Gas Turbines

160401f
Millwright
Gas Turbines
Prime Movers
Fourth Period
Table of Contents
Objective One ............................................................................................................................................... 4
General Applications ................................................................................................................................ 4
Stationary Industrial Applications ............................................................................................................ 5
Advantages of Gas Turbines ..................................................................................................................... 6
Disadvantages of Gas Turbines................................................................................................................. 7
Objective Two............................................................................................................................................... 8
Basic Categories for Gas Turbines............................................................................................................ 8
Basic Turbine Principles ......................................................................................................................... 11
Objective Three........................................................................................................................................... 17
Gas Turbine Components ....................................................................................................................... 17
Gas Turbine Controls and Auxiliary Systems......................................................................................... 29
Objective Four ............................................................................................................................................ 33
Safety Considerations ............................................................................................................................. 33
Factors Affecting Maintenance and Overhaul ........................................................................................ 33
Inspection of the Turbine ........................................................................................................................ 35
Engine Wash System .............................................................................................................................. 36
Troubleshooting ...................................................................................................................................... 36
Repair and Overhaul ............................................................................................................................... 37
Objective Five ............................................................................................................................................. 38
Installation of Gas Turbines .................................................................................................................... 38
Gas Turbine Start-Up .............................................................................................................................. 40
Self-Test ...................................................................................................................................................... 41
Self-Test Answers ....................................................................................................................................... 44
NOTES
Gas Turbines
Rationale
Why is it important for you to learn this skill?
Gas turbines are a significant prime mover in industrial plant applications. For this reason
it is important for the technician to understand the basic principles of operation and
maintenance involving gas turbines.
Outcome
When you have completed this module you will be able to:
Describe working principles, installation, start-up, maintenance and repair procedures for
gas turbines.
Objectives
1. Describe the applications, advantages and disadvantages of gas turbines.
2. Describe the working principles of gas turbines.
3. Describe the functions of gas turbine systems and components.
4. Describe inspection, servicing and maintenance procedures for gas turbines.
5. Describe installation and start-up procedures for gas turbines.
Evaluation
The outcomes and objectives of this module will be tested in multiple choice exams
throughout the course as well as in shop tests. You will be required to achieve a 65%
average.
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Gas Turbines
Copyright Alberta Advanced Education
NOTES
Introduction
Turbine Development
The origins of turbines go back to an Egyptian scientist/philosopher called Hero in about
250 BC (Figure 1).
Figure 1 - Hero's aeolipile.

Although the basic theory of how gas turbines should function was known long ago
(Figure 2), detailed knowledge of flow and materials that could withstand high
temperatures was not available to make the gas turbine a useful power supply. Many of
the early patents and designs were drawn but never built. The few that were built
produced extremely low power if any at all. Most of the turbines in the early 20th century
had to be helped along by another power source. During WWII there was a great interest
in gas turbines and much research was done in gas turbine development. Since the 1950s
the gas turbine has become a viable source of power. The gas turbine is presently used to
produce both rotary mechanical power to turn shaft-driven machines and to produce
thrust, as in jet aircraft.
Figure 2 - Leonardo da Vinci's chimney "turbine".
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Gas Turbines
The following is a summary of the main points in gas turbine history. NOTES
• A basic turbine patent was issued to John Barber in 1791.
• One of the first gas turbines that actually worked was built in France by Stolze,
around 1900.
• The Brown Boveri Company did considerable pioneering of gas turbines used for
power generation and industrial applications. One of their first sizable gas turbine
power plants was used in Switzerland in the 1930s.
• The first turbojet-powered flight was in 1939.
• In the 1940s and 1950s extensive work was being done, primarily on aircraft, to
make the gas turbine a viable source of power.
• Since then the gas turbine has been refined into a very reliable, versatile engine,
with a high power-to-weight ratio.
The Gas Turbine Today

The gas turbine is an internal combustion, constant flow engine designed to convert the
energy of fuel into useful power. The fuel is burned to add heat to a gas (usually compressed
air). The expanding gases are sent through the blades of a turbine to drive the turbine shaft.
Figure 3 - A small split shaft gas turbine.

