories. Once you know the type of stories that interest you, the challenge will be to
create new twists and turns in the telling.

Themes

A theme is an idea presented in the movie, usually about the meaning of life or the
human condition. By its nature, a theme embodies the director's opinion about the
issue at hand.

You can identify your favorite themes by the news items, historical events, and
personal issues that interest you. Many directors also keep a journal to track feelings,
ideas, and insights. Patterns in such readings and writings will help you discover deep-
rooted personal issues.

Synergy and Growth

The final and most challenging step is to find a way to couple your favorite themes with
your favorite stories. Picking projects with these attributes will be the most rewarding

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for you and an artistic identity will soon emerge. Over time your perspectives and
interests will invariably change, manifesting themselves as an evolving body of work.

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STYLE

Style is the director's approach to bringing stories and themes to the screen. Often, it is
the overall impression an audience feels about the director's effort, expressed in such
terms as "gritty," or "whimsical," or "violent."

Style is the overall impression an audience

feels about the director's work.

Characterizing a director's style is complicated by the collaborative nature of

moviemaking. For example, a director's "realistic" style, may actually be the result of
the cinematographer's work. A case in point is Orson Welles’ Citizen Kane, where the
marvelous deep focus compositions are equally credited to cinematographer Greg
Tolland, who pioneered the technique.

Some directors try to develop a style that is recognizable as their own. For certain
scripts this may be inappropriate and, in the worst case, pretentious. Ideally, the
director should strike a balance between his personal needs as storyteller and the
requirements of the script. A director's true style will emerge as he or she builds a body
of work over time.

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B. FILMMAKING BASICS

A movie will be successful if the director can give the audience a stream of
emotions in the telling. That is, make them laugh, cry, excited, scared, hopeful, etc.
Once the audience is emotionally involved, they will be receptive to theme, which
imparts a deeper, more satisfying experience.

How is it that a movie can emotionally move an audience? It happens when they
become totally immersed in the cinematic world of the movie. This is known as
suspension of disbelief, and it is a special trust given to the director.

The audience expects a compelling story with quality acting and camera work. If
the movie fails to meet this standard, the audience is quick to regain control. At this
point, they can become very critical of production elements.

A movie will be successful if the director can get the audience to:
suspend disbelief
feel a stream of emotions

To achieve these goals you must have a thorough understanding of the filmmaking
process and the role of the director. This part of the course is designed to teach
you the basics of filmmaking. The principles are drawn from various specialties,
including: Screenwriting, Editing, and Production Management. After discussing the
basics we will delve into the specifics of the director's job.

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STORY

Story is how the script idea is developed through through the use of character and
action. The most common pitfall in creating a story is making it one-dimensional.
Stories that concentrate too much on action tend to be shallow, while those that
concentrate too much on character tend to be dull.

The best stories avoid this by developing clearly defined action and realistic, complex
characters. Both of these ingredients are essential to a screenplay's entertainment and
thematic value.

To achieve this balance, the main character, or protagonist, must be involved in two
story lines. One story line deals with his/her outer motivation, and the other deals with
his/her inner motivation. The inner and outer stories are fleshed out with elements
conflict and theme:

Outer Motivation

The outer motivation is about the protagonist's outward goal (i.e., desire). This goal
must be tangible and manifests itself in physical action. The action need not be high
energy, but it must be clear to the audience. The outer motivation is resolved when
the protagonist succeeds or fails at achieving his goal.

The outer motivation is about physical action, so it provides most of the script's
entertainment value. It moves the story forward by keeping the audience interested in
the outcome. Without a strong outer motivation, there is little momentum and the result
is a boring script.

In The Godfather, Michael's outer motivation is to avenge his father's shooting. In

Rocky, Rocky's outer motivation is to win the championship fight.

The outer story is about:

a tangible goal
action
entertainment

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Inner Motivation

The inner motivation is about the protagonist's inner need (i.e., character flaw). It is
not fully recognized by the protagonist despite the fact that it governs the negative way
he treats himself and the people that care about him. The inner motivation can be guilt,
ambition, or selfishness, to name a few. It is resolved when the protagonist recognizes
and overcomes it.

The inner motivation is usually caused by a traumatic experience in the protagonist's

past. The inner motivation is ultimately about relationships, so it is how character and
theme are explored.

In The Godfather, Michael's inner story is about his transformation into a heartless
killer. Although he follows in his father's footsteps to become the Don, he does it
without any of his father's compassion, killing family members and enemies alike.
Unlike most protagonists, Michael shows negative growth at the end of the story rather
than positive.

In Sophie's Choice, Sophie is haunted by guilt after being forced to choose which of
her two children must die in a Nazi gas chamber.

The inner story is about:

a character flaw
relationships
theme

Inner vs. Outer Motivation - The inner motivation gives depth to the story because it
explores character and theme. It is, however, slow moving and depends heavily upon
the outer motivation to hook the audience with exciting action. For this reason, the
outer motivation is called the spine of the script.

Conflict

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Conflict is opposition between characters. When faced with conflict, the protagonist is
forced to take action. As the story progresses, each new conflict must become
seemingly more insurmountable and provocative than the last. Ultimately, the
protagonist must develop a plan of action to succeed.

Both the inner and outer stories must contain conflict. The outer story involves conflict
with an opponent who prevents the protagonist from achieving his goal. The inner
story involves conflict with an ally, such as a love interest or friend, who is trying to
help the protagonist. The inner story deals with personal struggle so it gives the
protagonist depth and realism.

Conflict can be in the form of a dispute, challenge, deficiency, decision, threat or an

obstacle. It creates tension in the audience and curiosity about the outcome. This
makes for a quick moving, interesting story. Conflict, therefore, is the single most
effective story element for keeping the audience involved. It is the essence of drama!

Conflict:
is the opposition of characters
drives the story forward
keeps the audience interested

Theme

Theme is an idea presented in a story, usually about the meaning of life or the human
condition. By its nature, theme embodies the writer's opinions about the issues dealt
with in the screenplay. All great movies explore one or more themes.

Theme is developed through the inner story line, which deals with character growth
and interpersonal relationships. In a properly structured story, action converges as the
protagonist encounters increasing conflict. At the same time, theme expands as values
of the protagonist are revealed and tested.

If theme is too obvious it will dominate the story and seem pretentious. It must,
therefore, be implicit in the action. Any use of symbols, metaphors, and motifs must be
woven subtly into the fabric of the story. The least effective way to convey theme is
through direct dialogue.

Theme:
is a statement about life
is developed though the inner story
must be implicit in the action

If you want to learn more about writing a great screenplay, consider taking our online
Screenwriting course.

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FORM AND GENRE

There are three basic forms in cinematic storytelling: narrative, documentary, and
experimental.

Narrative

Narrative movies are fiction stories intended for entertainment. They are
categorizing by like kind, called genre. Each genre has its own conventions for
story, character, setting, and theme. Westerns, for example, share similarities in
character problems and thematic issues. The problems faced by characters in a
western are much different than those faced by characters in, say, a romance.

Genre defines what the audience expects when they go to see the movie. If they
pay to see a horror movie, that's what they want. If it turns out to be a war story,
there's going to be a problem in the theater!

Genre categorizes movies by like kind

and defines audience expectation.

Audiences know the conventions and idiosyncrasies of their favorite stories, so they
will immediately know if you are out of touch with the genre. Truly special movies,
however, not only meet audience expectation, they transcend it. In other words,
they go beyond what's been done before.

The Godfather, Saving Private Ryan, and Alien were landmark films because
they transcended audience expectation in their respective genres (gangster, war,
and horror). To write a screenplay on this level you must master the genre that you
are working in.

There has been much written on the subject, but the best way to master a genre is
to watch movies and read scripts. This applies to movies bad and good, old and
new. By doing this you will learn why a classic is a CLASSIC and why a bomb is a
BOMB. It also helps to talk with people to find out what they look for in a particular

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genre. Scripts are readily available for your study. Check out these websites with
free access to scripts:

Drew's Script-O-Rama

Simply Scripts

There are many conceivable genres, but the list must be concise to be of any
practical use. The following list is reasonably comprehensive, yet manageable:

POPULAR GENRES
Action stories about quests, survival, and
Adventure rescue
Animation stories with cartoon characters, puppets
or computer generated images
Buddy stories about friendship
Comedy stories that make you laugh; they range
from zany slapstick to sophisticated
slices of life
Coming of stories about maturation
Age
Crime stories about private eyes and detectives
Cop variation on crime genre where the
focus is the world cops
Drama stories about interpersonal, social, and
historic issues
Epic longer movies often combining several
genres
Gangster a variation on the crime genre where the
focus is on organized crime
Horror stories about the occult, supernatural,
and monsters
Love stories about romance
Musical stories where the characters sing and
dance
Mystery a variation on the crime genre where the
opponent is unknown for much of the
story (a "who done it")
Road stories about traveling to a destination
Science stories where the science or setting is
Fiction futuristic

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Screwball stories that combine love and comedy

Comedy (i.e. romantic comedy)
Swashbuckler pirates!
Thriller suspense stories, often involving crime
War stories about military battle, rescue, and
escape
Western stories about the old west, cowboys,
and Indians

DOCUMENTARY

Documentaries are non-fiction stories that chronicle real life events, people, places,
and conditions. They are often viewed as a genre, which is true to some extent, but
the style and approach used to make documentaries are radically different than
narratives, sometimes bordering on a way of life for the filmmakers.

In documentary filmmaking, the process cannot not intrude upon the action, or it will
affect the outcome and truthfulness of the account. Crews tend to work faster,
cheaper, and with less technical luxury than their narrative counterparts. "Docs"
have seen a great resurgence in recent years thanks in large part to cable TV. The
form has many subcategories, including but not limited to:

POPULAR DOC
SUBCATEGORIES
Archeology
Economics
Education
Environment
Family
Health
History
Human Rights
Justice
Politics
Religion
Science
Sexuality
Social

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Documentaries are discussed in detail later in the course.

EXPERIMENTAL

Experimental movies are highly personal stories that are told using abstract, surreal,
and symbolic techniques. Like documentaries, they are often viewed as a genre,
but the differences with other movies runs much deeper.

In experimental movies the meaning of scenes, themes, and sometimes the story
itself may not be immediately clear. The beauty of this is that the audience is taken
on a wild ride through extremes of emotion and intellect, leaving great room for
interpretation. The audience, in effect, must work on equal footing with the
filmmaker to get something out of the movie.

Experimental movies make great use of symbols. While many sounds and images
can affect the audience on a purely emotional level, symbols must be intellectually
processed before affecting emotions. Consequently, symbols must be chosen with
care. In addition, they must relevant to the story, no matter how experimental it is.

Because of the enigmatic and highly participatory nature of experimental movies,

general audiences have difficulty crossing over from narratives and documentaries.
In fact, experimental movies have the smallest following of the three forms. A simple
search of the Internet yields few websites devoted to experimental moviemaking,
while there are hundreds devoted to narrative and documentary movies. This is
unfortunate, since the form is fun and rewarding.

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SCREEN LANGUAGE BASICS

To tell a story cinematically, the director must understand screen language. Like any
language, cinema has its own grammar and rules of usage:

Shot

Shots are the smallest unit of dramatic action in the movie and serve as building blocks
of scenes. Each shot must have a purpose in the scene, otherwise it should not be
used. Once the shot's purpose is achieved, it's time to cut to the next shot.

Shots are:
the smallest unit of dramatic action
used to construct scenes

Shots must match the mood and theme of the film as a whole. They can contain
thematic elements to make a statement broader than the story, but cannot exist solely
for this purpose. A large part of a director's job involves shot design, which is
discussed later in the course.

Scene

Scenes are the building blocks of the overall movie. Each scene should unfold like a
story in miniature, with a beginning, middle, and an end. Ultimately, it must move the
story forward in some way.

Scenes are:
stories in miniature
building blocks of the movie

Scenes can be constructed using one of several designs, depending upon the level of
detail and information the director wants to convey. These designs range from a series
of shots showing action in seemingly real time, to a bare minimum of shots showing
action in visual shorthand. Each type of scene design has its own editing conventions
for creating cohesion, emphasis, and clarity.

Transition

The purpose of a transition is to indicate a change in scene. This is accomplished

using elements in picture, sound or both. Over the years many creative transitions
have been devised. Some can seem gimmicky so care should be taken that they are
appropriate to the style of the film. Transitions can also effect pace, depending on their
length. Popular transitions include:

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Fade - A fade is the oldest form of transition and it is still popular today. A fade-out
occurs when the screen darkens to black, and a fade-in occurs when the screen
emerges from black. A fade-out is usually coupled with a fade in, but each can stand
alone.

Dissolve - The most common transition is probably the dissolve. A dissolve occurs
when the outgoing image appears to dissolve into the incoming image. Dissolves are
created by overlapping a fade-out and a fade-in. When the image is screened, the
outgoing shot appears to dissolve into the incoming shot.

Wipe - A wipe occurs when a new image appears to push the old image off the screen.
The wipe can transgress in many directions, including vertically, horizontally,
diagonally, and from the center outward. Shapes can also be used.

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CRAFT DEPARTMENTS

During production, the director supervises the craft areas in recording each shot using
notes, storyboards, and floor plans as a blueprint. During this process, the director
works closely with the director of photography, called the DP for short.

Sometimes heavy emphasis will be placed on another craft area as well, depending on
the requirements of production. Nevertheless, all craft areas play an important role in
the making of a movie. The successful director respects the ability and contribution of
each craft head, thereby encouraging the best effort from each individual.

Cinematography

As a director, your relationship with the DP is an important one because the DP plays
a major role in lighting and composing the image. The DP wields a great deal of control
on the set, which may carryover into the visual design of the film. This can be a point of
contention between you and the DP. The trick to a good working relationship is to find
the right complement of styles. For example, a director who likes to work with actors
will work nicely with a strong DP, while a director who favors the visuals will work
better with a compliant DP.

Sound

Your relationship with the sound mixer is less intense than the DP, but no less
important. The hallmark characteristic of most low budget films is poor quality sound.
This is because the inexperienced director does not appreciate the intricacies of sound
recording. Consequently, such directors jump at any whim of the DP but will resist the
sound mixer.

Sound mixers usually keep a low profile and their requests may seem unnecessary to
the uninformed. Experienced directors, however, are sensitive to these needs, which
are usually essential and inexpensive to accomplish. Though supervised by the
director, the sound mixer generally works more closely with the DP as he places his
microphones unobtrusively around the set.

Art

The art director is responsible for designing and executing the physical look of the film
as indicated by the script, including props, set dressing, wardrobe, and scenery. The
art director is usually supervised by the director, however, on some productions he
may accountable directly to the producer.

The art department may consist of a set decorator, costume designer, and scenic
artist. These key individuals may, in turn, supervise a prop master, makeup artist,

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hairstylist, wardrobe attendant, and carpenter. The art depart can be quite large on
major productions, particularly for period pieces.

The director should keep in mind that even though sets may be expensive and quite
magnificent, they should not be paraded before the audience for this reason alone. In
and of themselves, they do not move the story forward and will slow down pace.

