Impacts of Climate Change on Biodiversity and

Ecosystem Services: Direction for Future Research

Utsab Bhattarai

Abstract: The potential adverse effects of climate change have posed serious threat to all species of the planet
in many ways. Species’ functional characteristics strongly influence ecosystem properties. Although significant
numbers of studies have already explored the interrelationship between biodiversity, ecosystem services and
climate change more focused studies have now begun to appear with the goal of investigating and analysing
the negative consequences of climate change on life support systems. This review paper discusses the impacts
of climate change on biodiversity and redirects how these losses of biological species on earth have affected
and will continue to have effects on the delivery chain of ecosystem services. Concluding section of this paper
spotlights on possible mitigation and adaptation plan of actions which contributes in minimizing climate change
induced risks while supporting biodiversity and thus the entire ecosystem services. The timeliness of this review
is evident because the concerns regarding the potential impacts of global climate change on species and
ecosystem services are widely and seriously recognized as major threat of our time.
Keywords: Adaptation, biodiversity, climate change, ecosystem, freshwater, marine, mitigation, terrestrial

Introduction

G lobal climate change has attracted much

scientific and public attention in recent years.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Rodríguez, 2011). One of the widely accepted definitions
of biodiversity is the one that is put forward by the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
defines climate change as one of the most important which states that “biodiversity is the variability among
factors affecting disaster risk (IPCC, 2013). The United living organisms from all sources including terrestrial,
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological
(UNFCCC) defines Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) as complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity
the needed modifications in response to the changes in within species, between species and of ecosystems”
social-ecological and economic systems in relation with (IUCN, 2010). Biodiversity is affected by climate change
climate change (UNFCCC, 1992). Meanwhile, the United at different levels from low land to high mountains
Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction and from small rivers to deep seas. Some species have
(UNISDR) defines Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) as become extinct while others are endangered. Extinctions
the reduction of disaster risk through causal analysis can disrupt fundamental ecological processes (Sodhi et
and management primarily through the cutback of al., 2011). In the case of mountain environments, the
exposure and vulnerability to prevent disaster (UNISDR, effects of climate change can be observed through snow
2005). Changing climate is due to unprecedented cover loss, receding glaciers, melting permafrost and
industrializations and economic activities that results more extreme events such as avalanches and landslides
in the release of Green House Gases (GHGs) into the (Nepal, 2013). Similarly, the loss of biodiversity is one
atmosphere (WWF, 2010; IPCC, 2007). Subsequently, of the most significant aspects of global environmental
this leads to the rise of earth’s temperature due to the change, given the extent to which it underpins the global
radioactive properties of GHGs (Lama & Devkota, economy and human welfare (Martens & Rotmans,
2009). As mentioned in the Intergovernmental Panel 2005). Although threatened and endangered species at
on Climate Change (IPCC) report, global warming is vulnerable locations such as in polar region and high
expected to continue with an increase of 5.8ºC by 2100 in mountains have uncertain life or existence, they play
comparison to 1.4 ºC of 1990 (IPCC, 2007). As a result of major role in controlling and functioning the ecosystems.
increasing temperatures, the changing climate may have Plentiful of studies are available over these issues in
a wide range of effects on environmental resources and scientific and climate change literature. Biodiversity
biodiversity habitats (Lama & Devkota, 2009). Rapidly plays a significant role at all levels of ecosystem service
increasing warming trend over the last few decades has hierarchy. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
already shown visible and generally adverse impacts on (MEA) has defined four types of ecosystem services
key resources such as land, animal and water (Danovaro, (provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting) that
Dell’Anno, & Pusceddu, 2004). Global warming has are provided by the ecosystem functioning (Mace, Norris,
already altered seasonal climatic pattern (Nepal, 2013), & Fitter, 2012). At the global level, the MEA documented
retreated glacier and permafrost and also caused that over 60% of ecosystem services were deteriorating or
rangeland shifts of wildlife at higher altitudes (Mace, already overused (Mooney et al., 2009), and it has been
Norris, & Fitter, 2012). argued that this situation is being further worsened by
the impact of increasing climate change in recent years.
“Biodiversity” is a broad terminology (Moreno & Recent climate change has also triggered immigration

