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University: Makerere University Kampala

Faculty: Institute of Statistics and Applied Economics
Course: Bachelors Of Scince Civil Engineering
Course unit: Soil Mechanics(CIV2205) | Semester: II
Topic: SOIL DEFINITIONS

SOIL DEFINITIONS

ENGINEERING DEFINITION OF SOIL

For engineering purposes, soil is considered to be any loose sedimentary deposit, such as gravel, sand, silt,
clay or a mixture of these materials. It should not be confused with the geological definition of soil, which is
the weathered organic material on the surface, or topsoil. Topsoil is generally removed before any
engineering projects are carried out.

VOIDS
Soil is made up of various-sized particles packed together, with the spaces between particles known as voids
(see Fig. I(a)). The voids are generally a mixture of air and water, but in certain circumstances may be
completely air or completely water.

/*
(a) (b)
FIG. 1.(a) Soil sample, (b) Block diagram. Note symbols used.

Void ratio
The ratio of volume of voids to volume of solids is known as the void ratio.
Vv
Void ratio e = Vs

For convenience it may be assumed that all the solids in a sample can be compressed together and their
volume considered equal to unit volume. This may be shown in a block diagram (see Fig. I(b).
If Vs = 1
Vv
e= 1 = Vv

Total volume of soil sample V = 1 + e

Porosity
The porosity of a soil is defined as the ratio of volume of voids to total volume of sample.
Porosity n = Vv
V
1
which, referring to Fig. 1(b), taking Vs = 1 gives Porosity n = 1 + e

Degree of saturation
The ratio of volume of water to volume of voids is known as the degree of saturation.
Vw
Degree of saturation Sr = Vv
or Percentage saturation = Sr x 100

The voids in soil below the water table should be considered as completely filled with water, in which case the
degree of saturation is 1, or the percentage saturation 100 per cent. In fine-grained soils water will rise
owing to capillary action between particles, and soil for a "fringe" height above the water table may become
saturated. Even well above the water table there will always be a thin film of water surrounding individual
grains of soil. This is known as adsorbed water. Adsorbed water can be removed only by oven-drying the.
soil, and is of importance in considering cohesion between grains.

Percentage air voids

The ratio of the volume of air to the total volume of soil is known I as the percentage air voids.
Percentage air voids Va = Av x 100
V

MOISTURE CONTENT, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND DENSITY

The methods of determination of the specific gravity of soil particles, the moisture content and bulk density
of a soil sample are given in detail in B.S. 1377: 1975 (Methods of testing soils for civil engineering
purposes). Only a brief description therefore is given here, and for further details the British standard should
be referred to.
These three properties of the soil should be determined in all site investigations and laboratory tests.

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Moisture content of soil

Degree of saturation should not be confused with moisture content, which is the ratio of weight of water in
the sample to weight of solids:
Ww
Moisture content m = Ws.
or Percentage moisture content = m x 100

Determination of the moisture content of soil

A sample of soil is placed in a container of known weight, with a lid on to prevent evaporation. The container
and soil are weighed and then placed in an oven at 105° C, with the lid removed, until the sample is dry. If
the container, lid and dry soil are weighed again the loss in weight is the weight of water in the original
sample, and the weight of solids is the final weight less the weight of the container. Hence the

Weight of water Moisture content m = weight of water

weight of solids

may be determined.

Specific gravity of soil particles

The specific gravity of any material is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of that material to
the weight of an equal volume of water.

In a soil sample it is useful to know the specific gravity of the material of the soil particles. If this property G
s
is known and the dry weight of the soil particles W. known, then the volume of solids
V. may readily be determined, since:
Ws.
Vs = Gsyw
3
where yw is the density of water (1000 kg/m ).
For soil particles, which contain a high content of quartz, the specific gravity, Gs, is usually about 2·7