Editing

In some cases the director will be contracted to supervise post-production as well as

production, while in other cases he will bid farewell directly after production. Whatever
the situation, it is important that the director provide adequate coverage of each scene.
The editor gives shape and structure to the finished movie, but it will only be as good
as the available material. In addition, the director should maintain adequate notes on
how he foresees shots cutting together.

The director need not be concerned with the exact cutting point of every shot, this is for
the editor to decide. Rather, he should overlap the shots by a few seconds or a few
lines of dialogue. This buffer will aid the editor in choosing the optimal cutting point for
each shot. If the director prefers only parts of a take, this should be indicated in his
notes.

The degree of creative control an editor has depends upon the director. Most directors
allow the editor to make a first pass on a scene, while others supervise editing closely.

Just as there is a tendency to overlook the importance of sound during production,

there is also a tendency to overlook sound during post-production. The director should
keep in mind that creative sound editing adds a whole other dimension to the movie.
Star Wars is noted for its spectacular visual effects but the sound design is equally
stunning. Audiences tend to take great sound for granted, however, Star Wars would
not be the same without the distinctive laser blasts, rumbling engines, robot noises,
and ambience-- all interlaced with its wonderful music score.

DIRECTOR'S DEPARTMENT

Like each craft head, the director has his own small department. It is composed of
the following individuals:

Script Supervisor

The script supervisor helps the director in three vital ways. First, she keeps track of
continuity in scene variables, such as dialogue, action, props, and script changes.
This assures that shots will match when scenes are edited. Second, she records the
director's comments about each take, including preferences and problems. Finally,

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she helps keep track of the adequacy of shot coverage. The script supervisor is also
known as the continuity supervisor.

Assistant Director

The assistant director, called the AD for short, runs the physical set. His primary
responsibility is to keep the production running smoothly and on time. He does this
by disseminating information and coordinating the cast and crew so that they are
ready for each shot at the designated time. On large productions, there will usually
be a 2nd and 3rd AD. They do the paperwork and legwork for the supervising AD,
referred to as the 1st AD.

The production manager works from the front office and is rarely on the set.
Consequently, an important job of the AD is to act as liaison between the director
and production manager. When scheduling and logistical issues arise, the AD
solves them with the production manager, allowing the director to focus on shooting.
A top notch AD will more than pay for himself through cost savings to the producer.

Though the assistant director spends the bulk of his time working with the director,
he is ultimately accountable to the production manager.

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SINGLE CAMERA APPROACH

Professional movies are shot with one camera, which is repositioned from shot to shot
to capture different views of the action. The material is then edited to create a
continuous, smooth flowing scene. The use of multiple cameras rolling simultaneously
may seem more efficient at first glance, but this is not the case.

There are two reasons. First, it's very expensive to use more than one camera. It
requires not only additional equipment, but additional crew to operate the equipment.
Costs increase exponentially with the addition of each camera.

Second, cinematography, and sound are compromised when shooting with multiple
cameras because too many angles are covered simultaneously. Shooting one angle at
a time allows you to optimize lighting and microphone placement. Consequently, the
single camera approach is preferred.

Occasionally, it will be cost effective to use multiple cameras. Such cases include
concerts and very large crowd scenes. Other than that, the use of multiple cameras is
limited to TV studios, where the sets do not vary much from day to day (i.e., sitcoms,
game shows, etc.).

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SET PROCEDURE

Directors develop a style of working based on their preferences. For example, one
director may prefer to work with the visual elements of the frame, giving the actor more
control over character interpretation, while another director may prefer work with
character issues, giving the DP more control over the visuals. Both extremes have
their pitfalls since the director is delegating creative authority. It is best to have a
balanced approach.

As a director, it is helpful to discuss your working preferences with key personnel prior
to shooting. This is a fair approach that puts cast and crew on notice as to your
expectations. If there are problems relating to creative control, they can be discussed it
at this point rather than in the middle of production.

Once on the set, you must approach each scene from a fresh perspective. Look for
new opportunities in directing both the camera and the actors. You must also review
the feasibility of his shots and watching for potential problems. For example, the
location may vary significantly from the storyboard assumptions.

Set procedure can be confusing to a novice crew, especially slating a scene. The
following is the generally accepted approach:

Initial Blocking and Walk-Through

Blocking is the positioning of actors and camera in relation to each other as the shot
plays out. It is the physical translation of the director's cumulative notes, storyboards,
and floor plans. The initial blocking and walk-through are done with the director and
key crew, so they can determine the technical setup.

This step should be performed with stand-ins. A common error, particularly on low
budget shoots, is to use actors for the initial blocking, which only serves to tire them.
Since actors are not needed until the setup is almost complete, it is best to give them a
later call time than the crew. This will preserve their energy level.

Many directors prefer to start a scene with close shots and work backward toward the
master shot. The rational being that the actor will look fresh and have more energy
earlier in the workday. Another approach is to break wide shots and close shots into
separate workdays, if possible.

Technical Setup

During the technical setup, the craft departments prepare the set for shooting.
Specifically, lights are rigged, lenses are chosen, blocking marks are made, and focus

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points are set. The sound mixer determines the best microphones for the job and their
placement around the set.

Walk-Thorough with Actors

After the initial setup, the actors are brought on the set to rehearse blocking and
dialogue with the director. This may result in some blocking modifications as the result
of new discoveries by the director and actors. For this reason it is best to rehearse at
the actual location or set beforehand whenever possible. When the director is satisfied,
the actors are released for dress and make up.

Tweaking

The director and DP finalize the shot and blocking based on rehearsal. Minor changes
may result in some quick tweaking of equipment.

Slating the Shot

Slating procedure must be carefully followed to allow the editor to accurately sync and
log shots. The video procedure is simpler because sound is generally recorded by the
camera rather than a separate recorder.

Film Shoot:
AD calls "roll sound"
Sound mixer calls "speed" when the recorder is running
Camera assistant calls "scene ___, take ___"
AD calls "roll camera"
Camera operator calls "mark it" when camera is running
Camera assistant calls "marker" and claps sticks
Director calls "action"
Actors go through the scene
Director calls "cut" to break the action
Each departments logs that take in their report

Video Shoot:
AD calls "roll tape"
Camera operator calls "speed"
Camera assistant calls "scene ___, take ___," and claps sticks
Director calls "action"
Actors go through the scene
Director calls, "cut" to break the action
Each departments logs that take in their report

The only time a person other than the director calls "cut" is when there is a technical
problem that will prevent recording the take. Actors should not stop if they flub a line
because the director may want to use part of the take.

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Reports

Each department is responsible for its own continuity and associated record keeping.
Entries are logged after each take. At the conclusion of production, the editor will
receive:

• Script Supervisor's Notes (Directorial Department)

• Camera Reports
• Sound Reports

As discussed, the script supervisors notes are concerned with coverage, script
continuity, and the director's observations. The camera and sound reports keep track
of technical details, which are used to maintain continuity, locate footage, and
troubleshoot faulty equipment.

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TEST 1

This is the first of several tests that you can take to see how well you understand the material.
Questions are drawn from the lessons in order so you can easily go back and check your work. There is
a lot of material in the course and it takes time to absorb it. This happens in live courses, too. The
important thing is to make sure that you understand the broad concepts and are at least familiar with the
terminology. Taking the tests will help reinforce the material.

1. What phrase best describes the role of the director?

2. List three key aspects of the director's job.

3. Discuss the two schools of thought on the scope of the director's job.

4. Who does the director report to?

5. What is artistic identity? Give examples.

6. What is style? Discuss the style of your favorite director.

7. What are the four ingredients of a great screen story?

8. Compare the inner motivation with the outer motivation.

9. Briefly describe the three basic forms of screen storytelling.

10. Define "genre."

11. Define "shot" using two key attributes.

12. Define "scene" using two key attributes.

13. What is a transition?

14. Compare a fade with a dissolve.

15. Who are the key craft department heads on the set?

16. How can problems arise between the director and DP?

17. How can problems arise between the director and sound mixer?

18. What personnel make up the directorial department?

19. List three key functions of the script supervisor.

20. Who runs the set? Explain.

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21. Why is shooting with a single camera preferable to multiple cameras?

22. Define "blocking."

23. On a film shoot, how do you slate a shot?

24. How is slating for video different than slating for film?

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C. STARTING THE PROJECT

INTERPRETING THE SCRIPT

When taking on a project, the director's first task is to interpret the script. The process
of interpreting the script is the reverse of writing it. The screenwriter develops a story
around character issues and themes, while the director, as interpreter, strips away
story layers to determine what those character issues and themes are. This is required
before you can develop a realistic plan for turning the script into a movie. To
understand the inner workings of a story you must analyze the script through several of
readings:

First Impressions

The first reading is to get an overall feel for the story. It should not be highly
critical. Rather, you should note first impressions, which often become lost with
familiarity. You can later refer to these notes as a reminder of how audiences will react
to story elements. If the response is not what you are looking for, you can modify
certain elements to achieve the desired affect.

Story and Character

The next set of readings focus on story structure and character development. First, you
should determine the external motivation (desire) of the protagonist and create an
outline showing its development. The outline should indicate key story beats (i.e., plot
points). Secondary story lines can be layered in to show how they relate to the primary
story line and each other.

The outline breaks down the story into manageable units and helps the director create
an overall blueprint for the movie. Some directors use a timeline or graph in place of an
outline.

Next, look at the protagonist's inner motivation (character flaw). Much of a character's
personal conflicts are hidden from those around him, either consciously or
subconsciously. The key to uncovering a character's inner motivation is in the subtext
of dialogue and action. You should examine the script for subtext, noting all clues to
the inner life of characters.

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Theme

Later readings should be aimed at determining the script's themes. A theme makes a
statement about life and the human condition, giving the story its depth and richness. It
is developed through the inner story line, though it may appear anywhere in the story.

Generally, theme is found in the issues surrounding the protagonist's growth and
interpersonal relationships. Often conflicting positions are presented in the story. Some
themes are readily apparent, while others are no so obvious and require some digging.

Actor Input

When actors are brought on board, your interpretation of the script will be further
refined. Group readings, improvisations, and rehearsals often reveal additional layers
to the story. Actors can bring a new slant to characters that can be truly exciting. A
good director must recognize the merit of these contributions and use them when
appropriate. Rehearsals also aid in determining the true length of the script because
the dialogue and action are played out in real time.

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TRANSLATION TO THE SCREEN

When the director fully understands the script, he or she then begins the process of
translating it to the screen. This involves designing the shots used to construct scenes.
Many elements must be weighed in designing shots, including camera placement,
composition, and movement (discussed in Directing the Camera). Shot design is the
director's primary creative contribution to the movie, and the following tools are used
for this purpose:

Shot List

A shot list, as the name indicates, is a descriptive list of the shots designed by the
director. Each shot in the list has a description the action, brief title, and shot number.
The description is usually in terms of the visuals, but sound may be incorporated if
needed for clarification.

Storyboards

Storyboards are a visual representation of how the director intends to shoot the scene.
Because a picture is worth a thousand words, the director saves time and energy when
using them to communicate with the cast and crew.

A storyboard looks like a comic strip, where each drawing represents a shot. The
drawings can be elaborate or simple stick figures depending on the skill of the person
doing the storyboarding. If a shot is complex, it can be represented by more than one
drawing, using connecting arrows to indicate a single shot.

Follow this link to see a storyboard example: John Estes. John is a professional
storyboard artist, but keep in mind that your storyboards don't have to be this
elaborate.

Floor Plans

A floor plan is another visual representation of a shot. It shows an overhead view of

the set, rather than the composition of the frame. It usually covers several shots of a
scene, indicating the various camera angles and blocking.

Director's Notes

In some cases the director may choose to work from his notes and observations rather
than visual aids like storyboards. This is usually because of story or location needs.
The approach allows for a more impromptu approach during production, and is
perfectly acceptable. The drawback is that shooting will take longer because it is being

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worked out on the set. The approach is prone to continuity errors, so extra care must
be taken safeguard against this.

Key Shots

Identifying key shots is helpful in managing the daily work flow during production and
for paring down the scene if required. Some directors start the translation process by
identifying key shots and building the scene from there.

THE TECHNOLOGY TRAP

Aspiring filmmakers go through a similar learning curve and make many of the same
mistakes. One of the goals of Film School Online is to help you avoid these hard
knocks. At the very least we hope to provide you with enough awareness that you can
spot the telltale signs of trouble and take corrective action in timely manner.

A common mistake is confusing technology with filmmaking. In other words, you get
caught up in the process of filmmaking and loose track of telling a great story. It
seems foolish to approach a project in this way, yet countless filmmakers are
obsessed with the latest cameras, lighting, effects, etc.

If you doubt that you can fall into this trap, take a look at Hollywood. How many
potentially great movies have been compromised because of overly zealous special
effects? George Lucas was praised for striking the right balance with the first three
Star Wars movies, but many fans feel he dropped the ball with The Phantom Menace.

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If seasoned pros can fall into this trap, students are particularly prone. Because of
their inexperience, students don't see the difference between making a movie and
transcending the process to tell a story. To them, it's one big ball of wax.
Understanding the difference is what separates great filmmakers from mediocre ones.

The special effects department is not the only culprit. All craft areas can be guilty of
infringing on the story, from cinematographers with their cameras; to gaffers with their
lighting; to production designers with their sets, and so forth.

Recall Christian Bale's tirade against cinematographer Shane Hurlbut on the set of
Terminator: Salvation (sound clip below). Bale certainly handled himself
unprofessionally and there is no excuse for the way he addressed Hurlbut, but the
point he was trying to make is valid. Hurlbut was so concerned about setting the lights
that he was hindering the actors performances, which is, in essence, the telling of the
story.

Christian Bale And Cinematographer

Warning: Graphic

From a pedagogical point of view, it's easy to see how aspiring filmmakers get caught
in the technology trap. To many of them, the desire to "learn filmmaking" means
learning the latest cameras or lights or editing software. It's not the same thing!

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Filmmaking is the application of the principles and conventions of screen storytelling.

These principles were developed over many years and encompass both visual and
audio aesthetics. Technology involves the tools that facilitates this application, it's not
"filmmaking" per se.

Too often, students become experts in technology and go on to make films based on
aesthetic instinct. A truly gifted filmmaker can probably get away with this, but not
everyone is born with such ability. Most filmmakers work through a considerable
learning curve to become great at what they do.

Even if you are a natural born instinctive filmmaker, your creativity and problem
solving ability can be stifled by not having a solid base of knowledge from which to pull
from.

For example, let's say you are instinctively using the technique of action compression.
Wouldn't it be nice to know how and why this technique works? Wouldn't such
knowledge help you apply it in better and perhaps unexpected ways?

Understanding the principles and conventions of filmmaking (or any art form, for that
matter) not only provides you with a foundation from which to practice and expand
your skills, but also allows you to unleash the creative potential associated with those
skills.

Don't fall into the technology trap. Keep your eye on the ball. No matter what your
area of specialty is, your ultimate goal is always to tell a great screen story.