HYDRO NEPAL | ISSUE NO. 20 | JANUARY 2017 41

and extinction processes of biodiversity across the globe. (Diaz et al., 2005). To understand the complexity
Current climate projections indicate that more ecological of these interactions is very important even in the
change will occur in the coming decades (IPCC, 2013). context of modest ecosystem services; however, it is not
Species behaviors are altering and disrupting at an possible to make prediction over how these processes
excessive rate which we have already seen in the past and interactions transform under changing climatic
situations (Mace, Norris, & Fitter, 2012).
and this process is continuing at present and may remain
in the future. Human driven habitat reduction and Not only all types of ecosystem services are critically
fragmentation have been occurring for millennia, leading affected due to biodiversity loss as the result of climatic
to reduced local biodiversity and extinctions in many changes but continued disruptions over ecosystem
areas (Dawson et al., 2011). The impact of humans on succession are also foreseen to be severe in the future.
biotic systems on the earth has dramatically accelerated
in recent decades. Loss of animal and plant species has a Impact of Climate Change on Systems Level
direct impact on the functioning of ecosystems, and hence Based on the reviews of relevant articles on climate
to their ecosystem service delivery capacity (Mooney change, biodiversity and ecosystem services, this section
et al., 2009). Therefore, the relationship between the discusses the impacts of climate change on biotic species
biodiversity and ecosystem services is closely associated. on terrestrial, marine and freshwater systems and
correspond their adaptive responses. Climate variability
The first half of this paper discusses the bio hysical and change have significant effects on the marine,
terrestrial, and freshwater systems. As climate continues
impacts of climate change on biodiversity and the earth’s
to change, there seems a consequence for biodiversity
ecosystems in an integrated way. The second half of the
shifts. These resulting effects bring changes on the range
paper provides an account of adaptation approaches and distribution pattern of many species such as, their
in support of biological species at present and future. availability, accessibility, and quality of resources upon
Towards the end, closing paragraphs suggest for future which human populations depend (Xu et al., 2009).
research need regarding the inter-linkages between This will have implications for the protection and
climate change, biodiversity and ecosystem services. management of wildlife, fish, and fisheries resources;
Explanatory examples are employed and references are protected areas; and forests. The migration of species
cited to support arguments and discussions throughout due to disruption and competition from predatory
this paper. species is already occurring and is predicted to continue
to affect marine, terrestrial, and freshwater communities
(Wernberg et al., 2011). The populations of iconic wildlife
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
species, such as the polar bear (ursus maritimus), ringed
There has been substantial debate over both the form
seals (pusa hispida), great white shark (carcharodon
of the relationship between species richness and
carcharias) and blue whale (balaenoptera musculus) will
ecosystem processes and the mechanisms underlying
continue to diminish and then disappear as a result of
these relationships (Chapin et al., 2000). Biodiversity
lack in resources they depend on and the critical changes
provides numerous ecosystem services that are crucial
being observed in sea-ice habitat interactions (Harley
to human well-being (Diaz, 2006). Ecosystem services
et al., 2006). The impacts of human-induced climate
are the benefits provided by ecosystems to humans that
change are already being seen from Polar Regions to the
contribute to sustaining life and its quality. The effect
urban environment, and communities around the world
of biodiversity on ecosystem services can be direct. For
(Wernberg et al., 2011).
example, humans derive most of their essential foods
and fibers from animals and plants, but this should
be harvested on the farms not within the natural A warming climate threatens mountain snowpack,
ecosystems. Ecosystems can also play a central role fresh water supplies and hydropower that serve millions
within the tourism industry, which can be understood as of people. Changes in climate and precipitation patterns
one of the cultural services that the ecosystem provides. will impact agriculture and food security. Populations
In addition, biodiversity can affect the provision of that are already vulnerable in terms of sea level rise
ecosystem services indirectly, through its influence on and food security are poised for the greatest hardships.
ecosystem processes that are essential to Earth’s life Human infrastructure is threatened by a changing
support systems (Dawson et al., 2011). By affecting the climate, such as encroachment of coastlines, stress to the
magnitude, pace, and temporal continuity, biodiversity
energy grid, and shifting structures as a result of melting
influences the provision of regulating ecosystem services.
permafrost (Parry, 2007).
For example, due to the facilitation of ecosystems the
pollination and seed dispersal of useful plants, control
of agricultural pests and diseases, parameter of climatic Impact of Climate Change on Terrestrial Systems
conditions appropriate to humans, and the regulation Earth’s terrestrial systems have been extensively altered
of human health by which energy and materials are by human activity and climate change. According to a
circulated are possible (Chapin et al., 2000). Also, by report by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, nearly
affecting nutrient and water cycling, soil formation and 75% of the Mediterranean and temperate forests have
fertility, biodiversity indirectly supports the production been adapted by human activity whereas five out of
of food, fiber, potable water, shelter, and medicines thirteen biomes analysed showed 50% conversion on an
average among all (Mooney et al., 2009). Climate change