The gas turbine operates by drawing air into a compressor, compressing the air, then
discharging the air into a combustion chamber (Figure 3). In the combustion chamber,
fuel is added and burned, heating and expanding the air due to the combustion of the fuel.
The hot gases are then directed through the turbine blades. The blades are attached to a
wheel and shaft that harness the energy of the gases moving through the blades.
For many years, the efficiency of the gas turbine had been in question. Until efficiencies
were improved interest waned. The efficiency depends primarily on the temperature to
which the air can be raised. The more energy added to the gases, the greater the
expansion of the gases, which translates into more power output and efficiency. To
maximize the efficiency, it is necessary to operate gas turbines at maximum possible
temperatures without harming the machine. The output power or power rating of the
machine depends upon the mass of hot gas flowing through the turbine blades per unit
time. Thus, a gas turbine output increases when using air of maximum density. Cold
dense air produces a marked increase in gas turbine output. A more detailed explanation
of the gas turbine operation is given later.
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Gas Turbines
NOTES
Objective One
When you have completed this objective you will be able to:
Describe the applications, advantages and disadvantages of gas turbines.
General Applications
The efficiencies and power outputs of earlier gas turbines were limited by the fuels
available and by the lack of metals that could withstand high temperatures. Early air
compressor and turbine efficiency was not high enough to give a reasonable net output of
power. The low efficiency of the compressor and turbine meant that almost all of the
turbine output was used to drive the compressor. Efficiency has now increased to produce
a more useable engine.
Today gas turbine engines are being used extensively for aircraft propulsion (Figure 4)
and have recently made more inroads into industrial applications (Figure 5). They are
used in high-speed marine propulsion by many navy ships. Gas turbines are currently
used for stationary power generation both as standby and main power generation. There
have also been many experimental units built and operated in railroad service, cars and
heavy equipment.
Figure 4 - A basic aircraft turbine engine.

Gas turbines are in general or experimental use in the following applications:
• aircraft
• power plants
• standby equipment
• boat and ship propulsion
• gas pipeline compressor drives
• railroad (have been used but are not common)
• automotive (extensive experimentation in the past)
• heavy mobile equipment (experimentation)
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Gas Turbines
NOTES
Figure 5 - A twin shaft stationary turbine engine with a gear reduction.
Stationary Industrial Applications

The research and development of the gas turbine has had most of its emphasis in aircraft
applications because of use in the military and aviation industry. Aircraft gas turbines
have shown great reliability and were successfully tried in industrial installations.
Demand lead to more development of aircraft turbines adapted for stationary
applications. Many designs have now become specialized to the needs of stationary
plants. In industrial applications, the combustion chambers can be separated from the
main engine body and the air and hot gas ducted from the compressor to the combustion
chamber and then back to the turbine. These external combustion chambers (Figure 6)
allow the use of a wider range of fuels. The external chambers also make it easier for the
addition of regeneration and cogeneration equipment, although this equipment is not
limited to turbines with these external combustion chambers. (Regeneration is the term
used when some of the exhaust heat is used to heat the air of combustion. Cogeneration is
the term used when exhaust heat is used to generate steam for power generation of other
plant processes.)
Figure 6 - A single shaft industrial gas turbine with an external combustion

chamber.
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Gas Turbines
NOTES Some gas turbines are coupled directly to the machines they are to drive. Some
commonly driven industrial units are gas pipeline centrifugal compressors and electric
generators (Figure 7). In many cases the most appropriate and efficient speed of the gas
turbine is not the same as the speed desired for the driven machine. In these cases, speed
reducers or speed increasers are used to achieve the appropriate output shaft speeds. Gas
transmission pipelines use many high-ratio centrifugal compressors that have step-up
gearboxes of approximately 2:1 ratio. Generators for electric power must run at speeds
that are multiples of 60 for the correct cycles in the power grid. Direct drives are only
possible if the turbine is closely matched to the application.
Figure 7 - A gas turbine directly coupled to a centrifugal gas compressor.
Advantages of Gas Turbines