TEST 2
1. The process of interpreting the script is the reverse of writing it. Explain.
2. Briefly outline the steps in interpreting the script.
3. Define "theme."
4. How are thematic issues conveyed to the audience?
5. What role do actors play in interpreting the script?
6. What is shot design?
7. What are five tools the director uses in designing shots?
8. What is a shot list?
9. Discuss the value of using storyboards over written notes.
10. What is the value of identifying key shots?

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D. DIRECTING THE CAMERA

Like a miniature story, each scene unfolds in a series of movements, called beats.
Beats shift the balance of power between characters, propelling the action
forward. In designing shots, you must first analyze each scene to identify the beats.

When the beats are identified, you then design one or more shots to effectively
convey them to the audience. This involves careful orchestration of all the elements
appearing within the four the walls of the frame. The process, called directing the
camera, is the subject of the next group of lessons.

Though the conventions discussed in this section may, at times, seem complex, you
should apply them in the most simple, straightforward way possible, so that the
purpose of the shot is not lost. Overly complex shots will only muddle the beat.

In post-production, shots will be edited to build scenes with the necessary depth and
complexity. Consequently, you must be concerned not only with the content of each
shot but how they relate to each other after editing. To accomplish this, it is helpful to
use a shot list, storyboards or floor plans when designing shots.

SUBJECT SIZE

Subject size is the size of the subject as it appears in the frame. The most common
sizes are the wide shot, medium shot, and close shot. At the far ends of the
spectrum are the extreme wide shot and extreme close shot. The main function of
subject size is to convey story information by orienting the audience and
emphasizing (or de-emphasizing) the subject.

Subject size is used to:

orient the audience
emphasize or de-emphasize the subject

The classic shot structure for a scene starts with a wide shot, cuts to medium shots,
and climaxes with close shots. In other words, the subject size gets bigger as the
action intensifies. This pattern can be monotonous when used for every scene.
Nonetheless, it is basic to understanding how shots relate to action and can be used
as a springboard for more creative scene designs. The following discussion
elaborates on the different subject sizes.

Wide Shot

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The wide shot is primarily used to establish the setting or location of a scene. Since
objects appear small in the frame, it can also be used for de-emphasis and is ideal
for conveying character isolation. This shot from Vertigo accomplishes both of these
goals:

The wide shot has two drawbacks: it weakens the director's control over audience
attention and lessens the impact of action. It should be avoided when important
detail must be conveyed. Wide shots are also referred to as establishing shots.

Close Shot

The close shot is the exact opposite of the wide shot in that the subject is very large
in the frame. Consequently, it is used for emphasis. When the subject is an actor,
anything closer than mid-chest is considered a close shot, or close-up. Here, the
actor's head dominates the composition. There are several types of actor close
shots, as illustrated in this still from The Godfather:

Another variation is the over the shoulder shot, where an actor is seen in close-up
over another actor's shoulder. This shot is often used in dialogue scenes as a bridge
between a shot of two actors and a close-up:

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The close shot is a powerful tool and should be used sparingly. When used too
often, the audience becomes desensitized to it and its effectiveness is lost.

Medium Shot

As the name indicates, the medium shot falls between the close shot and wide shot.
When the subject is an actor, the upper body dominates the frame, usually the from
the thighs up. Films are primarily constructed of medium shots, with wide shots and
close shots used for orientation and emphasis, respectively.

Multiple Sizes

A composition can have multiple subject sizes. For example, one actor can be
shown in close-up, while another is in full shot. This enables the audience to follow
action in the foreground and the background simultaneously. The technique, called
deep focus, was pioneered by Orson Welles in his landmark film Citizen Kane. The
following shot shows actors in close, medium, and full shot:

Variable Size

The size of a subject can be varied during a shot by moving the camera and/or
subject. For example, an actor in medium shot can move away from the camera into
wide shot or toward the camera into close up. This shot from Shadow of a Doubt
moves from a medium shot to an extreme close shot:

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Cutting Heights

There must be a clear understanding between director and cinematographer as to

where frame lines cut off the actor's body. These designations are called cutting
heights:

A rule in cutting heights is that frame lines should not cut through an actor's primary
joints, since this has a strange look on screen. Primary joints include the neck, waist,
knees, and ankles. The director should be aware that terminology may vary slightly
from one cinematographer to the next, so definitions should be clearly established
before shooting begins.

Technical Considerations

The preferred way to change subject size is to move the camera in relation to the
subject, or vice versa. Subject size can also be varied by changing the lens focal
length (i.e., magnification), however, this affects the way the image looks in terms of
depth perspective and depth of field:

Depth Perspective - Depth perspective is the apparent distance of the foreground

and background in relation to each other. Wide focal lengths expand the apparent
distance, while long focal lengths compress it.

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Variation in Depth Perspective

(note size of people in background)

Depth of Field - Depth of field is the amount of acceptable focus behind and in front
of the subject. Short focal lenses tend to produce a wide depth of field, where
everything on the set appears in focus ("deep focus"). Long focal lenses produce a
shallow depth of field, where only the subject area is in focus.

Shallow Depth of Field

To avoid fluctuations in these variables from one shot to the next, the
cinematographer chooses a focal length and shoots the entire scene with that lens.
The camera is then moved in relation to the subject to create the desired subject
size. Cameras and lenses are discussed at length in our online Cinematography
course.

ANGLE

Angle is the horizontal and vertical position of the camera in relation to the subject.
Through the use of angle, the director positions the subject within the frame. It has a
great impact on how the audience perceives both the subject and the action. On
occasion, angles can be used as a thematic motif.

Vertical Angle

The camera's vertical angle can be used to affect the perceived dominance and
speed of the subject. Low camera angles-- looking up at the subject-- tend to
increases the subject's dominance and speed. High camera angles-- looking down
at the subject-- tend to decrease the subject's dominance and speed.

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Low Angle

High Angle

Horizontal Angle

The camera's horizontal angle is used to affect the perceived depth of the subject.
Horizontal angles include full front, 3/4 front, side, full rear, and 3/4 rear. 3/4 angles
shows two sides of the subject, so they maximize depth. The side angle yields a
rather flat image and should be avoided unless such a look is desired.

Front Angle

3/4 Angle

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Side Angle

Oblique Angle

The oblique angle is when the image appears tilted in the frame. It is achieved by
vertically slanting the camera. The screened image is not level and appears
unnatural to the eye, so it can be used to convey a character's bizarre environment
or mental state. The creation scene in The Bride of Frankenstein made wonderful
use of oblique angles. The approach is highly stylized and not often used.

Oblique Angle

Angles on Actors

Actors are usually shot using 3/4 angles to maximize depth and convey a sense of
character. Front and side shots create a "flat" look, so they are used less often and
usually for a specific effect.

When composing a 3/4 angle, both eyes should be visible to the audience or the
shot will have a decisively odd look. The closer an actor looks toward the camera,
the more intense the shot. Consequently, some directors narrow the angle between
the subject's eye line and camera when cutting from a medium shot to a close shot.
This gives the shot more impact.

The camera's vertical angle is typically at the actor's eye level, unless a special
effect is desired. When several actors are interacting, the vertical angle should
match the eye level of the off screen actor. The reason is that the shot is from the
off screen actor's point of view. This is illustrated in the pictures below where the
shot of Laurie is from a slightly higher angle (Martin's point of view), and the shot of
Martin is from a slightly lower angle (Laurie's point of view):

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Martin's Eye Level (Slightly Higher)

Laurie's Eye Level (Slightly Lower)

Technical Considerations

When selecting an angle there are important issues involving continuity that must be
considered. Continuity is essential for seamless editing.

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PERSPECTIVE

Perspective has several meanings in moviemaking. In terms of directing, perspective is

the psychological position of the camera as it records the action. There are three
perspectives: objective, subjective, and point of view (POV).

Objective Shot

In an objective shot, the camera is placed in a neutral position and does not take the
perspective of any character within the scene. It gives the audience the best, unbiased
view of the action.

Objective Shot

Subjective Shot

A subjective shot is a view of the action through the eyes of a specific character. It is a
specialized shot because the audience is put directly in the position of a character. The
results can range from awkward to highly stylized, depending upon how well it is
executed.

Subjective Shot

The 1932 film Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde explores the use of the subjective shot and
clearly demonstrates its limitations. In many scenes, subjective shots are used
consecutively. It is difficult to follow the action because the scene's principle character
is not visible. In fact, the first reel of the film is composed entirely of subjective shots
and the results are decidedly cumbersome. During love scenes, the subjective view is
switched between the two principle characters, making the scene rather embarrassing

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to watch. The only scene in which the subjective view succeeds is when the dance hall
girl sees Mr. Hyde for the first time.

This is not to say that subjective shots should be ignored. They can be quite
successful when used appropriately. Generally, subjective shots are most effective
when sandwiched between two shots of the character whose view we are taking. For
example, the first shot shows the character, the second shot (i.e., subjective shot)
shows what the character is looking at, and the third shot shows the character's
reaction. This keeps the action and perspective clear to the audience.

Point of View Shot

A point of view shot is from the perspective of a specific character, but not directly
through the eyes of that character. It is midway between an objective and subjective
shot. The purpose of the POV shot, as it is called, is to increase the audience's
involvement without "making" them a character. It is the most frequently used of the
three perspectives.

Point of View Shot

A variation of the POV shot is the over-the-shoulder shot. As the name indicates, this
shot views the action from over a character's shoulder.

Over-the-Shoulder Shot

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COMPOSITION

Composition is concerned with the arrangement of visual elements within the frame.
Good composition works on two levels. First, it allows the subject to interact with its
environment in the telling of the story. Second, it conveys story information
independent of the action, through the placement of the subject within the frame. The
latter is a purely visual statement, affecting the audience on a subliminal level. It's
where real artistry comes into play, but not always possible to achieve in every shot.
Such a statement can be thematic in nature, but must work within the context of the
story.

As the length of this lesson indicates, there are many elements to work with in
composing a shot. The novice filmmaker can easily get carried away, becoming overly
analytical. Though photographic composition may seem complex, successful directors
and cinematographers usually keep it simple, working primarily from instinct. They
don't try to incorporate every concept into every composition. Some concepts are
required for good basic composition, but others are applied as opportunities arise.
Your ability to compose shots will come from an understanding of the principles,
analysis of existing work, and practical experience.

Basic Rules

There are four basic rules of good cinematic composition:

Importance - The frame must always contain something of importance to the story.
Some moviemakers maintain that there must always be physical or dramatic action in
the frame. This is a bit extreme, however, there must be at least new story information
in every shot.

Tension - Compositions should contain tension independent of the subject and action.
Compositional tension occurs when the audience's eyes are not allowed to rest on one
element, but rather are pulled by contrasting or competing elements. It is through this
tension that the secondary story information is communicated.

Aesthetics - Notwithstanding compositional tension, each composition should be

aesthetically pleasing.

Simplicity - Compositions should be kept simple. Confused compositions create

confused effects in the mind of the viewer. This does not mean that compositions
should be simplistic.

The visual elements of composition are follow as:

Figures

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A figure is any spot within the composition that has a definite contour. This includes the
subject as well as any foreground or background objects. When figures are close
together, they can be treated as one figure if such treatment looks visually pleasing.
Figures can be arranged within the frame to create other compositional elements such
as lines, patterns, and shapes, discussed below.

Lines

A line is a compositional element with a long, narrow shape. It can be a single figure or
several figures in a row, such as telephone poles along a road.

Diagonal Line (Bridge)

Diagonal Line Composed of Several Figures

There are three ways lines can be used in a composition: for their decorative affect, to
direct the audience's attention to the main subject, and to reinforce the sensibility of
the scene or character:

Straight Lines - convey strength and masculinity

Curving Lines - convey gentleness and femininity

Vertical Lines - convey strength

Horizontal Lines - convey tranquility

Diagonal Lines - are dynamic and convey energy

Parallel Lines - converge in the distance and convey depth.

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Parallel Lines

Shapes

Shapes are created by arranging compositional elements into geometric forms like a
circle or rectangle. The shape with the strongest visual impact is the triangle, which
tends to generate a sense of stability. Since the apex tends to dominate, placing a
character in this position can be used to bring attention to the character or convey
his/her authority.

Patterns

Patterns are created by the repetition of compositional elements, such as figures, lines,
and shapes. For example, the steps of a courthouse can create a pattern through the
repetition of lines, assuming they sufficiently fill the frame. Likewise, the windows of an
apartment building can create a pattern through the repetition of rectangles.

Pattern Using Lines

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Pattern Using Rectangles

Mass

Mass is the pictorial weight of a figure or area of the frame. Unlike physical weight,
pictorial weight is based purely on perception. It can be manipulated through:

Physical Attributes of Subject - Larger, taller, brighter, and vibrantly colored figures
appear to have greater mass and attract the eye first. Smaller, shorter, darker, and
less vibrantly colored figures appear to have less mass and the eye moves to them
last.

For example, two cars of the same size, color, and brightness appear to have the
same mass. If one car is painted bright red and the other is pale green, the red car will
command attention first, dominating the composition, because it is perceived to have
greater mass.

Photography - The attributes that define mass can also be manipulated through
photography and placement in the frame. Assuming two figures of the same size and
color, if one is closer to the camera, higher in the frame or more brightly lighted, it will
appear dominant and convey greater relative mass.

Character Traits - When dealing with people, perceived mass can be influenced by
personality traits. A character that is strong or brave will convey greater mass.

Relative mass is used to capture the audience's attention and direct it around the
frame. The audience first looks at elements with greater mass and then moves to other
elements. Mass also plays an important role in photographic balance, discussed
below.

Balance

Balance is the sense of equilibrium conveyed by a composition. It is determined by the

distribution of figures within the frame. Proper balance creates an aesthetically
pleasing image independent of any tension caused by the subject and composition.
Figures are distributed based on their mass, or pictorial weight. Since the perception of
mass is psychological in nature, experienced cinematographers will describe proper
balance as "feeling right."

The easiest way to understand pictorial balance is by using the analogy of a teeter-
totter. When two children of equal weight are placed equidistant from the center of a

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teeter-totter, the device will balance. However, with two children of unequal weight, the
heavier child will pull the teeter-totter down. To create balance, the heavier child must
move closer to the center or the lighter child must move closer to the edge.

The same mechanics apply to pictorial balance. Two objects of the same mass are,
balanced by placing them equidistant from the center of the frame. Two objects of
unequal mass are balanced by moving the heavier object closer to the center of the
frame or by moving the lighter object closer to the edge. If there is only one main
object, it is placed in the middle.

Types of Balance - Balancing figures of equal mass is called symmetrical balance

because the figures have the same placement in both sides of the frame. Balancing
figures of unequal mass is called asymmetrical balance because the figures have
different placement in both sides of the frame. This type of balance is found more often
because compositional elements are usually of unequal mass. It is visually more
interesting than uniformity of symmetrical balance.

Symmetrical Balance

Asymmetrical Balance

Golden Mean - Another approach to avoiding dull, symmetrical compositions, is to

view the frame in terms of thirds rather than halves. The frame is divided into two
uneven parts, with the smaller part equal to 1/3 of the frame area and the larger part
equal to 2/3s. Figures are place in these areas and asymmetrically balanced.

The technique can be applied either horizontally or vertically depending upon the
objects in the composition. This is called the golden mean, and it creates a visually
stimulating image because of the asymmetry of the composition. It is especially helpful
in making quiet subjects appear more interesting.