42 HYDRO NEPAL | ISSUE NO. 20 | JANUARY 2017

may increase drought and the vulnerability of forests to irreversible ecological transformation (Hoegh-Guldberg
fire. Tropical forest die back could give rise to a positive & Bruno, 2010).
feedback in the carbon cycle through forest-climate
interactions, but currently the magnitude remains Although there is considerable uncertainty about the
uncertain. It is predicted that in the future there will be spatial and temporal details, climate change is clear and
more conversion in tropical and semi tropical forests
fundamentally altering ocean ecosystems (Harley et al.,
and grasslands which carries an abundant number of
2006). Marine ecosystems have been severely affected
biodiversity that are significant for water regulation,
carbon sequestration, food and timber, and many other due to global warming; it has caused habitat destruction
ecosystem services (Harley et al., 2006). Tundra and and introduced invasive plant and animal species,
boreal forests which are not suitable for agriculture and warming, acidification, toxins and massive runoff
therefore not utilized by humans have now been affected nutrients in water (Mooney et al., 2009). Several studies
by climate change. During the period of 30 years spring cited in this paper have shown that the population of
leaf unfolding and fruit ripening patterns changed from marine species is sharply declining just in last twenty
by 2.5 and 2.4 days per decade respectively (Mooney et years. A study conducted by Jackson (2008) in coastal
al., 2009). The population of land mammals and bird estuaries revealed that 80% of the largest vertebrates
species are also decreasing due to changing climate and such as shark and blue whale, 90% of oysters, 65% of sea
environment. About 150 species of birds have been lost grass and 67% of wetlands were lost due to the change
in the last 500 years, and at present one in eight species
in climatic variations and weather patterns. Similarly,
are threatened with global extinction (Mooney et al.,
another study conducted by Polovina and colleagues
2009). Migration patterns of songbirds are also found to
be changing over time. In a study conducted by Buskirk, (2008) showed that the oligotrophic waters of the ocean
Mulvihill, & Leberman (2009), over an examination expanded by 6.6 million km² in the last 20 years, due to
period of 46 years, 78 species of birds were studied global warming.
where the spring migration was found to be earlier yet
the autumn migration seemed unaffected. The term ‘benthic’ refers to anything associated with
or occurring on the bottom of a body of water (Bertness,
Several species of plants, birds and animals have 1999). The animals and plants that live on or in the
responded to climate change in different manners, some bottom are known as the benthos. Benthic systems are
do cope better with changes than others due to their important service providers and players to the photic
ecology and evolutionary characteristics (Dawson et al., zone and climate regulation (Danovaro et al., 2008).
2011). Lowland species are found to be increasing their The photic zone is the surface layer of a body of water.
elevation distribution whereas high elevation species It has enough light for organisms to photosynthesize.
are adopting restructuring community relationships In the ocean, around 90% of the life can be found
(Woodward, Perkins, & Brown, 2010). Terrestrial species in this zone. However, due to the negative effects of
with good dispersal abilities and wide thermal tolerances climate change on marine systems, the principal ocean
are able to shift their distributions but we have seen that derived ecosystem services used by humans such as
the iconic species are being vulnerable because of habitat tourism, fisheries, nursery habitats are all compromised
fragmentation and adverse climatic situation (Mooney et (Mooney et al., 2009). The most influential impact of
al., 2009). Similarly, global climate change has profound climate change on the world’s oceans are on habitat-
implications for marine ecosystems as well (Harley et al., forming species such as corals, sea grass, mangroves,
2006). salt marsh grasses, and oysters where these organisms
form the habitat for thousands of other species in marine
Impact of Climate Change on Marine Systems ecosystems (Harley et al., 2006). For example, Mega bats
Marine ecosystems are of huge importance to the (Pteropodidae), which roost in mangroves during the
biology of the planet because they are among the largest day and fly out at night to forage in surrounding forests.
of earth’s aquatic ecosystems and play significant role Similarly, mangroves also provide night- time roosts for
for the overall health of both marine and terrestrial Pied Imperial Pigeons (Ducula spilorrhoa) that fly to
environments (Townsend et al., 2003). Also, marine coastal rainforests during the day to feed (Epstein et al.,
ecosystems usually have a large biodiversity and are 2009). Coral reef ecosystems are declining because of
therefore thought to have a good resistance against
anomalously warm sea temperatures, which are driving
invasive species. The changing climate however is having
an increased frequency of coral bleaching and mortality.
a major adverse impact on marine ecosystems (Brierley &
Kingsford, 2009). Given their global importance, coastal Mass coral bleaching and mortality are results of
marine environments are a major focus of concern increasing temperatures that have reduced the richness
regarding the potential impacts of anthropogenic and density of coral reef fishes and other organisms.
climate change (Wernberg et al., 2011). Current studies These impacts are combined with local impacts such
have widely discussed that rapidly escalated greenhouse as habitat destruction and food scarcity, in addition to
gases concentration at present are driving ocean systems the slowing of reef accretion due to the impact of ocean
toward the conditions not seen for millions of years in acidification. Complex coral-dominated reef ecosystems
the past, with an associated risk of fundamental and are likely to be declined by 2050 (Baker et al., 2008).