High Power-To-Weight Ratio
The greatest advantage of the gas turbine is the high power-to-weight ratio. When
compared to other heat engines, the gas turbine is smaller and lighter for the same power
output, a considerable advantage for aircraft applications. For stationary applications the
building housing a gas turbine can be much smaller and needs only light foundations.
High Horsepower per Dollar Installed Cost

The initial capital cost of a gas turbine is lower per horsepower output than a steam
turbine plant. The long-term costs depend on the design. If the gas turbine uses
regeneration or cogeneration the initial costs increase due to the heat exchangers that
must be built, but the efficiency increases as well. It should be noted that the steam
turbine cost includes the installation and operation of support equipment such as the
boiler, condenser, boiler feed pumps, feed water heaters, and cooling system in a steam
plant.
Low Maintenance Costs

There is no reciprocating motion in the gas turbine. This reduces wear and vibration. Oil
consumption is low because no lubrication is required in the "hot" areas except for shaft
bearings. The gas turbine is simple and does not have as much auxiliary equipment to
maintain as required in a steam plant. This leads to cost savings in power plants with
comparable ratings because there is less support machinery to maintain. However, if
regular maintenance is ignored it can be more costly to repair. The very smooth operation
of the gas turbine reduces strain on the foundations and structures.
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Gas Turbines
Minimum Water Cooling System
NOTES
Gas turbines do not need a water cooling system. As an option they can be operated with
a small closed circulating water system using air-cooled heat exchangers. This makes gas
turbines practical for use wherever water is not practical or available.
Quick Start to Full Load Operation

Gas turbines can be started very quickly with no harmful effects to the engine and can be
shut down in a reasonably short time. They do not require several hours of preparation
like the steam turbine supplied by a boiler. Large steam turbines require a long cool-
down time after they are shut off and must maintain continuous shaft rotation after they
are shut down. Smaller gas turbines can be started almost instantly and loaded
immediately. Most larger gas turbines can be started and loaded up to full load within 10
minutes to half an hour. These turbines can also be shut down quickly, but some will
have to be barred over while cooling. This makes the gas turbine very practical for
standby and emergency electricity generators where quick starting is important. They are
also good for peak load supplies in plants and peak hour power generation for large cities.
Disadvantages of Gas Turbines

Low Thermal Efficiency
The major disadvantage of the gas turbine is its low thermal efficiency. A simple, open-
cycle gas turbine is much less efficient than a steam turbine, diesel engine, or gasoline
engine. If the gas turbine is to be competitive, auxiliary equipment like regenerators or
cogenerators must be used. Gas turbines have comparable efficiencies with steam
turbines if both are to be fired by more expensive fuels, like distillate fuels, instead of
coal. In some gas turbine applications the fuel used is a byproduct of another process in
the plant, so the economics of operation is a minor concern. (This fuel would normally go
to waste anyway.)
High Noise Level

The gas turbine is a noisy machine producing high-pitched loud noises that can damage
the human ear quickly if hearing protection is not worn. Soundproofing the turbine's
exhaust and inlet is a necessity which can add to the complexity and cost of the
installation and make access for maintenance more difficult. The inlet and exhaust must
be silenced with the correct application of ducting and sound-deadening insulation, which
take a great amount of space.
Experienced Technicians Required

When gas turbines are repaired they require very precise attention to detail or else failure
will result. Only experienced and skilled technicians are able to make critical repairs.
High Air Intake

Gas turbines use a very large quantity of air, so airborne particles can affect the turbine
operation. These turbines are also critically affected by a loss of air or changes in the air
intake system (surging can result from a blocked or partially blocked inlet).
Complex Control System

To meet the many operating conditions and parameters, the control systems on gas
turbines must be complex and must react quickly to changing inlet conditions and loads.
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Gas Turbines
NOTES
Objective Two
Describe the working principles of gas turbines.
Basic Categories for Gas Turbines
Shaft Types
Single Shaft
The turbine has one shaft connected directly to the compressor rotor. If rotary power is
required, a coupling will be attached to the turbine shaft for rotary output power (Figure 8).
This type of shaft arrangement is very common and is good for single speed operation. A
speed reducer is attached to the shaft for rotary output power.
Figure 8 - Single shaft turbine.