Determination of the specific gravity of soil particles

To determine the specific gravity of soil particles a known weight of soil particles Ws, (approximately 200 g of
fine-grained or 400 g of coarse-grained soil) is thoroughly mixed with approximately 500 ml of water in a 1
litre jar. The jar is then filled to the top with water, the outside of the jar wiped dry and the jar plus soil plus
water weighed, W1. If the weight of the jar just filled with water is W2, then:
Submerged weight of solids = W1 -W2
Weight of solid particles
Specific gravity of particles Gs = Weight of an equal volume of water
but
Weight of an equal volume of water
= weight of water displaced by solids
= weight of solids in air -submerged weight of solids

Hence specific gravity Gs = Ws

Ws - (W1 -W2)

Bulk density of soil

The density of the complete soil sample (i.e. solids and voids) is usually expressed as bulk density.
W
Bulk density y = V

Determination of bulk density

If a sample of soil can be taken in an undisturbed condition, then measurement of bulk density is simple. A
cylindrical cutter about 100 mm diameter and 125 mm long is carefully driven into the soil, dug out, cleaned,
trimmed and weighed. The weight of the cutter and its internal dimensions are readily determined, hence:
Weight of cutter and soil - Weight of cutter
Bulk density = Internal volume of cylinder
Obtaining an undisturbed sample is sometimes difficult, in which case a disturbed sample may be used. A
hole is dug about 100 mm diameter and 150 mm deep and the ex.cavated soil weighed. The volume of the
hole may now be determined by filling it with-a measured quantity of dry, uniformly graded sand of known
density.
Weight of soil
Bulk density of soil y = Volume of sand

In impervious soil, oil may be used instead of sand. The moisture content of the soil should be determined in
each case.

Dry density
This is a special case of bulk density and is the density of the sample assuming the water is removed from
the soil. The volume of the sample will not change, and therefore:
Ws
Dry density yd = V

The dry density is usually calculated from the measured values of bulk density and moisture content. The
relationship between y, yd and m is therefore of value, i.e.:
Ww
m= Ws,
W= Ws, + Ww
= Ws+ mWs
= Ws(1+m)
y=W
V
= Ws(1 + m)
V
= Yd(1+m)

yd = y
(1 + m)

Saturated density
This is another special case of bulk density and is the density of the sample when the voids are completely
filled with water. The volume of the sample will not change, and if the voids are filled with water the weight
of this water = VvYw
Saturated density = Ws + VvYw
V

Submerged density
When the soil is below the water table it will be saturated, as previously noted, but it will also be submerged.

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Now: Submerged density of soil

= Bulk density of soil -Density of water (Archimedes' principle)

or, since the soil will be saturated,

Submerged density y' = Ysat -Yw
The student, however, should avoid using submerged density as far as possible.

EXAMPLE 1
A sample of soil weighing 30·6 kg had a volume of 0·0183 m3. When dried out in an oven its weight was
reduced to 27·2 kg. The specific gravity of the solids was found to be 2·65. Determine the following:
(a) Bulk density.
(b) Dry density.
(c) Percentage moisture content.
(d) Saturated density.
(e) Percentage air voids.
(f) Void ratio.
(g) Porosity.
(h) Degree of saturation.
(i) Critical hydraulic gradient.

FIG. 2. Note that the figures underlined are given in the question

SOLUTION
This question may be shown in a block diagram (see Fig. 2).
W 30·6
3
(a) Bulk density y = V = 0.0183 = 1672 kg/m

3
(b) Dry density yd = Ws = 27.2 = 1486 kg/m
V 0·0183
(c) Weight of water in sample = 30·6 -27·2 = 3·4 kg

Moisture content m = Ww = 0.125 = 0.125

Ws 27·2
or percentage moisture content = 12.5%

(d) Density of particles ys = Ws = GsYs

Vs
Vs = Ws = 27·2 3 = 0·0103 m
Gsyw 2·65 x 1000
3
Vv = V - Vs = 0·0183 = 0·0103 = 0·008 m

3
If soil is saturated voids will be all water: 27·2 + 0·008 x 1000 = 1923 kg/m

3
Saturated density = Ws + VuYw = 27.2+ 0.008 x1000 = 1923kg/m
V 0·0183
3
(e) Vw = 3.4 = 0·0034 m
1000

3
Av = 0·008 - 0·0034 = 0·0046 m

Percentage air voids Va = Av = 0.0046 = x 100 = 25%

V 0·0183

(f) avoid ratio e Vv = 0.008 = 0·777

Vs 0·0103

Vu = 0·008
(g) Porosity n = V 0.0183 = 0.437

V = 0·0183

(Note. Porosity = e = 0·777 = 0·437)