HYDRO NEPAL | ISSUE NO. 20 | JANUARY 2017 43

 Mangroves, sea grass, and salt marsh communities ecosystem services. Palmer et al. (2009) mention that
also face escalating threats from both local and global half of the world’s wetlands have been altered (Nilsson et
stresses. Although worldwide mangrove deforestation al., 2005). Over 45,000 dams have been created globally
is occurring at (1 to 2% per year), the risk to mangroves including half of the largest river systems of the world.
from rising sea levels are increasing. It is expected that This has resulted in the modification and loss of flow
there will have been a reduction of between 10 to 20% regime, fish biota and several other freshwater species
of mangrove forests by 2100 (Danovaro et al., 2008). in the rivers. Construction of dams has disrupted the
Impacts on mangrove habitats vary with location and in ecological diversity and function of river systems. It
many areas they can adapt to rising sea levels by landward has also altered the level of sediment flux and thermal
migration. However, these shifts threaten other coastal regimes, among other important physical factors driving
habitats such as salt marshes, which play important ecosystems functioning also suggest that modification of
biochemical and ecological roles (Satyanarayana et al., flow regimes has resulted in biotic homogenization of the
2013). Coral reefs and kelp forests play a significant role fish biota of the world (Poff et al., 2007). This has been
in structuring the biodiversity of polar oceans, but due stimulated by the introduction of fish species favored by
to the effects of global warming, the functional role of the thermal and flow conditions induced by dams.
marine ecosystems to keep water animals in natural
setting is diminishing over time and has been weakened Many of the development schemes throughout river
severely. Also, there is a great implication of marine water courses have led to the drastic losses and damages
ecosystem services to human beings. Mooney et al. in the population of freshwater species and riparian
(2009) mark that over 100 million people in six South zones (Moore & Palmer, 2005). The causes of threats to
East Asian countries, known as “Coral Triangle” would global freshwater biodiversity can be viewed in terms of
face problem of food uncertainty due to sea level rise, over exploitation (primarily affecting vertebrates, e.g.
loss of coral reefs and calcification. fish, reptiles and some amphibians), water pollution,
flow modification, destruction or degradation of habitat,
and invasion by exotic species and these causes in the
Impacts of Climate Change on Freshwater declination of freshwater biodiversity from microbes
Systems to mega fauna (Dudgeon et al., 2006). Environmental
Freshwater ecosystems may well be the most endangered changes occurring on a global scale, such as nitrogen
ecosystems in the world. They are biologically rich and deposition, warming, shifts in precipitation and runoff
play major roles in providing ecosystem services to a patterns are all major threats to freshwater systems
greater magnitude (Mooney et al., 2009). Freshwaters (Woodward, Perkin, & Brown, 2010).
are principally vulnerable to climate change because
many species within these fragmented habitats have
limited abilities to disperse as the environment Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation
changes, water temperature and availability are climate- There are two main strategies for tackling the issue
dependent, and many systems are already exposed to of climate change on biodiversity: 1) mitigation of
various anthropogenic stressors such as contaminants greenhouse gases, and 2) adaptation to impacts. More
and pollutants and noises (Woodward, Perkins, & Brown, importantly, climate change adaptation is an emerging
2010). Freshwaters systems are relatively isolated field of research that focuses on preparing for, coping
and physically fragmented within a largely terrestrial with, and responding to the impacts of current and future
landscape. They are also heavily exploited by humans for climate change (Stein et al., 2013). Human-induced
the provision of goods and services. Studies researching alteration of the global environment has triggered and
organisms within the freshwater realm suggest that caused widespread changes in the global distribution of
freshwater biodiversity is highly susceptible to climate organisms. These changes in biodiversity alter ecosystem
change. Extinction rates and extirpations of freshwater processes and change the resilience of ecosystems to
species either match or exceed those suggested for better- environmental change. This has profound consequences
known terrestrial taxa (Heino, Virakkala, & Toivonen., for services that humans derive from ecosystems
2009). The degree of alteration of river and lake systems (Chapin et al., 1998). Mitigation is the anthropogenic
by human is clear. Humans have been exploiting intervention to shrink the sources or enhance the sinks
freshwater systems for drinking water, transportation, of greenhouse gases (IPCC, 2001). Similarly, climate
irrigation, and power generation. adaptation has been defined as “initiatives and measures
to reduce the vulnerability of natural and human systems
However, proper attention has not been given to against actual or expected climate change effects” and
other ecosystem services that this system provides, such “adjustment in natural or human systems in response to
as temperature regulation, water purification, erosion actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which
and flood control and cultural services (Mooney et al., moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities”
2009). Several studies are carried out to see and examine (IPCC, 2007, p. 6).
the impact of climate change on freshwater systems and