Split Shaft
The split shaft turbine has two shafts. One shaft is connected to the compressor and the
gas generation turbine; another shaft is attached to the power turbine and the load or
speed reducer (Figure 9). These are suitable for variable speed operating conditions. The
output speed can be varied by varying the gas generator speed, and under some
conditions the gas generation turbine speed can be reduced to improve fuel economy.
Split shaft turbines can also have the output of the power turbine rotating in the opposite
direction to that of the gas-generating turbine.
Figure 9 - Split shaft turbine.
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Gas Turbines
Twin Spool Shaft
NOTES
Twin spool shafts have one shaft running inside another. There are two separate
compressors and two separate turbines. The gas turbine engine shown in Figure 10 has a
twin spool gas generation section and a split shaft type power section. A low-pressure
(LP) compressor is connected to the LP turbine and a high-pressure (HP) compressor is
connected to the HP turbine. This engine also has a power turbine section after the twin
spool section. These are fairly common and are good for variable speed operation. They
handle a large volume of air but are more complex than single or split shaft turbines.
Figure 10 - Twin spool turbine with a power turbine.
Compressor Types
Radial Flow Compressors (Centrifugal)
The airflow through the centrifugal compressor enters parallel to the impeller shaft and
exits 90o to the shaft producing a radial flow
Axial Flow Compressors

Axial flow compressors have airflow that starts parallel to the shaft and remains parallel
to the shaft throughout the machine.
Gas Turbine Sections

The turbine has two main sections with three main components (Figure 11).
Gas Generation Section

The gas generation section of the gas turbine brings air in from the compressor to mix
with fuel in the combustion chamber to create hot expanding gases that can be harnessed.
The main parts of this section are: compressor(s) and combustion chamber(s).
Figure 11 - A single shaft gas turbine.

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Gas Turbines
NOTES Power Section
The power section of the gas turbine has the job of harnessing energy from the hot gases
as efficiently as possible without adversely affecting the operation of the gas generation
section. This section delivers rotary motion that is usable to drive machinery. The power
conversion section consists of:
• turbine wheel(s) and
• speed reduction (if used).
When a single shaft turbine is used, the priority of the turbine is to drive the compressor
for gas generation. The remaining power can be supplied to the load. A split shaft turbine
has a gas generation turbine and a power turbine on different shafts. The gas generation
turbine is used exclusively to drive the compressor. The power turbine is used to drive the
outside load.
Gas Turbine Operating Cycles

Open-Cycle (Simple Cycle) Gas Turbine
The air that is drawn in from the atmosphere and used in the turbine is returned to the
atmosphere after use. The open cycle gas turbine has no heat exchanger or regenerators
included or attached to it. Therefore, there is no provision to capture any of the waste heat
from the exhaust gases. This makes the turbine much less efficient than it can be, but it
also makes the machine very simple and light. This is typical of aircraft and standby gas
turbines.
Semi-Closed Cycle Gas Turbine