A classic application of the golden mean involves the horizon. A symmetrical

composition in which the sky is in the upper half of the frame and the earth in the lower
half is uninteresting and somewhat disconcerting because it looks like two separate

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pictures. Using the golden mean approach, the sky can occupy 1/3 of the frame and
the earth 2/3, or vice versa. This is much more visual.

When the horizon is placed in the upper one 1/3 of the frame, the earth is longer so it
represents distance. Conversely, when the horizon is placed in the lower 1/3 of the
frame, the sky occupies more space so it conveys openness. The horizon need not be
visible to apply this rule. It can be hidden behind buildings or landscape.

Another common application of the golden mean involves a lone subject. Instead of
placing the subject in the center of the composition, it is offset to either the left or right
1/3 of the frame. There should be something in the other 2/3s of the frame to create
balance.

Putting something in the open 2/3s of the frame may not be necessary when the
subject's eye line or movement is directed at that part of the frame. The rational being
that there is something of interest outside the frame providing the balancing mass.

Using the golden mean works best with rectangular frames like 1.66:1 and 1.85:1.
Offsetting the subject in the square frames of TV and 16mm may yield awkward
results, because there is little horizontal room to work with. Likewise, in wide screen
(2:35:1) there is too much horizontal room, resulting in a visual jump when cutting back
and forth during dialogue scenes. In these cases it may be preferable to position the
subject in the middle 1/3 of the frame.

Balancing Tips:

• All figures should be considered when balancing a

composition. This includes subject, foreground, and
background figures.

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• An area of the frame with a distinct brightness, texture or

pattern can be treated as a single figure if it conveys a
sense of mass.

• A tight group of figures can be treated as a single figure if

such treatment feels right.

• Shots with movement can be tricky to balance, but the

movement itself distracts the audience from noticing
potential unbalance. Emphasis should be placed on static
parts of the shot.

Depth

Depth is the illusion of multiple planes in a composition. Motion pictures two

dimensional, however, cinematographers go to great lengths to create the illusion of a
three dimensional image when composing a shot. This is because a deep image is
more visually interesting than a flat one. There are several conventions used to convey
depth:

Angle - 3/4 camera angles show greater depth than side and front angles. This is
because they show two sides of a subject instead on one.

Foreground and Background - The illusion of depth can be enhanced by using the
foreground and background in conjunction with the subject.

Use of Background to Create Depth

Use of Foreground to Create Depth

Overlapping Objects - Objects that are overlapped indicate different planes, while
objects that are spaced out give no idea as to their spatial relationship. Consequently,
overlapping objects will convey depth better than spaced objects. The picture directly
above uses overlapping objects.

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Diminishing Size - Lining-up figures from foreground to background can be used to

convey depth because they will diminish in size as they recede into the distance. The
picture of the four gunslingers, above, illustrates this.

Converging Lines - Parallel lines extending from foreground to background can

convey depth because they will converge in the distance. The picture of the railroad
tracks, above, illustrates this.

Camera Movement - Camera movement conveys a sense of depth because objects

are covered and uncovered as the camera’s perspective changes, indicating different
planes.

Subject Movement - Subject movement from foreground to background conveys

depth better than movement laterally. If the subject must move laterally, it is best done
at an angle to the lens.

Depth can also be conveyed through photographic techniques other than composition.
For example, shallow depth of field, aerial haze, and back lighting enhance the sense
of depth in a shot.

Framing

Certain conventions are used to help make the composition visually pleasing and
balanced:

Headroom - Headroom is the amount of space between the subject’s head and the
top of the frame. Too much or too little headroom will give the feeling of that vertical
balance is off. In tight close-ups, it may be necessary to cut part of the subject's head
from the frame. In these cases, the forehead is cut from the composition, not the chin.

Side Room - Side room is the open space on either side of the composition. Proper
horizontal balance will usually insure adequate side room. When composing a lone
subject, two thirds of the frame area should be in the direction the subject is looking or
traveling, in accordance with the rule of thirds. Occasionally, the subject can look
toward the closer frame line to convey a claustrophobic effect.

Frame Lines - The subject should not sit, stand, lay or lean on frame lines because it
creates a sense that something is missing from the picture. In addition, frame lines
should not cut through an actor's joints.

Frame within a Frame - A powerful compositions can be created by framing the

subject with a foreground object. This has the effect of creating a frame within a frame
(i.e., the screen frame and the foreground frame). A memorable example is in The
Searchers where the protagonist, who is brightly lighted, is framed by the dark cabin
door.

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Lines within the Frame - Vertical and horizontal lines within the composition should
not cut the frame in half. This imparts the strange feeling of looking at two individual
compositions. Lines running parallel to frame lines tend to be dull, while diagonal lines
are more dramatic and should be used whenever possible in the frame. For this
reason, it is preferable to align multiple figures diagonally rather than horizontally in the
frame.

Light and Dark Areas of the Frame - It is preferable to have dark areas close the
edges of the frame and the brighter areas in the center. It helps direct the audience's
attention toward the subject and imparts a sense of balance to the composition. Bright
areas should not be at the edge of a frame unless it is the beginning if a line effect.

Shot-to-Shot Frame Position - When cutting from one subject size to another, the
subject should occupy approximately the same position in the frame. This avoids the
eye from jumping around from shot to shot, looking for the subject. It is particularly
important for wide screen formats.

TV vs. Theatrical Framing - The TV frame is square and the theatrical frame is
rectangular. Many directors would like to release on both mediums so they opt for a
compromised framing. This involves framing for theatrical release but making sure that
all-important information is within the TV frame line. Headroom must be minimal within
the TV frame otherwise there will be excessive headroom on the theatrical screen.

Subtext

How the subject occupies the frame can support the underlying dynamics and emotion
of a shot:

Size - A subject occupying a very small part of the frame appears diminutive, lonely.
By contrast, a subject that occupies a large part of the frame appears dominant. This
relative dominance is more pronounced when shots are intercut, as in a dialogue
scene.

Angle - A subject shot from a low camera angle appears dominant, while a subject
shot from a high camera angle appears subordinate.

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Proximity - Subjects closer together in the frame appear to have a closer relationship
than subjects spread further apart. Similarly, subjects in the same frame seem more
intimate than subjects in different shots.

Direction of Movement - Movement towards screen right tends to indicate peaceful

action, while movement towards screen left tends to indicate forceful action. Upward
movement usually conveys hope and growth, while downward movement indicates
despair and gloom. Diagonal movement in the frame is the strongest and most
dynamic.

Relative Frame Position - The left side of the frame is dominant over the right side,
and the top of the frame is dominant over the bottom. Positioning a character in one of
these areas can underscore their relative strength. It can also be used to balance a
weaker character against a stronger one. Some cinematographers like to place the
heart of a shot in the left side of the frame, as it is in the human body.

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LOOK

Look is the visual feel of the movie. It supports the underlying dynamics of the story by
conveying information about character emotion, location, and time frame.

Look is the visual feel of the movie.

A movie's look is often equated with its surface texture (i.e., grain, focus), but the
meaning is much broader. Different looks are achieved by systematically manipulating
any photographic element, including grain, focus, contrast, lighting, color, lens focal
length, and depth of field. This can be obvious or very subtle.

The French Connection makes use of grain and stark lighting to give the film a gritty
look, almost like newsreel footage:

Rear Window uses a high contrast, soft focus look to convey a sense of romance:

Rear Window also uses color to affect its look, alternating between warm and cool
hues, depending upon the mood of the scene (warm for romantic scenes and cool for
suspense). This technique was also used in The Searchers to convey shifts in time:

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The look of a movie can be constant throughout or changed on a scene-by-scene

basis to reflect story developments. In some cases it may be desirable to alternate
back and forth between looks to reflect shifting story variables like location. Another
approach is to progressively change the look to convey character growth and change.

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MOVEMENT

Movement in a shot is a powerful tool for screen storytelling for two reasons. First, it
helps generate energy and tension through the action of the movement. Second, it
allows you to change or maintain subject size during a shot, rather than cut to a new
shot.

Movement of in the frame:

helps generate energy and tension
allows subject size to be changed or maintained

Movement is created using the actor and/or the camera:

Actor Movement

Actor movement toward or away from the camera is, in effect, recomposing the frame.
The results can be visually dynamic when properly motivated by the scene. Another
benefit is that it can be used as a substitute for the classic dialogue shot structure.
Rather than cut from wide shots to medium to close shots, the characters can move
about the frame, offering a changing perspective as they speak.

The drawback of recomposing is that all elements (i.e. angle, viewpoint, pace, etc.,)
are fixed within the shot and can't be changed during editing. This can be problematic
if the shot does not play as the director intended. Consequently, many directors like to
shoot enough coverage to fix potential problems. When a shot must unconditionally
run without cutting, careful planning is required.

Camera Movement

Camera movement can take many forms:

Pan and Tilt - A pan and tilt involves pivoting of the camera on its axis. Pans are
horizontal pivots, while tilts are vertical pivots. These simple camera moves are used
to cover action that is too broad for a stationary camera. They are also used to relate
one subject to another during a shot.

Dolly - A dolly is the physical movement of the camera on a wheeled platform called a
dolly. Dollies come in all shapes and sizes, from simple medical wheelchairs to heavy-
duty devices with hydraulic lifts and seating for the director, camera operator, and
camera assistant. Dollies are probably the most common method of moving the
camera.

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Boom - A boom involves a short vertical movement of the camera, usually up to 12

feet. It is accomplished with a jib arm, which attaches directly to tripod or dolly. The jib
arm is essentially a lever with the camera attached to one end.

Jib Arm (Ez Fx Jib)

Crane - A crane is similar to a boom except that the distance traveled is much greater.
It is not uncommon for a camera to be raised or lowered 30 feet or more during a
crane shot. Crane shots must be justified within the shot, otherwise they will call
attention to themselves.

A rising crane shots conveys a sense of revelation as more and more of the scene
becomes visible. A descending crane shots conveys a sense of surveillance as the
camera closes in on a specific point of interest. A stunning example is found in
Hitchcock’s Notorious, where the camera traverses the breadth of a ballroom to settle
on a key in Alicia's hand.

Handheld - As the name implies, a handheld camera move is when the operator holds
the camera in his hands and moves with it. Despite being associated with a rough, low
budget look, handheld shots can be surprisingly smooth in the hands of a skilled
cameraperson, using a wide angle lens to minimize shake. They are an acceptable
alternative to more costly, time consuming camera moves.

Steadicam - This is similar to a handheld shot in that the cameraperson carries the
camera. The difference is that the camera is mounted on a shock absorbing apparatus
called a Steadicam. The Steadicam can be used to follow an actor just about
anywhere with amazing smoothness. Steadicam shots are costly because they require
a Steadicam operator along with the specialized equipment.

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Steadicam

Tracking and Traveling - A tracking shot is when the camera follows a moving
subject a reasonably long distance. The camera can be mounted on a dolly,
Steadicam or handheld. The primary purpose of a tracking shot is to keep a fixed
subject size.

A traveling shot is more expansive than a tracking shot and requires that the camera
be mounted on a vehicle. Just about every type of vehicle has been used for this
purpose, including cars, trucks, and helicopters. Shots that require a vehicle are also
known as vehicle shots.

Movement vs. Cut

The decision to use movement over a cut is based on the audience's urgency to see a
new view of the action. Cuts move the audience through space instantaneously, while
movement takes longer because the camera and actors move through space in real
time. The time lag is not necessarily a bad thing, because it can be used to create
tension through expectation. In any event, the cut or movement must serve the
objective of the shot within the scene.

Alfred Hitchcock's Rope was an experiment in cuts vs. movement. Cuts were not used
except to join film rolls, and even then, they were disguised. In order to vary subject
size, the camera and actors were constantly in motion. The film was a technical
landmark for this feat, which required breakaway sets and perfect timing of cast and
crew. Despite this, it is not considered an aesthetic success and demonstrates the
limitations of camera movement.

For example, there is a scene where the label of a hat must be inspected. Rather than
immediately cutting to a close shot of the label, the design of the film required that the
camera move into a close shot. Even though the camera moves in swiftly, it's not fast
enough for the audience and wastes valuable screen time. Eventually these slight
delays take their toll on the audience's patience.

Movement vs. Zoom

Many novice moviemakers think that they can use a zoom lens in place of camera
movement. While zooming does move the audience closer to or further from the
subject, it does so by magnifying the image. This results in a decisively flat look

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because there is no perspective changes as when the camera traverses past objects.
A moving camera, on the other hand, has a realistic three-dimensional look as
foreground and background objects shift in relation to each other.

Another drawback of zooming is that the foreground and background are compressed
at longer focal lengths as the result of the magnifying effect of the lens. This further
reduces the sense of depth. The typical audience may not recognize the difference
between a camera move and a zoom from a technical point of view, but they will feel it
since camera movement has greater visual impact.

Zooms should be used only when camera movement is not possible. In such cases,
the best way to perform a zoom is to simultaneously pan or tilt, if possible. The lateral
movement disguises the flatness of the zoom by creating a slight shift in foreground
and background. For maximum flexibility in editing, a zoom should begin and end with
static image.

Technical Considerations

The way movement is perceived by the audience can be manipulated in the following
ways:

Lens Choice - Lens choice can be used to exaggerate how the subject's movement is
perceived. Movement appears quicker with wider focal lengths, particularly in close
proximity to the camera, and slower with very long focal lengths. For example, a
racecar looks faster with a wide-angle lens, while an exhausted runner looks sluggish
with a telephoto lens.

Subject Size - Subject size can be used to exaggerate movement, as well.

Specifically, movement appears appears quicker in close shots and slower, less
intense in wide shots.

Obtrusiveness - Camera moves that are properly motivated by the script usually go
unnoticed by the audience. They are less conspicuous when the subject is in motion
are well.

Editing - Camera moves can be used across shots for a dynamic effect. In other
words, the movement begins in one shot and is maintained in one or more of the shots
that follow.

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COVERAGE

Coverage is when a given action is shot from different angles and perspectives.
Adequate shot coverage gives the editor flexibility when constructing scenes. It also
provides protection against continuity and performance problems.

Adequate shot coverage provides:

flexibility in editing
protection against shooting errors

Master Scene Approach

Most professional feature films use the master scene approach. This involves shooting
each scene in its entirety from a wide master shot and several closer angles. It also
includes shooting appropriate inserts and cutaways.

Insert - An insert is a shot of some element within the frame used for emphasis or
clarification.

Cutaway - A cutaway is a shot of an element outside the frame. Cutaways can detract
from the flow of action and should only be used they are directly relevant to the scene.

Angle by Angle Approach

Low budget productions often cannot afford the master scene approach and opt for
less coverage. The scene is broken into segments and shot from a few carefully
selected angles.

This approach is acceptable but continuity must by handled with great care. If an error
should occur, there are no alternate takes available. This may require costly reshooting
to fix.

Needless to say, there is a bare minimum of coverage that is required for each scene
to be edited properly. Shooting less than this is reckless and may cost more in the
long run should a problem arise.