1+e 1·777

Vw 0·0034
(h) Degree of saturation Sr = Vv 0.008 = 0·425

(j) Critical hydraulic gradient. This is discussed in Chapter 4 where an expression given is:

i = Gs -1
c
1+ e
2·65 -1
Critical hydraulic gradient = 1+0.777 = 0.93

EXAMPLE 2
A laboratory test carried out on an undisturbed sample of soil weighing 11·74 kg and having a volume of
3
1000 m determined the specific gravity of the solids to be 2·6 and the dry density of the soil to be 1500
3
kg/m .
Calculate:

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(a) The moisture content.

(b) The void ratio and porosity.
(c) The critical hydraulic gradient.
(d) The saturated and submerged densities.
(e) The degree of saturation of the soil.

\\\"\\\"FIG. 3

SOLUTION (see Fig. 3)

(a) Ws= 1500 x 1/1000 = 1·5 kg

Ww = 1·74 -1·5 = 0·24 kg
0·24
m = 1.5 = 0·16
or percentage moisture content = 16%

3
3
(b) Vs = Ws = 1·5 = 0·00058 m
Gsyw 2·6 x1000

3
Vv = V -Vs = 0·001 -0·00058 = 0·00042 m

Void ratio e = 0·00042 = 0·42

0·00058

Porosity n = Vv = 0·00042 = 0.42

V 0·001 .

(c) i = Gs-1 = 2.6-1 = 0·93

c
1+ e 1+0.72

3
d) Y = Ws + Vvyw = 1.5 +0.00042 x1000 = 1920 kg/m
sat
V 0.001
3
Y\\\' = Y -yw = 1920 - 1000 = 920kg/m 0.001
sat

3
(e) Vw = Ww = 0.24 = 0·00024 m
Yw 1000
Vw .0·00024

Sr = Vw = 0.00024 = 0·571
Vv 0·00042
or percentage saturation = 57·1 %

EXAMPLE 3
In order to measure the in situ density of a soil the following sand replacement test was carried out = 4·56
kg of soil were extracted from a hole at the surface of the soil. The hole was then just filled with 3·54 kg of
loose dry sand.

(a) If it took 6·57 kg of the same sand to fill a container 0·0042 min volume, determine the bulk density of
the soil.
0
(b) In a water-content determination 24 g of the moist soil weighed 20 g ,after drying in an oven at 105 C. If
the specific gravity of the particles was 2.68, determine the water content, the dry density and the degree of
saturation of the soil.
\\\"\\\"
FIG. 4
SOLUTION
Referring to Fig. 4:
0·0042
3
(a) Volume of hole = 6.57 x 3·54 = 0·00226 m
W 4·56
3
Bulk density Y = V = 0·00226 = 2018 kg/m

(b) From moisture content determination:

Ww =4/20
m = Ws = 0·2

or percentage moisture content = 20%

3
Dry density Yd = y = 2018 = 1681 kg/m
1 + m 1 + 0·2
3 3
V = W = 24 x 1000 = 11,893 m
y 2018 x 1000
3
Vs = Ws = 20 x 1000
GsYw 2·68 x 1000 x 1000
3
= 7463 mm ,
3
Vv = V -Vs = 4430 mm
3
Vw = 4000 mm
4000
Sr = 4430 = 0·9
or percentage saturation = 90%

NEUTRAL AND EFFECTIVE STRESS

At any horizontal section, depth z in a soil profile, the total downward pressure is due to the weight of soil
above the section.

FIG. 5
Resistance to this pressure is provided, partly by the soil grains, and, if the section is below the water table,

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partly by the upward pressure of the water.

Total load at depth z per unit area = z y + Z Ysat
1 2
This is resisted by the intergranular pressure u, which'is referred to as the effective stress, and by the
upward water pressure u, which is referred to as the neutral stress and equals Z2Yw, i.e.:
Total downward load per unit area = Intergranular pressure + Upward water pressure = Effective stress +
Neutral stress
= +u
This relationship between load, effective and neutral stresses is of great importance in soil mechanics.