The semi-closed cycle turbine has either a heat exchanger or regenerators attached to it to
utilize the waste exhaust heat. This makes the machine larger and more costly, but it also
makes it more efficient. Some plants use the exhaust heat from the gas turbine for
processing in another area of the plant. There is also the possibility of cogeneration.
NOTE
A true closed-cycle gas turbine would have to reuse the gases that pass
through the engine like a steam turbine does. This is not possible with
the gas turbine.
Many industrial gas turbines are simple, open-cycle, single shaft machines because of
their simplicity, low cost, and light weight. Generally the smaller gas turbines are open
cycle and the larger turbines have some method of utilizing the waste heat.
Regeneration
At the beginning of this module it was stated that the greatest disadvantage of a gas
turbine is its low thermal efficiency. This is true with a "simple" open cycle gas turbine
without reheaters, regenerators or other heat recovery techniques.
The idea of using regeneration is to improve the thermal efficiency of the gas turbine by
using the exhaust heat (waste) to assist in the heating and expansion of the gases before
the turbine. The waste heat from the exhaust is added to the air after the compressor but
before the combustion chamber (Figure 12). Remember that the compressor works most
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Gas Turbines
effectively with cold air, so heating the air before the compressor would not be beneficial. NOTES
The regenerator gives the greatest single improvement in thermal efficiency to the gas
turbine. The heat received from the exhaust gases ultimately reduces the amount of fuel
that must be burned to drive the same load, thus increasing the efficiency of the unit.
Although regenerative heat exchangers are easy to build, they are large, bulky, and must
be designed to minimize pressure drop so that power is not wasted. If the regenerator
increases back pressure in the gas turbine, the efficiency will be lost.
Figure 12 - Gas turbine using a regeneration system.
Cogeneration (Combined Steam-Gas Plants)

Many industrial installations will use a combination of gas turbines in conjunction with
steam boilers or other heat recovery equipment. This combined operation can be
comprised of one or more gas turbines exhausting into a heat recovery steam generator.
This heat assists in producing steam for a steam turbine. In this arrangement the gas
turbine and steam turbine contribute to the total electrical generation capacity of the plant
to improve the overall economy.
Some heat recovery equipment does not directly improve the efficiency of the gas turbine
but reduces the need for other heat sources in the plant. The heat from the exhaust can be
used to heat water for local heating or for refinery and petrochemical processes. This
increases the efficiency of the whole plant. The temperature of the exhaust exiting the
plant to the atmosphere is a good indicator of the energy captured from the fuel burned.
Basic Turbine Principles

Applicable Physical Laws
There are several laws of nature that apply to the operation of gas turbines. The most
important ones are Newton's third law and Bernoulli's principle.
Newton's Third Law

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction (Figure 13). The recoil from
firing a shotgun is a good example of this law in action. As the bullet leaves the barrel
(action) there is a force against the hunter's shoulder (reaction). When this is applied to a
turbine, the gas accelerates through the reaction blading, pushing back on the blades as it
leaves.
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Gas Turbines
NOTES
Figure 13 - An illustration of Newton's third law.

Bernoulli's Principle
If a fluid (either liquid or gas) flowing through a tube reaches a constriction or narrowing
of the tube, the velocity of the fluid flowing through the constriction increases and the
pressure decreases (Figure 14). The opposite is also true. When the fluid leaves the
constriction the velocity decreases and the pressure increases. This principle is applied in
the compressor part of the engine. The moving blades accelerate the air (high-velocity)
and the stationary blades (diffuser) reduce the velocity but increase the pressure of the
air. This also applies to the turbine nozzles and reaction blades. As the gas flows through
them the opening gets smaller, leading to an acceleration of the gases.
Figure 14 - Bernoulli's principle illustrated.

Turbine Blade Types and Function
The key to the operation of the gas turbine is the shape of the blades used on the turbine
wheels and the nozzles that direct the gases toward the blades. Gas turbines use both
impulse and reaction type blades. The following is an examination of each of these types
of blades and nozzles and how they harness energy from the hot moving gases.
Impulse Blades
The gases pass through a nozzle before they strike or enter the turbine blades (Figure 15).
The nozzles are arranged to direct the hot expanding gases at the best angle possible to
harness their energy. Impulse blades harness the energy of the high-velocity gases only
by the change in direction of the gases. Impulse blades are symmetrical and have the
blade tips parallel with the rotating shaft. The blades are arranged around the
circumference of the wheel. The space between the adjacent blades forms a channel with
a uniform path from entry to exit. The significance of this uniform path is that when
gases pass through there will not be a change in pressure or velocity (Bernoulli), but only
a change in direction if the blades are stationary. If the impulse blades are moving, there
will only be a change in velocity because some of the energy will be transferred to the
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Gas Turbines
moving blade. Thus, the energy transferred to the rotating blade is only due to a change in NOTES
direction, which gives the wheel an impulse. Sometimes impulse blades are stationary
and are used as redirectional blades. In this situation there would be no pressure or
velocity drop, but only a change in direction of the gas. When you look at the
construction of impulse blades you will notice that they tend to be thicker, shorter, and
stronger than reaction blading because they absorb more force.
Figure 15 - Impulse blading.