Overlapping Action

To facilitate editing, the director must provide sufficient an overlap in action from one
camera setup to the next. This allows the editor to pick proper cutting points. Overlaps
are particularly important when cuts must be precisely matched to create a seamless
flow of action.

For example, when a character exits a room in one shot and enters a room in the next
shot, the director must provide a complete exit and entrance in the respective shots.

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This allows the editor to choose the optimal cutting points in the outgoing and incoming
shots. The director should never attempt to cut in the camera.

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CONTINUITY

Continuity is the consistency of scene variables from shot to shot, including dialogue,
movement, lighting, sound, props, etc. It is important to maintain correct continuity so
that shots will have a smooth, continuous flow when edited.

A mistake in continuity can have serious consequences in post-production, sometimes

requiring reshooting. For example, if the lighting is high key in one shot and low key in
the next, the two shots will not match when edited. The same is true if one shot has
loud ambient sound and the next shot does not.

Shots are typically photographed out of sequence, sometimes days or weeks apart
from each other. This makes it difficult to recall the details of a particularly setup and it
can result in continuity errors. Consequently, the key to maintaining correct continuity
is careful record keeping. Each craft department is responsible for its own continuity
record keeping.

The director is concerned with three types of continuity: movement, eye line, and
performance. The script supervisor is responsible for the director's record keeping:

Continuity of Movement

The subject's direction of movement must be consistent from shot to shot so that it is
clear to the audience. When the scene is one continuous take, movement is
uninterrupted by cuts so there is no problem. Most scenes, however, are composed of
multiple shots using different camera angles. During shooting, it's easy to loose track
of the subject's direction of movement, especially when changes occur.

For example, if a vehicle is traveling screen right, the vehicle must maintain this
direction in every shot of the scene until it reaches its destination. Any deviation in
direction must be clearly shown to keep the direction of travel clear to the audience. If
for some unexplained reason, a shot shows the vehicle moving screen left, the
opposite direction, it will look like it suddenly changed directions. This can appear
awkward and, in the worst case, confuse the audience.

The imaginary line is a tool that directors use to maintain directional continuity during
shooting. An imaginary line is drawn through the center of the subject, and the director
chooses one side of the line from which to shoot the action. This establishes the
direction of movement toward screen left or screen right. The camera can be placed
anywhere within the 180-degree radius of the chosen side of the line.

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The camera cannot cross the imaginary line in two consecutive shots, or continuity will
be confused. For example, if you choose to work on the left side of a car, you must
stay on that side until a change in direction is shown on screen. Improperly crossing
the line will create an unintentional change in the direction of movement, resulting in a
continuity error. The imaginary line was crossed in the third shot below:

When two subjects are in the frame, the imaginary line must bisect both, and you shoot
from one side of the line or the other. This is illustrated in the following shot:

When the scene involves many shots, it may be desirable to change screen direction
for variety. These changes must be clearly shown to the audience. Once the imaginary
line is crossed, it is redrawn to help maintain continuity. There are five ways to cross
the imaginary line while preserving screen continuity:

Subject changes direction during the shot - This is acceptable because the
audience sees the change of direction happening.

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Subject Changes Direction

Camera crosses imaginary line during the shot - Again, this is acceptable because
the audience sees the change of direction.

Camera Crosses Imaginary Line

A neutral shot is inserted between shots with different directions of travel - A

neutral shot is a head-on or tail-on shot. When used between two shots of different
direction, it can mask the change.

Neutral Shot

Neutral shots may contain entrances and exits, but they should occur at the top or
bottom frame to keep the shot neutral. If the exit or entrance must favor one side of the
frame, it should be toward the new direction of travel.

Neutral Exit Shot

An insert or cutaway is used between shots with different directions of travel -

Inserts and cutaways work like a neutral shot in that they mask the change in
direction.

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Insert

Break continuity - In some cases, you can cross the imaginary line simply because it
works aesthetically. Breaks in continuity usually go unnoticed in scenes with action or
high drama. This techniques was nicely in the climactic riding montage of The Horse
Whisperer.

Breaking continuity in dialogue scenes presents more of a problem because the shots
are closer and discrepancies are more noticeable. Even when the audience can't
identify exactly what the problem is, they can feel that something is amiss.

In the low budget classic Night of the Living Dead, two characters are in a dialogue
exchange and both are looking screen right. The scene is passable only because it is
highly dramatic and made up of medium shots. Had the shots been closer or the
emotional level lower, the mismatch would have been too distracting, requiring
expensive re-shooting.

Scenes involving chase or confrontation require extra care because the meaning of the
scene is inherent in the screen direction:

Chase - When shooting chase scenes, the shots must show all characters moving in
the same direction to make it look like a chase. For example, if character A is chasing
character B screen right, both characters must maintain that direction from shot to
shot. If B is suddenly moving screen left, it will look like he turned around to confront A.
Alternatively, if character A is suddenly moving screen left, it will look like the
characters are running away from each other. Mistakes like this can confuse the
audience.

Confrontation - Characters moving toward each other from opposite directions can be
used to convey an imminent confrontation. If character A is moving screen right and
character B is moving screen left, intercutting these shots will imply that the characters
will confront each other at some point. Again, the directions of travel must be
maintained to avoid audience confusion.

Continuity of Eye Line

Continuity of eye line simply means that characters look in the correct direction from
shot to shot. This sounds simple enough, but it becomes problematic when the
character is looking at something off screen. Again, this is solved by using the

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imaginary line. The line must bisect both actors and the camera stays on one side of
the line or the other:

In the above example, the woman is looking looking screen right at the man. She must
continue to look screen right throughout the scene. If for some unexplained reason a
shot shows her looking screen left, it will appear that the man had moved, which can
confuse the audience. The camera improperly crossed the imaginary line in the first
shot below:

There are three ways to properly convey a change in eye line:

Eye line shifts during the shot - This is acceptable because the audience sees the
change in a character's eye line as it follows the off screen object.

Camera physically moves during the shot - This, too, is acceptable because the
audience sees the shift in eye line.

An insert is used between shots with different eye lines - This can be used to
explain (or disguise) the shift in eye line.

Eye line continuity involves not only screen direction, but also vertical and horizontal
angles. The vertical angle is the character's eye line in relation to the height of what he
is looking at, and the horizontal angle is the character's eye line in relation to the lens
axis. In the following example the woman is looking down at the man, who is seated.

Charlie is looking down at the seated detective

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Eye line angles must be be logical and consistent from shot to shot unless the
imaginary line is changed using one of the aforementioned techniques. Continuity can
be tricky to maintain when three or more characters are involved, so proper planning is
essential. Storyboards are very useful for this purpose.

Perhaps the most difficult eye line situation is when a character is watching something
in motion. For example, if a car is traveling passed the actor, which way should he turn
his head to watch, left or right? Many directors film the actor looking in both directions
and let the editor pick the right shot. Actually there is a simple rule: the actor should
follow the movement as though it were happening behind the camera.

Continuity of Performance

It is important that actor performance match from setup to setup and take to take. This
includes emotional intensity, speech pattern, gestures, and timing. It is the
responsibility of both the director and actor to insure continuity of performance. If the
director tries something different than in previous takes, the script supervisor should
note it. Continuity of performance is discussed further in the section on Directing
Actors.

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TEST 3

Please see Test 1 for usage.

1. Define "cutting heights."

2. Identify the different types of close shots.

3. What is the difference between a close shot and a medium shot?

4. What is the difference between depth perspective and depth of field?

5. How are angles used in shot design?

6. What are some considerations when choosing angles on actors?

7. What is perspective?

8. What is the difference between an objective shot and a subjective shot?

9. What is the difference between a subjective shot and a point of view

shot?

10. What are four ingredients for good cinematic composition?

11. How can lines be used in composing a shot?

12. How can shapes be used in composing a shot?

13. What is pictorial mass and how is it used in composition?

14. How can mass be manipulated?

15. What are two types of pictorial balance?

16. What type of pictorial balance is more visually interesting?

17. What is the golden mean rule and explain how it is used in composition?

18. Give seven ways to convey depth.

19. How can frame lines become a distraction to the audience?

20. What is a frame within a frame?

21. What is subtext and how is it used in pictorial composition?

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22. Define "look." How is it achieved?

23. Give two reasons why movement is a powerful tool.

24. How is movement within the frame achieved?

25. What are the benefits and drawbacks of recomposing the frame?

26. What is a Steadicam?

27. Discuss the use of movement vs. cutting.

28. Discuss the use of camera movement vs. zooming.

29. Define "coverage."

30. Give two reasons why coverage is essential.

31. Compare the master scene approach with the angle by angle approach.

32. Discuss the need for overlapping action.

33. What is continuity?

34. Who is responsible for continuity?

35. Identify the three types of continuity that the director is concerned with.

36. What is the imaginary line and how is it used?

37. Give five ways to cross the imaginary line while preserving continuity.

38. Why do chase scenes need extra care in preserving continuity?

39. Give three ways to convey a shift in eye line without breaking continuity.

40. In which direction should an actor's head turn when he watches an object
pass by?

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E. DIRECTING THE
ACTORS

To inspire the best performance, successful directors adjust to whatever technique an

actor may use. In the typical situation, the director explains his interpretation of the
character in general terms, leaving the actor to his own resources in achieving the
appropriate characterization. Later, the director and actor fine-tune the performance. If
there is a difference in interpretation, they work towards a mutual resolution.
Ultimately, however, the director has final control.

There are times when a director may be forced to impose a technique in eliciting the
right performance. For example, when dealing with untrained actors, the director
becomes teacher and imparts his own style. In cases where an experienced actor is
having difficulty delivering the performance, he or she will usually be open to
suggestions from the director.

When all else fails, directors have been known to resort to radical measures to achieve
the desired performance. Not all of these schemes have been appreciated by actors.
For example, in the abduction sequence in The King of Comedy, Jerry Lewis was not
delivering enough anger for director Martin Scorsese. To kindle the right performance,
Scorsese and star Robert De Niro harassed Lewis about a personal issue. Needless to
say the right level of anger was achieved, but Lewis was initially offended by the
incident.

The director must approach actors with the same care he uses in crafting the visual
elements of the scene. This requires an understanding of the actor's craft. Though
actors are an eclectic group, they all use one of three basic approaches. The
similarities and difference in these approaches are discussed in the following lessons,
along with process of directing actors.

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THE ACTOR'S CRAFT

There are basically three schools of thought on acting. Classical acting, sometimes
referred to as French or old school acting, relies on the actor's technical ability. The
actor determines the appropriate character behavior and plays the role
accordingly. There is no motivation drawn from outside the scene material. Classical
actors include John Barrymore and Lawrence Olivier.

At the other extreme is method acting, where actors draw on themselves as the
primary source, rather than the script. Instead of imitating a fictional character, method
actors "become" the character by looking for similar emotions within themselves. They
then behave (act) accordingly. This approach is used by actors like Marlon Brando and
Al Pacino.

There is a famous story that contrasts classical and method acting. During the making
of The Marathon Man, Dustin Hoffman, in true method form, regularly went through a
series of rituals to get into character. During one scene, Hoffman ran around the block
prior to each take, much to the dismay of costar Lawrence Olivier, who was often kept
waiting. At one point Olivier turned to Hoffman and said, "Have you tried acting, my
boy?"

This anecdote illustrates a genuine concern about method acting. Critics feel that it
veers too far from the material and puts too much emotional strain on the actor.
Consequently, a middle-of-the-road approach has developed. It is based on method
acting, but certain definitions have been changed to reduce emotional stress.

Styles in directing actors have followed a similar evolution. Old school directors like
Alfred Hitchcock did not believe in an actor's inner motivation. On the other hand,
directors Elia Kazan and John Cassavetes were disciples of method acting.
Cassavetes' directing style reflects this with its ample improvisation and on the spot
scripting. Directors like Spielberg and Allen use a balanced approach that is fair to both
the actor and needs of the story.

Truth in Acting

The father of contemporary acting is Konstantin Stanislavsky. His theories are based
on the idea that successful acting is doing things in a real way rather than pretending.
In other words, a successful actor behaves instinctively, as if the behavior were
happening for the first time, rather than mechanically. His work was groundbreaking
because it allowed actors to look outside the scene (i.e., within themselves) for
motivation.

Early in his acting career, Stanislavsky recognized that actors created certain poses or
gestures for theatrical purposes. He practiced these movements but became
disillusioned with the artificial results. Eventually he realized that for a gesture to

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appear realistic, it must be heartfelt. For example, if the actor does a double take he
must do it because he is compelled to, not because the movement looks good to the
audience.

Stanislavsky called this truth in acting. The phrase may seem ironic, since movies
and theater are grounded in fiction to begin with; however, the truth Stanislavsky refers
to is within the actor himself. It is the truth of emotions, memories, and creative urges.
What the actor feels internally is expressed through his action and dialogue externally.
This enables the actor to create a character organically rather than simply play a role.

Drawing from the reality of the inner self is at the heart of Stanislavsky’s system, or
"the system," as it is called. This body of work provides the underlying principles for
method acting, which was developed by famed acting teacher Lee Strasberg.

Training

In training actors, Stanislavsky and Strasberg stress the following:

Relaxation - The actor's behavior is shaped by the emotion he draws from himself and
his interaction with other members of the cast. The actor, therefore, must be sensitive
to what is happening around him to be responsive. Stanislavsky found that physical
and mental tension inhibits this process.

To illustrate how tension affects responsiveness, try recounting a childhood memory

while lifting something heavy. This becomes an arduous task because your energy is
being diverted elsewhere. Not only is it difficult to think, it is difficult to speak as well.
This is an extreme example, but it shows how tension can adversely affect physical
and mental responsiveness.

The first step in acting, whether training or performing, is to achieve a state of

relaxation. Strasberg compares the relaxation process to tuning a musical instrument.
An improperly tuned instrument will not sound right, no matter how well it is played.
Actors find and diffuse tension using a winding down technique where they slowly
relaxing the body, one part at a time.

Concentration - Relaxation readies the actor for concentration, which is his primary
concern. Concentration involves focusing on a specific object or problem set up by the
actor. It serves several purposes. First, it takes the actor's mind off extraneous
distractions, including stage fright. Second, it frees the mind to create the imagined
reality required by a scene. Third, it teaches the actor to focus on the primary concern
of the moment, contributing to the illusion of spontaneous behavior.

Concentration exercises train actors to recreate an object or situation, with the related
sensory experience. For example, the actor may decide to use a cup of coffee as the
object of his concentration. After drinking from a real cup of coffee, he attempts to
recreate the experience starting with the weight, texture, and temperature of an

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imaginary cup of coffee in his hand. He then moves on to the aroma and taste of the
drink.

This is an exercise in sense memory and forces the actor to concentrate on an object
in specific detail. Other concentration exercises include recreation of a personal
moment or animal behavior. The latter is helpful in breaking down inhibitions.

Spontaneity - Realistic characters appear to have a continuous inner life of thought

and emotion beyond the lines of dialogue. This creates the illusion that their actions
are spontaneous. When the actor thinks about what he will do next, it has the opposite
effect of creating a self-conscious, mechanical performance. For behavior to appear
realistic, the actor must draw from emotion rather than intellect. The results are more
natural, and the process is easier because there is no need to contemplate the next
move.