44 HYDRO NEPAL | ISSUE NO. 20 | JANUARY 2017

Mitigation risks and capitalize on the opportunities associated with
Mitigation activities influence biodiversity (Omann, global climate change (Füssel, 2007). Parallel to Njoroge
Stocker, & Jäger 2009). Some of these activities include (2014) view that adaptation is becoming an increasingly
reducing green house gas emissions through the important public policy response, several national
reduction of fossil fuel use, land based emissions via and international authorities, corporations, scientific
conservation of existing large pools in ecosystems and research institutes, non-governmental organizations and
increase in the rate of carbon uptake by ecosystems (Kim, conservation unions are also making significant efforts
2004). Depending on the design and implementation of to identify the possible threats and opportunities of
strategies such as land use and forestry activities such climate change and have recommended for considerable
as afforestation, reforestation and land management adaptation and mitigation policy measures (Fisher &
practices, as well as the use of renewable energy sources Slaney, 2013). Hence, an immediate action is required to
(biomass, wind power, solar power etc.) instead of fossil identify the risks of climate change and imply the adaptive
fuels their temporal and spatial scale, they can have options to cope with such changes in order to ensure the
positive, neutral or negative impacts (Omann, Stocker, persistence of many species and associated ecosystem
& Jäger, 2009). services (Heller & Zavaleta, 2009). Scientists have been
writing about adaptation with increasing frequency over
Some of these strategies may lead to loss of the last two decades. However, Heller & Zavaleta (2009)
biodiversity by substituting rapidly growing tree suggest that development in this area have progressed
plantations for diversified forests in order to increase albeit at a slow pace. Adaptation is indispensable at
carbon uptake, for example, or by growing bio fuel present because biodiversity and earth’s ecosystems are
crops (UNEP, 2007). Another prominent mitigation being more vulnerable due to climatic changes. However,
activity for the reduction of fossil fuel use or enhancing the adaptation activities have to be carefully planned and
sequestration by sinks is taxes on emissions, carbon and/ considered as they require a multidimensional approach
or energy subsidies favouring renewable energy sources (Jones & Phillips, 2009). A broad distinction can be
(Omann, Stocker, & Jäger, 2009). Also by putting (non- drawn between actions that often involve creating policies
) tradable permits, implementing laws and regulations or regulations to build adaptive capacity and actions that
to restrict the use of fossil fuel mitigation strategies can implement operational adaptation decisions (Barnett &
be made more effective (IPCC, 2001). Other activities Adger, 2007). Similarly, natural resource managers and
include lawful provisions of voluntary agreements, policy makers are increasingly incorporating climate
technology and performance standards, support of considerations into their planning and management,
energy efficiency improvement and road pricing (IPCC, taking advantage of an emerging body of adaptation
2007). Mitigation policy measures help in stabilizing principles, strategies, and planning processes (Stein
or reducing atmospheric concentration of greenhouse et al., 2013). Based on the estimated rate, magnitude,
gases (GHGs) to levels that do not dangerously interfere and character of future climatic change, it is predicted
with the climate system (Kimmel, 2009). Depending on that even the most aggressive adaptation actions might
the intended outcome, mitigation approaches can seek not be able to prevent losses of biodiversity or serious
to either maintain the persistence of current conditions degradation of ecosystems and their services as negative
or facilitate transitions to alternative states (Stein, et al., effects of climate change exceeds the attempts made for
2013). Above mentioned are some of the considerable adaptation activities.
mitigation measures to climate change that support for
biodiversity conservation. Few studies have reported the beneficial effects
of global changes on biodiversity. However, there are
several factors associated with climate change that
Adaptation potentially could see climatic changes having such
In biodiversity and climate change related literature positive effects: 1) more clement temperatures, 2)
(Bonebrake & Mastrandrea, 2010; Heino, Virkkala, & increased CO2, are likely to be beneficial to many plants,
Toivonen, 2009; Mawdsley, O’Malley & Ojima, 2009; resulting in an acceleration of biomass production, 3)
Dawson et al., 2011) discussions over the implication milder winters, which might increase survival of many
of adaptation measures are widely talked compared to currently threatened species in temperate regions, 4)
the effectiveness of mitigation measures. Adaptation increased precipitation which may also benefit some
refers to adjusting or accommodating to climate change- plant communities and species that depend on them
induced impacts, which includes minimizing negative (Bellard et al., 2012).
consequences and enhancing opportunities (Njoroge,
2014). Adaptation responses are essentially planned Evidently, adaptation can be perceived in two main
or unplanned policy responses designed to increase ways: autonomous and planned. Species may be able to
the resiliency of our natural, socioeconomic, and built adapt autonomously to climate change by dispersing to
environments (Kimmel, 2009). Planned adaptation to suitable habitats, changing their phenotype without a
climate change denotes actions undertaken to reduce the change in genotype via phenotypic plasticity, adapting