Reaction Blades
As with the impulse blades, the gases pass through a nozzle before they strike and pass
through reaction blading (Figure 16). Reaction blades are not symmetrical and their tips
are not parallel to the shaft. There is also an unequal distance between adjacent blades
from entry to exit. The distance gets smaller as the gas passes between the blades. This
causes the gases to accelerate as they pass through the reaction-type blading, creating a
pressure drop from entry to exit (Bernoulli's principle). Due to the acceleration of the
gases and the pressure difference, a reaction force is produced as the gases pass through
the moving blades. Reaction blades also receive an impulse from the gases due to the
change in direction or the gases as they pass through the blades. (In truth, reaction blades
harness power by both impulse and reaction principles, but are only called reaction.)
Figure 16 - Reaction blading.

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Gas Turbines
NOTES Gas Turbine Blading (Impulse and Reaction Blading)
Each blade on the gas turbine wheel uses both impulse and reaction principles. At the
base (root) of the turbine blade, the blade is shaped like an impulse blade, but closer to
the tip the blade resembles reaction blading (Figure 17). This makes the blade appear
twisted from the base to the tip section, providing both impulse and reaction shapes in
one blade.
Figure 17 - Turbine blade profile.
Nozzles (Stationary Blades)

The nozzles in a gas turbine are comprised of reaction-type blades fixed in a housing
called a diaphragm (Figure 18). Remember that when a gas goes through a reaction blade
it has to accelerate. The nozzle changes the pressure (potential energy) into velocity
(kinetic energy) as the gases pass through the blades.
Figure 18 - Typical nozzle in a gas turbine.

Basic Turbine Operation
As gases move through the gas turbine engine they experience changes in temperature,
pressure, volume, and velocity (Figure 19). If you keep in mind when and where these
changes take place you will find the operation of this engine much easier to understand.
You will also notice a pattern of convergence (gases coming together in a smaller area)
and divergence (gases moving apart into a larger area). The basic operation is as follows.
Air is drawn into the inlet duct in front of the compressor. There may be guide vanes to
help direct the air more efficiently into the compressor.
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Gas Turbines
The compressor is constructed so that the area decreases as the air passes through each NOTES
stage toward the rear of the compressor (convergent area). The compressor raises the air
pressure and temperature in each succeeding stage. When the air enters the rotating
blades the air is accelerated; when it enters the stationary blades the velocity is converted
to pressure (on an axial flow compressor). This compression continues until the air enters
the diffuser.
The diffuser lowers velocity and increases the pressure (Bernoulli's principle). The
highest pressure in the turbine engine is in the diffuser. It is very important to the
operation of the gas turbine that this pressure be always higher than combustion pressure.
Without the diffuser, the velocity of the air would be far too high for combustion to take
place in the combustion chamber. The pressurized gas exits the diffuser into the
combustion section (divergent area), where swirl vanes help create a region of low
velocity recirculation in order that combustion may take place.
Figure 19 - Events in a typical gas turbine engine.