There are many interesting exercises to help actors break conscious thought and
further spontaneity. One such exercise includes back and forth verbal repetitions
between two actors that are intentionally inane to clear their heads. Another exercise
requires the actor to use gibberish in communicating with another actor. Gibberish
serves the dual purpose of forcing one actor to be clear about what he is saying and
the other actor to look for a reason to react, rather than wait for a cue.

One of the best exercises for developing a sense of spontaneity is improvising a

scene. Since there is no script, it helps actors develop a continuous flow of response to
create the illusion of spontaneity.

Timing - Stanislavsky had an experience early in his acting career that taught him a
lesson about timing. He went through a play believing the audience was enthralled
with his performance. In truth, however, he had done a poor job, rushing through the
whole play in a flurry of words and gestures.

The key here is that the actor must work moment to moment. Just as the musician
plays one note at time, so must the actor take each moment at a time. This allows him
to recognize when the mood has shifted and react accordingly. Timing, therefore, is
not consciously planned, but the product of being in the right emotional state.

Preparation

To achieve the right emotional state prior to starting a scene the actor must go through
a process called preparation. The goal of preparation is to enter the scene with the
right type and degree of emotion.

Preparation lasts just long enough to get the actor started. After that, the interaction of
the actors takes over. Ideally, each actor’s preparation is thorough enough to propel
them into realistic behavior.

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In real life, a good or bad experience can effect one's mood and behavior. Preparation
is similar to this, but it is self-induced. The process has been compared to
daydreaming because it transports the actor to another sense of being. It is generally
considered the most difficult part of acting.

Two important techniques used to prepare for a scene are emotional memory and the
creative if:

Emotional Memory - Stanislavsky pioneered the use of emotional memory as a key to

preparation. This is the recollection of a past experience with an emotion similar to that
required by the scene. For example, if the scene requires shame, the actor would
prepare by recalling a situation in his past that resulted in this emotion. The actor
would then begin the scene feeling this way.

Emotional memory has its limitations because some actors don't have the required
experiences to draw from. Also, such experiences can only be used a finite number of
times before loosing their potency. These issues spawned a great deal of debate
resulting in several factions of method acting.

Lee Strasberg, who introduced Stanislavsky’s method to American actors, put great
weight on emotional memory, technically called affective memory. While Strasberg’s
peculiar brand of method acting still maintains a strong following, several of his
contemporaries, lead primarily by Stella Adler, have given rise to a more tempered
approach that is perhaps closer to what Stanislavsky intended.

They contend that the imagination is just as strong as real life recollections, and
consequently, the actor can imagine a situation to create the desired emotion.
Emotional recall is still used, but in conjunction with imagination.

Creative If - Actor's faith is when the actor believes in the reality required by a scene.
It is the bridge between the actor's emotions and the character being created. To
support actor's faith in shaping behavior, Stanislavsky developed a technique called
the "creative if." It works by having the actor behave "as if" a certain truth exists.

For example, if the actor is required to enter a room in a state of paranoia, he can
enter the room as if the room was booby-trapped. This is the mechanism that allows
children to believe in their dolls and action figures. It draws directly upon the
imagination.

An important goal of rehearsal is to repeat the preparation process so that an emotion

becomes near and familiar. This will allow for quick, precise preparation prior to the
start of the scene. If the preparation stops providing the actor with the required
emotion, he will have to change the device used for the preparation. This will revitalize
the emotional response.

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Good preparation has these primary characteristics:

Simple - The goal of preparation is to spark an emotion. The process must be kept
simple, otherwise it will become more intellectual than emotional. Preparation can be a
memory, a fantasy, a song, someone's name, a personal article-- whatever creates the
required emotion in the actor.

Personal - It is the personal, almost secretive nature of preparation that triggers the
actor's emotions. A particular preparatory device can be repeated only as long as it is
effective.

Precise - The emotion generated must match the type of emotion required by the
scene. Actors usually have no problem generating emotions. The problem they face is
in generating the right kind of emotion.

Deep - Although the preparation should be simple, it should not be simplistic. In other
words, the appropriate depth of emotion should be tapped. Acting teachers call this a
full or deep preparation. If the preparation is not deep enough, it will not be effective.

Learning Lines

Before the actor learns lines, he must learn the emotion that drives it. Sanford Meisner
says that dialogue floats on an emotion like a canoe floats on a river. Consequently,
the actor should not attempt to learn lines until the necessary feelings are developed to
support them.

During this process, the actors will explore the outer and inner components of a
character, much like the writer did. The outer component is how the character presents
himself to others. It is usually a façade, since well-written characters have a hidden
inner life, much as real people do. The inner life is who the character really is and what
really drives him.

Actors bring characters to life from the inside out, using the inner thoughts and
emotions. The secret to understanding the inner world of a character is in the subtext
of the scene, which is the deeper significance of words and actions. If a scene is
shallow in terms of subtext, actors are trained to create their own subtext to make it
work.

Learning lines should be an organic process, rather than one of memorizing. Through
a combination of preparation and rehearsal, lines and emotions will become linked.
The words will prompt the emotions and emotions will prompt the words.

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CASTING

The aim of casting is to determine which actors are best suited for the available
roles. The process takes place over a series of callbacks, with each callback
narrowing the field of possibilities.

Ideally, casting sessions are arranged and conducted by a casting director. The
director has final approval and can participate in any or all sessions. On small shoots,
casting is often arranged by the producer or production manager.

It's a good idea to videotape casting session at each level to aid in the decision making
process and determine how the actor looks on screen.

Criteria

Actors can be fabulous in certain roles but not convincing in others. Their scope, as it
is called, is based on a combination of emotional range and physical attributes.

In addition to scope, you will be interested in determining what an actor can bring to
the role. Too often casting is about trying to fit an actor into a preconceived notion of
the character. This can result in lost opportunities and should be avoided. You must
keep an open mind to all the possibilities.

The worst approach is to cast based on physical attributes. While certain physical
characteristics may be desirable, few are real prerequisites. Even age is flexible in
many cases. Once the true physical requirements are met, the quality of the acting
dominates the decision-making.

Cold Reading

The first step in auditioning an actor is usually a cold reading of test dialogue, called
sides. This allows you to glimpse the process by which the actor gives life to a
character and how he/she works with others. The sides should be similar to the role
being cast to allow for quick assessment of the actor's compatibility.

Monologue

When an actor gives an impressive cold reading, it is helpful to try a monologue, which
gives further indication of the actor's emotional range. The monologue is typically
chosen by the actor. Some directors prefer to do the monologue first, which helps
actors warm up for the cold reading. Either way is okay.

First Impressions

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In many instances, an engaging character on screen is created by an actor who is

equally engaging off screen. Though arguable, this is consistent with Stanislavsky’s
theory that great actors draw from within themselves when creating a character. To get
a feel for the actor's personality, you may conduct a brief interview. At the very least,
your first impressions of the actor should be noted for later consideration.

Callbacks and Final Decision

Occasionally an actor stands head and shoulders above the rest and is the clear
choice for the part. Often, however, there will be several finalists who are called back
for additional testing. At this point, it is appropriate to use sides from the actual script
along with some improvisation. This helps to determine how the actor deals with the
role and responds to direction.

Before making a decision, you should bring finalists for each role together to see the
chemistry between different pairings. Final callbacks should include a detailed
interview to get to know the actor more. Try to ascertain the actor's work ethic,
enthusiasm for the script, and ability to work with others.

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REHEARSAL

Rehearsal is often viewed as memorizing a part, but it's much more than that. It is the
process by which the director and actor give life to the character from the text. It is, in
fact, the first stage in directing the actor.

Despite its importance many productions don't schedule formal rehearsals prior to
shooting. Instead, the rehearsals are squeezed in during production. The director is
then put in a position where he must quickly solve performance issues, sometimes
right on the set. To avoid this, a formal rehearsal period should be scheduled during
pre-production. Two weeks is usually sufficient for a feature.

Group Readings

The first step in rehearsal is an initial reading of the script with the newly assembled
cast. They should read straight through the material with little or no direction. The
purpose of the group reading is to get a feel for the actors' initial interpretation of the
characters and to determine if any scenes seem problematic. It also helps the cast get
comfortable with each other.

After the initial reading, a group discussion is useful to get everyone's take on the
story, characters, and themes. Often, actors will shed an amazing amount of light on
characters in unexpected ways. The best directors will recognize this input and use it
within a collaborative framework. Subsequent discussion may be used to identify plot
points and character revelations. Cast discussions insure that everyone is working
towards telling the same story.

After the session, you should encourage each actor to work on developing his/her
character until the next session. They should explore their character's external desire
and inner conflicts. If backstory is not dealt with in the script, the actor may want to
create his own to support the character. Subsequent sessions will concentrate on one
or two key scenes at a time.

Make sure that the cast does not memorize their parts just yet. A prerequisite to
learning the lines is understanding the character, which has not been accomplished
yet. Furthermore, memorizing text results in a focus on words, preventing the actor
from creating the character organically. An underdeveloped or wrong interpretation will
make changes difficult to make later.

Scene Analysis

It's not necessary to rehearse every scene because many will be straightforward.
Intense rehearsal should be reserved for key scenes only, since they encompass

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major plot points and the greatest creative opportunities. Most directors begin with an
analysis of the scene, exploring the following:

Objectives - The director and actor should identify the objectives of the scene within
the story.

Conflict - Key scenes are constructed around escalating conflict. Conflict is based on
what characters really want from each other, which is not always obvious. The key will
be in the subtext of action and dialogue.

Beats - Conflict unfolds in a series of beats. These movements shift the balance of
forces and propel the scene forward. Each beat must be isolated and its purpose
determined. This divides the scene into manageable units of action.

Analyzing a scene in this fashion points the actor in the right direction, yet allows him
freedom to find his own voice. The approach works especially well with method actors
because they tend to get a lot of work done on their own. In subsequent rehearsals,
you and the actor will fine-tune the character's behavior, proceeding on a beat-by-beat
basis, through the entire scene.

It should be noted that actors are taught to cross out wrylies (the parenthetical note
under a character's name) in order to develop their own delivery. You should
encouraged this, since wrylies can thwart natural behavior. Wrylies are only useful
when emotion or action is not clear from the text.

Fine Tuning Character

You should deal only with significant issues during rehearsal, particularly a difference
in interpretation. Also, avoid dictating technique and never demonstrate by acting. The
following tools are useful in developing and shaping a character's behavior:

Key Questions - An effective way to direct actors is to ask them questions about a
character's motivation behind a specific behavior. Asking challenging questions
creates a dialogue between you and the actor. It also guides the actor towards an
interpretation of the character consistent with yours, while forcing you to examine the
character using the actor's insight. Simply reeling off orders does not accomplish this
and may actually be counter-productive because of resentment and missed
opportunities.

"Creative If" - When behavior is not quite on target, you can use the "creative if" to
fine-tune it. As discussed earlier, the creative if requires the actor to behave as if a
certain condition exists, thereby taping into the actor's imagination. For example, you
can tell the actor to "walk as if on hot coals," or "breathe as if you just ran two miles."

Inner Dialogue - In this technique the actor maintains an inner dialogue with himself.
This is what people do in reality, so it gives the character a seemingly continuous life of

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thought and emotion (it also keeps the actor focused). Rather than wait passively for a
cue, the actor thinks as if he were the character. The technique is particularly helpful
when a character is acting alone. Al Pacino used the inner dialogue during his
meditative scenes in the Godfather, Part II.

Improvisation - In the early stages of scene rehearsal, it may be helpful to allow the
actors to improvise the scene. This can provide additional insight into character and
result in a new approach to delivery. You should be cautious about changing the script,
because improvised dialogue tends to be clichéd or too on the nose. Also, such
changes may cause an unexpected chain reaction of additional changes.

Blocking

In later stages of rehearsal, the actor will begin to memorize lines and blocking. Ideally,
this will come naturally from the characters as the scene plays out.

Blocking should be kept rough during rehearsal, since it will be finalized and somewhat
restricted on the set based on camera, lighting, and set practicalities. Inexperienced
actors should be made aware of this or they will have difficulty adjusting. For this
reason, it is helpful to rehearse at the actual location whenever possible.

Videotaping

You may find it helpful to videotape performances for later review. Avoid showing the
tapes (and dailies, for that matter) to the cast and asking opinions about performances.
Actors are usually critical of themselves and consequently cannot make a fair
assessment of their work. They may tweak their performances with unwanted results.

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DIRECTING ACTORS ON THE SET

Once on the set, other dynamics come into play for the director and actor. Lights,
camera, and final blocking all serve to make the experience much different than
rehearsal. For example, actors may be restricted in their movement because of set
obstructions that did not exist during rehearsal. Contributing to this may be newly
added scenes or unresolved story issues. Also, many actors and scenes go
unrehearsed and must be dealt with for the first time on the set. The director must be
prepared to help actors through these difficulties.

Leadership

First and foremost, you must provide a solid sense of leadership. This relieves anxiety
and instills confidence in the cast. Leadership involves good communication, feedback,
and encouragement.

Communication should include relaying the day's schedule, delays, and changes that
may have taken place in script or on the set. One of the worst feelings an actor can
have, is sitting around endlessly, with no clue about what's going on.

Rehearsal techniques such as key questions, the creative if, and inner voice are all
acceptable on the set. Time, however, is no longer a luxury and problems must be
solved quickly. Don't make the direction or feedback complex. Use direct language
when communicating. And remember: work one beat at a time.

Delivery

During rehearsal, scenes are usually tackled in their entirety, but on the set, they are
recorded in small bits of action. Consequently, most shots involve simple, uninflected
action. For example, closing a door or picking up a telephone does not require
complex emoting by the actor. Only a small number of shots will require deep
preparation.

Range of Behavior - As discussed earlier, the actor's delivery should come

organically, as a product of character. Still, there may be several viable alternatives in
behavior. For example, when a character is angry, lines can be hushed, yelled or
clipped. You may determine that one approach is more effective than the others.

Occasionally, your choice of delivery may not be the same as the actor's. In these
situations it's best to keep an open mind to the actor's instincts. You may be pleasantly
surprised with the results. If not, have the actor "try it another way." The actor must be
willing and able to incorporate your suggestions smoothly into his behavior.

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Gestures - Simple gestures can have a powerful effect on the emotion of a scene. For
example, in Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, a quick blink communicates certain
fear prior to the first gunfight.

Such subtleties may not be present in the actor's initial attempt. When suggesting
gestures, be careful not to overstep the bounds of realism. Action and reaction must be
the result genuine emotion, not mechanics. Otherwise, as Stanislavsky warns, it will
appear artificial.

Pauses - Pauses can be just as important as dialogue because of the dramatic

tension they help to create. Pauses (i.e., silence) allows the audience to use their
imagination in determining what a character is feeling. Again, there may be
alternatives. For example, the director may determine that a fervent delivery is more
effective than a pensive one.

Pace - Pace is generally not planned by the actor, but governed by underlying
emotions. The stress of shooting, however, can have a subconscious effect on the
actor, resulting in a rushed or lethargic delivery. One nervous actor can set an
unnatural pace for the others, starting a chain reaction.