EXAMPLE 4
A bore hole on a building site has the soil profile shown in Fig. 6(a). Find the elTective stress at the bottom of
the clay:
(a) under normal conditions;
(b) if the ground water level is lowered 2·4 m by pumping (assume the sand remains saturated with capillary
water up to the original level).

SOLUTION
Referring to Fig. 6(b):

FIG. 6(a). Bore-hole log. (b) Block diagram.

Assuming Vs = 1 then Vv = e, V = 1 + e and Ws = Gsyw

Gsyw + eyw
Ysat = 1+e

for saturated sand

y sat = 2·72 + 0·535
3
1+ 0.535 x 1000 = 2120 kg/m

2
(a) Downward load/m at base of clay
= (4.8 x 1930 + 3.6 x 2120 + 2.4 x 2010)9.8/1000
2
= 213 kN/m

2
Neutral stress u = (3.6 + 2.4) x 1000 x 9·8/ 1000 = 58·8 kN/m

2
Effective stress = 213 -58·8 = 154·2 kN/m
Alternatively the submerged soil densities could be used, i.e. = [4.8 1930 + 3.6(2120 -1000)
1=x
+ 2·4(2010 -1000)]9'8/1000
SOLUTION
Referring to Fig. 6(b):
2
= 154·2 kN/m

However the reader is recommended to use neutral stress for all calculations.

2
(b) When ground water level is lowered 2.4 m: Downward load per m at base of clay
2
= 213 kN/m
Neutral stress u = (1.2 + 2-4)1000 x 9.8/1000
2
= 35·3 kN/m
2
Effective stress at base of clay = 213 -35·3 = 177·7 kN/m

QUESTIONS

1. A sample of saturated soil has a moisture content of 29 per cent and a bulk density of 1930 kg/m 3
Determine the dry density and the void ratio of the soil and the specific gravity of the particles. What would
be the bulk density of a sample of this soil compacted to the same void ratio, but only 90 per cent saturated?
3
Note. Take the volume of the sample as 1 m .

3
2. In a compaction test the weight of wet soil in the mould (volume 1/1000 m ) was 1·88 kg. By drying out a
small quantity of the soil its moisture content was found to be 20·7 per cent. The specific gravity of the
particles was 2·72.
Find: (a) the dry density; (b) the void ratio; and (c) the percentage air voids.
If the sample was immersed in water and allowed to become completely saturated, without change in
volume, calculate the saturated density and moisture content.

3. Derive an expression for the bulk density of partially saturated soil in terms of the specific gravity of the
particles G , the void ratio e, the degree of saturation S and the density of water .
s r Yw
In a sample of clay the void ratio is 0·73 and the specific gravity of the particles is 2·71. If the voids are 92
per cent saturated, find the bulk density, the dry density and the percentage water content.
What would be the water content for complete saturation, the void ratio being the same. Note. In this case

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3
take volume of solids as 1 m

3
4. A sample of soil, 1/1000 m in volume, weighed in its natural state 1·73 kg, the degree of saturation being
61·6 per cent. After drying in the oven at 105° C the sample weighed 1.44 kg.

Find:
(a) the specific gravity of the solids;
(b) the natural water content;
(c) the void ratio;
(d) the bulk density, the dry density, the saturated density and the submerged density;
(e) the critical hydraulic gradient.

5. A borehole log gave the following data:

3
0-2 m Sand Saturated density 1900 kg/m
3
2-6 m Silt Saturated density 1800 kg/m
3
6-9 m Clay Saturated density 2100 kg/m

The water table is 4 m below the ground surface and the soil above the water table is saturated.
Calculate the effective pressure at the centre line of the clay.

(i) At the time of the investigation.

(ii) If the water table is lowered to the top of the clay.
(iii) If the water table is raised to the top of the silt.
(iv) If the water table is raised to ground level.
(v) If the water level rises 5 m above ground level.

Assume the soil remains saturated at all times.

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