In the combustion chamber fuel is injected with the aid of fuel nozzles. The mixture of
fuel and air is then ignited by the spark igniters. The ignition of the fuel/air mixture
causes the temperature to rise and the gases to expand rapidly and move through the
combustion chamber. The pressure during ignition is lower than the pressure in the
diffuser because the burning hot gases are also accelerating out toward the turbine wheel
and the exhaust. Once combustion takes place in the combustion chamber it is continuous
and may not require the use of the igniter any more. The rapidly expanding gases move
through the turbine nozzles toward the turbine blades.
The gases move through the first set of nozzles (first stage) where the pressure is reduced
and the velocity is increased (Bernoulli's principle). The hot gases are directed toward the
turbine rotor blades (high velocity, high temperature, lower pressure). The gases strike
the turbine blades, giving an impulse from the change in direction, but also causing a
reaction as the gases pass through the blades. The turbine wheel extracts some of the
kinetic energy and thermal energy from the fuel burnt.
There is still a lot of energy left in the hot moving gases. To harness more of this energy
the gases are sent through another set of nozzles (second stage) which will cause another
increase in velocity and a further pressure drop. Each set of stationary nozzles and
rotating turbine wheel constitutes one stage. The nozzles are housed in a stationary ring
and consist of stationary reaction-type blades. The spaces between the blades act as
nozzles to direct the combustion gases uniformly and at the proper angle to the turbine
blades.
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Gas Turbines
NOTES The turbine is attached to the compressor by a shaft running through the turbine engine.
Approximately 75% of the power developed by the gas turbine is used to drive the
compressor and accessories. The remaining power is used to drive machinery.
The remainder of the energy of the gases will move out the exhaust. Some turbines will
harness some of this energy to make the turbine more efficient.
The pressures in the gas turbine engine are not very high compared to those of a steam
turbine. It is important that the air flows efficiently through the compressor. The blades of
an axial compressor are designed for a specific air flow and pressure rise. If the airflow at
a particular ratio is too low, this can lead to a compressor stall, which only affects a few
compressor stages, or a compressor surge, which will affect the whole compressor. It is
also important that the gases do not get backed up in the combustion chamber or in the
nozzles, turbine wheels, or exhaust. If the pressure in the combustion chamber becomes
higher than that in the diffuser, the gases will back up and move into the compressor.
This condition will also lead to a compressor surge or stall. It is a dangerous condition
and can destroy the turbine engine in a matter of seconds. Surges can also be caused by
restrictions in the inlet. Adjustable inlet guide vanes and bleed valves can be used to
maintain a safety margin between operating and stall conditions.
Figure 20 - Comparison of events in gas turbine and piston engines.

At this point a comparison of a gas turbine and piston engine may be helpful (Figure 20).
The turbine engine and the piston engine are similar in a few respects. Both are internal
combustion engines. They both have the same cycles of operation. They have intake,
compression, ignition, power, and exhaust as a continuum of their cycles. In a piston
engine each event happens at the same place but at different times. In a gas turbine
engine the events happen in different places, but at the same time (Figure 20a). The
events of the turbine engine are continuous. The events of a piston engine are intermittent
(Figure 20b).
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Gas Turbines
NOTES
Objective Three
Describe the functions of gas turbine systems and components.
Gas Turbine Components

Air Filtering
Gas turbines use large volumes of air, so the filtration systems must have high flow with
low restriction. The amount of filtration depends on the surrounding conditions. Some
turbines have elaborate inlet systems while others are simple and minimal. The simplest
systems have a screen at the inlet of the gas turbine to keep larger objects from entering.
The more complex air intake systems have several stages and methods of cleaning the air
(Figure 21). The first stage may have spiral vane separators that use centrifugal force to
remove most of the water or larger particles from the air. The second stage may have "V"
bag filters to remove the finer particles.
Figure 21 - Inlet and exhaust ducting for a stationary gas turbine.