You should watch for this phenomenon early in production, when actors are working
with each other or in front of the camera for the first time. For this reason, seasoned
directors prefer to start production with scenes that are not emotional demanding.

Continuity of Performance

Scenes are typically shot out of sequence and then later edited to create the proper
flow. For cuts to appear seamless, emotional intensity, dialogue delivery, and body
movement must be identical from shot to shot and take to take. Also, the timing
relationship between dialogue and physical movement must be consistent. Any
variations can result in matching problems at the desired cutting point.

To illustrate, assume that the editor wants to edit two shots at the point where an actor
stands up. If the first shot has the actor in the middle of a dialogue line and the second
shot has the actor completing the line, the two shots will not match. Keeping
performance consistent avoids this problem. The editor can fix certain mismatches, but
the results may be less than optimal. It is the responsibility of both the director and
actor to insure continuity of performance.

Actor Problems

Though the director has the final word on performance, it is not uncommon for an actor
to resist it. This is usually worked out with some discussion, but there will be times
when differences are not easily resolved. Actor problems can range from innocent fear
to an outright attempt to control the set.

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Fear - An actor who is afraid to modify performance is most likely insecure about
his/her ability or understanding of the character. The best way to handle this is to build
trust through patience and encouragement. Many directors feel a lighthearted
approach works well in these situations.

Control - A controlling actor is more difficult to deal with, since the insecurity goes
much deeper and may involve anger. Such actors try to establish a pecking order and
may challenge both the script and the director. This can be demoralizing to other
members of the cast and, in the worst case, cause them to lose faith in the project.
While building trust is important here as well, the director must set boundaries when
dealing with combative actors. He must be gentle, yet firm.

When faced with actor problems, be open to the fact that you, yourself, may be the
cause of them! Just as the director must respect the contribution of craft department
heads, he must extend this respect to actors. This may seem obvious but it is not
always practiced in the heat of production.

Problems arise in subtle ways and may seem minor to the director but not to the actor.
The cumulative affect can adversely affect morale and possibly performance. You
must be sensitive to the needs of the cast by encouraging open lines of
communication. This feedback develops trust, which does wonders for sustaining high
morale and motivation.

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TEST 4

Please see Test 1 for usage.

1. The director should explain character in general terms and then leave the
actor to his/her own resources. Later, the two will fine-tune the
performance. Why is this the best approach?

2. Does the director or the actor have final say in the interpretation of
character?

3. Why is it important for the director to understand the actor's craft?

4. What are the three schools of thought on acting?

5. Compare classical acting with method acting.

6. What are the criticisms of method acting?

7. Who is Konstantin Stanislavsky?

8. What is truth in acting?

9. Who is Lee Strasburg?

10. What are the key issues addressed in actor training?

11. How are relaxation and concentration related?

12. How can an actor develop a sense of spontaneity?

13. Is timing consciously planned by the actor? Explain.

14. What is the goal of preparation?

15. How long does preparation last?

16. Discuss two techniques used for preparation.

17. Define "emotional memory."

18. What are the characteristics of good preparation?

19. When is it appropriate for an actor to learn lines? Why?

20. What is casting?

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21. What are the steps in casting?

22. Define "callback."

23. What criteria do you use when casting an actor? Be specific.

24. Explain why rehearsal goes beyond memorizing a part.

25. What is the typical rehearsal period for a feature film?

26. What is the first step in rehearsal?

27. Which scenes should you rehearse?

28. How are scenes analyzed during rehearsal?

29. What should actors do with wrylies? Why?

30. What techniques do actors use to shape behavior during rehearsal?

31. Discuss the use of the "creative if."

32. What is inner dialogue and when is it used?

33. What problems can moving to the actual set pose for an actor?

34. What is the director's most important role on the set?

35. Most shots involve simple, uninflected action. Explain.

36. Who is responsible for continuity of performance?

37. What difficulties can actors exhibit?

38. What is usually the root cause of actor difficulty?

39. What are some ways of dealing with problematic actors?

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F. AFFECTING THE
AUDIENCE

A movie will be successful if it can give the audience a stream of emotions. There are
many techniques to accomplish this, spanning all the craft areas. The director must
have an awareness these methods, since they receive critical treatment under his
watch. Many must be planned for in the design of shots. For instance, an editor can
apply a desired cutting approach only if the coverage is available. The lessons in this
section explore the techniques used to keep the audience involved in the movie and
responding in the way that you want them to.

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EXPECTATION

All aesthetic experiences contain expectation and fulfillment (payoff). The expectation
pattern, as it is called, is basic to dramatic structure as well. Specifically, story events
should unfold with a cause and effect logic that create expectation in the audience
about what will happen and fulfillment when the events finally occur. Ideally, the
expectation is just as exciting for the audience as the payoff.

BASIC EXPECTATION PATTERN

Expectation Payoff

Expectation directly affects audience emotions, so it serves the dual purpose of

increasing their involvement and moving the story forward. There are three variations
on the basic pattern-- suspense, surprise, and humor-- which are discussed in the
lessons that follow. Most successful movies use all three to varying degrees. The
following techniques are used to fortify expectation:

In Late / Out Early

Start a scene as late into the action as possible and end it as soon as the objectives
are met.

Make Every Shot Count

Every shot must contain new and relevant information. If a shot does not create or
contribute to a new story beat, it should be eliminated.

Keep the Frame Alive

Keep the frame continually alive with physical or dramatic action important to the story.

Avoid Redundancy

Audiences are quick to understand, so do not repeat story points. Redundancy should
only be used for critical information and conveyed differently each time.

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SUSPENSE

Suspense is the tension the audience feels as they wait for something inevitable to
happen. For example, in The Birds, the heroine sits in the schoolyard smoking a
cigarette, unaware that birds are flocking behind her. The audience knows something
is about to happen, which generates tension.

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The Birds

Suspense follows the basic expectation pattern, except that there is an extra charge of
emotion because the payoff is delayed. It works as follows: the audience is cued that
something is about to happen (creating expectation), there is a delay in the payoff
(creating tension), and finally there is the payoff.

SUSPENSE
Cue Expectation Delay Payoff

Suspense is probably the strongest structural device because of its ability to affect
audiences so deeply. The action does not have to be physical, either. Dramatic action
can be just as powerful. A gripping example is found in The Graduate when Benjamin
tells Elaine that the "other woman" is her mother.

Since suspense is created by the delay, it is sometimes defined as what doesn't

happen. Whole stories have been built around this. For example, in Jaws the shark
rarely appears and in Close Encounters the aliens appear only at the end of the movie.

Alfred Hitchcock built his reputation on the use of suspense, becoming known as "The
Master of Suspense."

The following techniques can be used to create and enhance suspense:

Expand Time

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Since tension occurs while the audience is waiting for something to happen, expanding
time can heighten the effect. Here are some interesting ways to accomplish this:

Slow Camera Movement - Slow camera movement toward or around the subject is a
classic way to expand time for the purpose of suspense. For example, in highly
charged scene, a dolly-in will convey more tension than cutting closer. A classic
application of this is in the opening scene of The Godfather.

Slow camera movement can also be used to cover multiple characters. Instead of a
cut, the camera can move in a slow arc from one character to the other, as in the
planning scene of The Untouchables.

Slow Motion - Another classic way to enhance suspense is with slow motion. This
was used effectively in Taxi Driver. A variation on this is to combine slow motion with a
camera movement toward the subject. The effect is surreal and suspenseful when
done properly. The trick is in the combined speed of the slow motion and camera
movement, so some experimentation may be necessary.

Slow Dissolves - This stylized effect is achieved by connecting a series of related

shots with slow dissolves. An example is found the climax of Taxi Driver. A variation is
to connect progressively closer shots, as in the opening of Citizen Kane.

Repetition - This is an unusually technique where camera or subject movement is

repeated in the next shot. In The Black Cat, the first shot of Boris Karloff is a dolly-in
that is repeated in the next shot. The effect is strange and suspenseful, albeit stylized.

Parallel Action

Parallel action scenes are a great way to boost suspense because the process of
cutting away creates delay. An interesting variation is to use "symbolically" parallel
actions. For example, in The Color Purple, the shaving scene uses images of a razor
blade, Shug running, and an African Ritual. The technique was also used in the
climactic scene of The Godfather when the revenge slayings are intercut with the
christening.

Subjective Camera Angle

A subjective camera angle can be very effective in generating suspense.

The viewpoint can be that of either the victim or aggressor. The effect can be
heightened by distorting the image in a way that reflects how the character sees in
terms of a psychological or physical condition. This was used in the climax scene of
The Silence of the Lambs, where the killer wears night vision goggles.

Lighting

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Unnatural lighting can add to suspense. Examples include, overhead lighting that
makes a character's eyes fall into darkness, highlighted eyes on an otherwise dark
face, and side lighting.

Slow Shutter Effect

A slow shutter effect gives motion a blurred look, resulting in a surreal quality in the
action. It can be subtle or obvious. The effect is created by shooting with a very slow
shutter speed. It can also be created as a special effect in post-production. In recent
years, the slow shutter effect has been used to convey a disturbed character or
environment, such as the battle scenes of Saving Private Ryan.

Sound

A suspended high or low-pitched note can enhance suspense. Synthesizers are

particularly good for this. A variation, is a high pitched note that quickly reduces in pitch
after a few seconds. This creates an eerie effect especially when started on a strange
new shot. For some strange reason distant choral singing can generate suspense, as
well as the sound of distant drums.

Unexplained Close Shots

Raising curiosity in the audience can enhance suspense, particularly when they know
something is about to happen. One approach is to use a series of unexplained close
shots that are eventually explained by a wider establishing shot. Hitchcock regularly
used this technique by showing a character's feet or hands first and then showing the
rest of the character in a wider shot.

Pace

Increasing pace is an old standby for creating tension. In dialogue scenes faster than
normal editing can convey a sense of anticipation or urgency, especially when more
than two actors are involved.

Lack of Information

A great way to build suspense is to keep information from the protagonist while giving
it to the audience. For example, in Sabotage the audience knows that the little boy is
carrying a bomb, but the boy himself is unaware of it.

High Stakes

The protagonist can potentially lose something of great value, like a loved one, or
suffer a dreadful consequence, like an injury, if the outcome goes the wrong way.

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Another Layer of Suspense

This can be achieved by adding a complication that has its own suspense factor. The
results can be excruciating for an audience. For example, in The Untouchables a
woman is having difficulty moving her baby carriage while in the line of fire potential
gunfire. The first layer is the anticipation of gunfire between the principle characters,
while second layer is the anticipation of what might happen to the woman and child.

Twist Before the Payoff

A twist right before the payoff delays the outcome even further and works well to
escalate suspense.

False Payoff

A false payoff followed by the real one gives the audience a double jolt at the end.

Pressure of Time

Adding the pressure of time can boost tension, especially when combined with one or
more of the above techniques. This can take different forms, including a deadline,
timer (as in time bomb) or schedule.

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SURPRISE

Surprise occurs when the payoff is much different than what the audience expected,
so it jolts them. This makes the payoff much more satisfying. For surprise to work,
the payoff must make sense within the established framework of the story. It cannot
be illogical or coincidental.

SURPRISE
Cue Expectation Unexpected Payoff

Against Expectation

Surprise doesn't have to be sudden, as in the classic meaning of the word, just
different than what the audience was expecting. In many instances, going totally
against expectation adds to the surprise. For example, showing something funny
when the audience was expecting something sad.

Classic Approach

The classic way to surprise an audience is by cutting to an unexpected shot. If the

audience was expecting this, a variation is to cut to a second, closer shot. Since the
audience was expecting the first cut but not the second, the effect can be truly
jarring. The second cut must be made just as the audience begins to recognize the
subject, usually within a second.

An unexpected bit of dialogue, reaction or sound can be just as powerful as an

unexpected image. When a sound effect is used in just the right place, it can make
the audience physically jump.

Suspense and Surprise Together

Suspense and surprise are often used in combination with each other to create a
very powerful scene. The combination keeps the audience off-balance and
emotionally involved.

SUSPENSE & SURPRISE IN COMBINATION

Cue Expectation Delay Unexpected Payoff

Timing

Timing is essential for the success of both suspense and surprise. Too much
suspense creates boredom (because the story is not moving fast enough) and too
much surprise creates frustration (because the story is moving too fast).

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Break the Pattern

Though suspense and surprise are often used together, surprise can be used by
itself to break up the suspense/surprise pattern, which may become predictable.

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VIOLENCE

Violence is one of the most powerful ways to generate suspense or surprise in an

audience. The expectation of violence creates suspense, while the act itself creates
surprise if it is sudden or different than expected.

The following techniques can be used when the director prefers not to be overly
graphic. They communicate violence through artistry rather than explicit images.
They can also be used to make an act look more violent than it would normally
appear on screen.

Jump Cut

A jump cut occurs when an edit does not fully match and thus appears to jump. It
conveys brutality through the sheer roughness of the edit. The effect can be created
by simply cutting out a few frames of the action or by cutting two mismatched shots
together.

Cut on Impact

A violent act can be underscored by cutting to a closer shot at the point of impact.
For example, cutting closer as a gunshot slams home emphasizes the brutality of
the act. A variation is to cut progressively closer using three or more shots. This
approach can be used if there are multiple impacts in the action that provide a
rhythmic beat for the cuts, as with an axe or bat.

Cut on Speed Change

In this technique, the cut is made on impact, but the action in the second shot is
sped up to convey the force of the impact. This works particularly well when the
character is shot. The technique was used at the end of Scorsese’s Boxcar Bertha.
A variation is to cut to a slow speed shot. While this may be more graphic, it is less
forceful.

Cut on Subject Change

Another way to rattle the audience is to cut to a different but related image at the
point of impact. For example, cutting from the swing of an axe to a character being
slapped. Though the shots have similar compositional elements, the cut is jarring
because the differences are too great to make them truly match.

Sudden Freeze Frame

In the sudden freeze frame, the action is frozen for 3 - 4 frames then abruptly starts
again. Violence is conveyed through the suddenness of the action resuming. The

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freeze frame imparts the deliberateness of the act. The second shot can be a jump
cut or impact cut. This technique was used in the Thief.

Subjective Shot

The brutality of a violent blow can be conveyed using a two shot sequence where
the first shot is a subjective shot of the approaching weapon and the second shot
shows the character being hit. Sound will add to the effect when a blunt object is
involved. The technique can also be used when a character crashes into something.

Mood Dissolve

A horrific act can be driven home by using a long dissolve right after the crescendo
of the violence. A slowly moving camera will add to the effect. Use of a mood
dissolve is found after the shower scene in Psycho and after the massacre scene in
Taxi Driver.

Distort the Image

Distorting the image can help convey the brutality of an act. For example, Strangers
on a Train shows a murder through the reflection in eyeglasses. It is played in real
time, with no fancy cuts; yet it is quite shocking because the audience was not
expecting the act to be presented this way.

The editing techniques discussed above are more fully explored in our online
Editing course.

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HUMOR

Humor has elements of both suspense and surprise. Instead of tension or shock,
however, humor evokes laughter because one or more of the elements are
distorted. Humor can be as short as a reaction shot or as long as sequence; it can
be verbal or physical.