HYDRO NEPAL | ISSUE NO. 20 | JANUARY 2017 45

by genetic change over generations (Urban et al., 2007). of climate change on biodiversity and ecosystem
Some species will be able to adapt better than others, functioning.
depending on generation times, ability to disperse, and As an outline agenda for future research,
dependency on other species, for example pollinators, improvements in our capacity for forecasting species
hosts for parasites and symbionts (Toby et al., 2010). responses to changing climate- for example, by
Potential further constraints to evolutionary responses incorporating biotic interactions in bio-climate models
to climate change include time lag between change and and refining species-specific process-based models
response, and erosion of genetic variation (Paterson et are required. Other areas include the longstanding
al., 2008). It is widely agreed that many species and scientific challenge of understanding when a given
ecosystems will not be able to adapt naturally to climate species will become invasive in a given context.
change under the time scales predicted, and that planned Restoration activities have long involved management
of disturbance regimes, ecosystem functioning, and
adaptation responses will be required (Gilman et al.,
species interactions. Adapting to the impacts of climate
2008). change requires an active management, including
assisted colonization, and other interventions, such as
Thus, on the face of climate change, adaptation and enhancement of evolutionary adaptation, and active
conservation management activities are pushed to tackle maintenance of pre-climate change processes and
with several challenges, including resolution of the conditions. Ultimately, one of the biggest challenges
tension between urgency of action and uncertainty about for fostering biological adaptation may be willingness
the nature and magnitude of climate change itself in any across stakeholders, scientists and managers to re-
given location. Similarly, other complexities can be listed calibrate existing expectations of nature and reserves in
as likely responses of species and ecosystems; the effect responding to an era of global change.
of the interaction of different responses; and the possible
effects of management on responses (Paterson et al., --
2008). Relatively there is still some concrete scientific
evidence on the effectiveness of different management Utsab Bhattarai is a Higher Degree Research Student
strategies in relation to climate change, so Stein and at University of Western Sydney, Australia. He holds
colleagues (2013) write that much of the adaptation an MS in Resource Management from the USA (2009)
work is still based on ecological reasoning, rather than and an MA in Rural Development from Tribhuvan
on extensive research and case studies. In the face of University, Nepal (2005). He has gained more than
these uncertainties, there is a necessity of proactive 15 years of professional experiences in teaching and
research from several institutes and organizations
management strategies that can quickly be adapted
in Nepal and the USA. He has published few articles
to new circumstances and changing conservation
in tourism, climate change, and biodiversity. His
priorities; these will require institutional coordination, current research is focused on understanding the local
incorporation of climate change scenarios into planning, perceptions of climate change and adaptation in the
and efforts to address multiple threats simultaneously Nepalese Himalayas.
(Heller & Zavaleta, 2009).
Corresponding E-mail:utsabbhattarai60@hotmail.
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