In classic comedy, delay is a key element. Gags are structure using the comic
build, where there are two builds and a punch line. The punch line (i.e., payoff)
should fit in an unlikely way making sense under the established logic. Sometimes
there is a second punch line called a topper.

CLASSIC COMEDY ROUTINE

Cue Expectation Build #1 Build #2 Punch Line Topper

After a funny bit, time is needed for the audience to recompose, otherwise they will
miss the next bit. This requires a keen sense of timing, making comedy writing very
difficult, as most writers will attest!

Variations

Humor mirrors human absurdities. It shows our weaknesses in a way that arouses
laughter rather than anger. It can be evoked through:

• Behavior - misconduct, foolhardiness, insults

• Reactions - embarrassment, surprise, deflation of the

pretentious

• Misunderstandings and Mistaken Identity

• Over and Under Exaggeration

• Reversal of Behavior

• Running Gags, Visuals or Key Words

• Satire and Irony

• Word Play - innuendo, allusion, double entendre, malapropisms

• Odd Situations

Degree

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The amount of humor in a movie will be determined by whether it is straight

comedy, dramatic or serio-comic. Even serious pieces should have some level of
humor, if only to relieve tension. In serio-comic movies, the drama seems more
serious because it is contrasted with humor.

Effectiveness

Humor is most effective when the audience is unaware that it is being used as a
storytelling device. This is accomplished by having the humor come from character,
rather than gratuitously. The humor will then seem to flow natural out of the action of
the scene.

Appeal

Humor must have universal appeal so that it is easily understood by as much of the
audience as possible. Focused humor is like an inside joke and should be avoided
unless there is a good reason for it.

Tension Relief

Tension relief is a special use of humor. During highly dramatic scenes, the
audience may unintentionally laugh to release tension, thereby, spoiling the flow of
action. This problem can be avoided by placing a slight, appropriate comic touch
after intense or embarrassing scenes. It allows the audience to laugh and drain
away built up tension without breaking their involvement.

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DYNAMIC DIALOGUE SCENES

Contemporary movies rely heavily on dialogue, but it is a visual medium first and
foremost. Consequently, you should strive to make the dialogue simple and the
visuals complex. Sometimes dialogue heavy scenes are unavoidable, especially in
certain genres like mysteries. In such cases, balance the dialogue with interesting
visuals. The least desirable way to direct dialogue scenes is to use the classic
"talking heads" shot structure: two shot--over the shoulder shot--close shot:

Two Shot

Over the Shoulder Shots

Close Shots

This structure can be avoided by using interesting compositions and by using

recomposition through camera and actor movement. In other words, the key to
dynamic dialogue scenes is to keep the frame visually alive. The following
techniques are used to accomplish this:

Business

In real life, people don't look at each idly while they talk. They are usually in motion,
unless of course, they are in a constricted space. Cinematically, this realism is
achieved by having the camera move along with characters as they go about their
business. The camera movement need not be time consuming dolly shots: panning
and handheld moves work just as nicely. The movement of the camera and actors,
not only adds to realism but energizes the frame as well.

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Characters go about their business

Stop and Go

Another technique, which is really a variation on the above approach, is to have one
actor moving through the frame in a stop-and-go fashion as the conversation
progresses. This can be very interesting visually. The movement can be as casual
as looking at photographs on a wall or as frantic as picking up after an out of control
toddler. The director should choose the movement that is right for conveying the
emotion of the scene. In some cases, both actors can be in motion. This was used
in the record shop scene in Hannah and Her Sisters:

Characters with stop and go movement

In and Out of Frame

In this approach actors move in and out of the frame as the scene progresses. This
creates a visually dynamic scene and teases the audience's curiosity about the
outcome of the action.

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Alicia and Delvin enter frame, men leave,

woman enters, Delvin and woman leave

An extreme example of this approach is Woody Allen's famous empty screen,

where all the actors are briefly out of the frame. It appears to violate the rule of
keeping the frame alive with motion. In truth, however, the frame is very much alive
in the audience's minds since they are burning with curiosity, waiting for the actors
to return.

Alvy exits, empty frame, Annie enters

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STATIC DIALOGUE SCENES

Although dynamic dialogue scenes are the ideal, static dialogue scene will be
required on occasion because of constrictions in action or space. To avoid talking
heads syndrome, it is helpful to know what variables can be manipulated when
setting up dialogue scenes with little or no movement. The goal is to making the
scene as visually interesting as possible.

Relative Position

In two-character dialogue scenes there are five basic positions that the characters
can assume in relation to each other:

Face to Face -This is the classic dialogue position for two characters, but it's also
the hallmark of a talking heads scene. The first step toward creating a more
dynamic dialogue exchange is to avoid this positioning whenever possible.

Back to Back - As the name implies, back to back positioning is used when
characters are looking away from each other. This is usually caused by conflict or
when both characters are busy doing something.

Side by Side - This is usually forced by the situation, for example, riding in a car or
in sitting in movie theater.

Face to Back - In this positioning, one character faces ther other's back. This can
be the result of conflict or a forced situation, like being in line at a supermarket or
riding on a motorcycle.

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Face to Side - Here, one character faces the other's side. It is used when one
character is occupied, distracted or avoiding the other. It's also common approach
for bed shots.

Visual Plane

Positioning characters on the same visual plane relative to the camera, results in a
flat and uninteresting composition. This is compounded by the fact that both
characters are in profile.

An alternate approach is position characters on different planes to take advantage

of the set's depth. This results in a more visually interesting image, since each
character is shown in a different size and/or angle.

Using different visual planes includes deep focus shots, where one character is in
full shot and the other is in medium, and frame within a frame shots, where the
subject is framed by a foreground character or object.

Posture

Varying the posture of each character can further enhance the visual appeal of the
composition. Characters can be standing, sitting, kneeling or reclining.

It is often interesting to have characters in different positions. A classic example is

the famous shot in the graduate where Mrs. Robinson is reclining and Benjamin is
standing uncomfortably, as seen over her bare legs.

Other Approaches

Here are additional methods to create visually interesting dialogue scene:

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Create an Interesting Background - A background with activity gives the audience

something to watch as they listen to dialogue.

Fill the Frame with a Face - Filling the frame with a face or close shot can be quite
interesting when used sparingly. There will be plenty of movement in the shot since
the subject is so close.

Use Dramatic Compositions - A dramatic composition can create visual interest

during a static dialogue scene. Manhattan is loaded with such images including the
famous Brooklyn Bridge shot. This technique works best with wide shots but can be
applied to closer images as well.

Use vertical Positioning - Characters do not have to be on the same horizontal

plane. For variety, they can be positioned vertically, where one is looking up and the
other is looking down.

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GROUP DIALOGUE SCENES

Group dialogue scenes offer opportunity for great visual variety because each actor
can be situated differently in terms of angle, plane, and posture. In addition, shots
can encompass different groupings of characters. There is the added challenge of
keeping eye lines clear to the audience, so group scenes must be carefully planned.

The Dominant Character

The key to setting up group dialogue shots is the dominant member of the group.
This character helps moderate dialogue by shifting attention to and from the other
characters. The dominant is situated either in the center or at the edge of the
group.

Dominant Character at Edge

Sometimes the dominant member of the group is not clear so the scene must be
analyzed to determine who it is. If there are two strong characters, they should be
separated, to balance the composition.

Master Shots

The use of geometrical shapes is very helpful in positioning characters in group

master shots. For example, in a three-character scene, the actors can be positioned
in a triangular manner, with each actor occupying the corner of an imaginary
triangle. This lends itself nicely to reverse angle coverage:

Triangle

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Triangle - Reverse Angle

Other geometrical shapes can used, including the rectangle, oval, and straight line.
When actors are positioned in a line, it is desirable to run the line diagonally to
create the illusion depth, rather than horizontally, which has a decidedly flat look.

Rectangle

Oval

Line

Cutting Closer

After the scene is established it is usually desirable to cut closer, which serves to
create more variety. In designing closer shots shots, it's helpful to think of the
dialogue as unfolding in zones within the groups. The group is then divided based
on these zones. There are three basic possibilities:

Create Subgroups - Divide the group into subgroups and cut back and forth
between the subgroups. For example if there are six actors, they can be divided into
groups of three.

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Identify a Leader - Cut from one actor to the rest of the group. This approach is
useful when one actor is addressing or dominating the group.

Individual Coverage - Cut back and forth between the individual actors. This is
used when only a few actors are dominating the dialogue. Reaction shots of the
other actors are intercut where appropriate.

Movement

To avoid talking heads syndrome in group dialogue scenes, character and/or

camera movement can be used to recompose the frame. With so many characters,

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however, the movement must be choreographed for smooth action. This can result
in a stagy look if handled incorrectly.

The best approach is to keep movement simple in each shot. For example, a single
character can walk around the group, or the camera can move around the group as
a whole. The movement can still be sweeping and dynamic, but in a streamlined
way. This approach was used in the party scene of Notorious:

Camera & Actor Movement (continuous shot)

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TRICKS OF THE TRADE

This lesson covers some interesting tricks of the trade that directors use to convey
or support the underlying emotion of the scene to the audience:

Arduousness

Arduousness can be conveyed by having the subject approach the camera using an
extreme telephoto lens. This type of lens compresses the foreground and
background so that the subject appears to make very slow progress.

Beauty, Romance

Rather than use cuts to construct the scene, use one or more mood dissolves.

Danger

To convince the audience of imminent danger, demonstrate it. For example, have
the villain use his weapon on something before giving chase with it. Jack does this
rather convincingly in The Shinning.

Eeriness

The sound of distant explosions, drums or choral effects have an inexplicably eerie
impact on audiences. An example is in True Confessions when the detective finds
the bloody crime scene.

Emphasis

A character's attributes can be emphasized through contrast and similarity.

Contrast tends to be the stronger of the two techniques, making the point faster and
with more impact.

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Both approaches were used in Titanic, where the heroine's wealth is conveyed to
the audience by showing her upscale surroundings in some scenes (similarity) and
by making comparisons with third class conditions in other scenes (contrast).

Guilt

The pressure of conflict sometimes causes characters to commit an act that they
would never do otherwise. When character identification is strong, the audience will
approve of the act but feel guilty later. Alfred Hitchcock was known for manipulating
the audience like this in such movies as Lifeboat, where the main characters kill a
Nazi spy rather than take him prisoner.

Transcendental Moment

A transcendental moment is a moment of intense emotion for both the characters

and audience. This is the classic tearjerker scene. It involves characters that are
opposed in some way, where one performs a heroic act that brings everyone
together.

The key to this type of scene is not only in how the primary character acts, but also
in the reaction of the supporting character, especially if he/she is trying to be strong
or fighting off tears. For a classic example, see the tearjerker scene at the end of
Brian's Song (if you dare!).

Motif

A motif is a recurring idea conveyed either visually or aurally. Motifs can be used to
support or recall a character, situation or theme throughout the movie.

The are many types of visual motifs, including the use of camera angle, color, and
composition. The classic aural motif is a musical theme. In Dr. Zhivago, a haunting
melody was used when the protagonist reflected on his happy past .

Passage of Time

Showing the Passage of time in a relatively confined location can be visually

boring. One way around this is to show a series of dissolves where the camera
angle is constantly changing. This will keep the frame visually interesting and
convey the passage of time to boot.

The technique was used in Shadow of a Doubt to show the heroine trying to locate
a detective by phone. Avoid dissolves focusing on a single object like a candle
burning down or clock face. This is an old and tired cliché.

Troubled Character

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There are many techniques to communicate a character's troubled state of mind:

Slow Shutter Effect - As mentioned earlier, a slow camera shutter gives motion a
blurred look, resulting in a surreal quality in the action. This can be used to convey a
disturbed character or environment. The effect was used during the battle scenes in
Saving Private Ryan.

Partial Frame Dissolve - In a partial frame dissolve, one or more elements in the
frame dissolve. The results can be bizarre and used to convey emotional unrest.
There are several variations: the subject can dissolve in or out of the frame, the
subject can dissolve to another part of the frame, the subject can dissolve into a
different image size.

In the last variation, the camera will appear to move toward or away from the
subject with a surreal quality. These effects are created by shooting two slightly
different compositions and overlapping them in post-production with long dissolves.
A simpler approach is to cut up a single shot and rejoined it with dissolves. This
results in a strange sluggishness to the movement.

Dolly with Shifting Focus - Shifting focus in and out to show a character's mental
state is clichéd. An alternate approach is to have the camera move toward the
character with the image going slightly in and out of focus. The camera movement
adds another dimension and the overall effect is great, albeit stylized. Technically, it
is accomplished by delaying the proper focus as the camera moves closer. A nice
example is in Olivier's Hamlet.

Oblique Camera Angle - An oblique angle is when the image appears tilted in the
frame. The screened image appears unnatural to the eye, so it can be used to
convey a character's bizarre environment or mental state.

Photography - Hue, contrasting colors, and texture can be used to subtly convey a
character's mental state. For example, a color scheme (or tinting) using cool hues
can communicate aloofness.

Talking Heads and Such

Documentaries are prone to the same ills in shot design as narratives. Specifically,
talking head syndrome (in interview scenes) and stagnant shots (when using still
photographs). The solutions are similar, as well:

• Visualize the scene differently than you are normally inclined to

and then design the shots accordingly.
• Keep the frame alive with movement and new information.

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When showing a series of still photographs, movement can be created by slowly

zooming on or panning the photograph. It is amazing how long a photograph can be
maintained on screen using this technique.

Long interviews from one camera angle can be dreadfully boring. This is solved by
intercutting shots that support or counterpoint the dialogue. In the absence of such
footage, directors have gone so far as to simply cut out insignificant or redundant
dialogue using jump cuts or dissolves.

Like narratives, the ultimate goal is to move an audience through a compelling

story. In the case of documentaries, the story happens to be real, but it should still
have a discernable structure with a beginning, middle, and end.

Documentaries are discussed in detail in the next section.

Cinema Vérité

Cinema Vérité is a school of thought in documentary filmmaking with

specific goals. Some filmmakers also use the term to mean a style
reminiscent of Cinema Vérité.

For example, the director of a narrative film may want a "Cinema Vérité
look." What this means is following the subject with a handheld camera,
possibly unscripted.

Special Effects

There are several websites that specialize in creating inexpensive

special effects. Using input from aspiring filmmakers, Indy Mogul makes
short humorous videos showing how to create everything from fake rain
to severed body parts. Aetuts+ deals with postproduction effects,
showing how to create inexpensive computer generated imagery (CGI).
The tutorials are uploaded by members.

Many special effects can be created inexpensively using simple

cinematography and editing. Poor man's techniques, as they are
called, create the illusion of an elaborate action or location by implying
it. Using just the right image and sound, the audience will imagine what
is happening beyond the edge of the frame.

Poor man's techniques can be used to create such effects as moving

cars, crowds, crashes, explosions, dismemberment, etc. This must be
anticipated during production so that the appropriate shots and sounds
can be recorded. In addition, the editor can secure many establishing
shots, sound effects, and atmospheric music through stock libraries.

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Poor man's techniques are discussed in our online Producing course.

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