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Gas Turbines
NOTES Self-cleaning pulse-type filters used in high dust environments sequentially reverse the
airflow in each section of the air cleaner to clean the filters during operation. In warm
climates intake coolers may be used, and in cold climates pulse-type filters are often used
to reduce icing and hoarfrost buildup. Care must be taken not to restrict the airflow into
the machine. A restricted airflow may cause surging and catastrophic failure of the
turbine engine.
Air Intake
The air comes through the inlet duct and the inlet guide vanes. The inlet guide vanes,
which are directly before the compressor, straighten the airflow and direct it into the first
stage of the compressor rotor. On some engines, these guide vanes are designed so that
the angle of the blade (pitch) can be adjusted during operation. This allows the best
position of the blades to be selected for the most efficient airflow.
Compressors
The function of the compressor is to provide the turbine with pressurized air for
combustion (primary air) and cooling (secondary air) purposes. There are two basic types
of air compressor (Figure 22):
• radial flow (centrifugal) and
• axial flow.
Figure 22 - Types of turbine compressors.
Radial Flow (Centrifugal) Compressor

The airflow through the centrifugal compressor enters parallel to the impeller shaft and
exits 90o to the shaft, producing a radial flow. The centrifugal flow compressor has three
basic parts:
• impeller,
• diffuser and
• compressor manifold.
The centrifugal compressor can have either a single entry or dual entry impeller. The
single entry impellers require a less cumbersome ducting system and are slightly more
efficient, but the dual entry impeller has a smaller diameter, allowing a reduced engine
diameter.
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Gas Turbines
NOTES
Figure 23 - Operation of a centrifugal compressor.

The centrifugal compressor, as the name suggests, works on the principle of centrifugal
force. Air enters the eye (centre) of the impeller (Figure 23). The impeller adds energy to
the air by using centrifugal force to accelerate the air outward at high velocity. This high
velocity, low-pressure air enters the diffuser, where it is converted to low velocity high-
pressure air (Bernoulli's principle). This is where the pressures are the highest in the
turbine. The compressor manifold diverts the air into the combustion chambers. The
elbows in the manifold have very sharp corners, so several turning vanes are used to
reduce turbulence and air pressure losses. Centrifugal compressors are light, simple, and
rugged, but are not easily staged.
Axial Flow Compressor

Axial flow compressors are more efficient in larger turbines than the radial flow type.
They are usually smaller in diameter and can run at higher speeds than other types of the
same output. Axial flow compressors are mostly used in larger gas turbine applications
because very small axial flow compressors are quite difficult to build.
As the name implies, the airflow through the axial flow compressor is parallel to the shaft
axis. There are two main components (Figure 24):
• rotor with blades and
• stator with blades.
Figure 24 - Rotor and housing from an axial flow compressor.

19
Gas Turbines
NOTES For every row of blades on the rotor there is a set of blades on the stator. Each
consecutive set of rotor and stator blades forms a pressure stage. When the rotor is rotated
air is drawn into the compressor. The rotor blades add energy to the air by accelerating it
axially toward the stationary blades in the stator. The stator blades act like diffusers by
converting the high velocity of the air into higher pressure. Each stage increases the
pressure of the air in increments until the air enters the diffuser. Most present-day axial
flow gas turbine compressors will have from 8 to 16 stages (Figure 25).
Figure 25 - A typical industrial axial flow compressor.

Most axial flow compressors are built so that they can be split horizontally (Figure 24).
This allows the compressor to be inspected and repaired without taking the whole
machine apart. The two halves are doweled and bolted to keep the alignment of the vanes
and seals accurate. The case can be built of either aluminum or steel. Axial flow
compressors that are not horizontally split are much more difficult to inspect and repair.
Rotors can be either drum or disc type. The drum type will have a drum that is the same
diameter on both ends with varying lengths of blades (long in the inlet section, short at
the exit). Drum rotors are only used on lower speed compressors. The disc-type rotors
have a series of aluminum discs fitted to each other and shrunk on a steel shaft. The rotor
disc diameters increase in size, with small discs on the inlet end and large discs on the
outlet. The blades go from large at the inlet to small at the outlet. This makes it possible
to have a parallel-sided case. Disc rotors are used on most present-day high-speed
turbines.
Most blades are made of stainless or semi-stainless material. They are fitted into the rotor
by bulb or fir tree-type roots (Figure 26). The blades are locked in place by grub-screws,
peening, lockwire, pins, or keys. The tips of the blades are made thin so that they will
wear quickly if they begin to rub with the casing. The clearance between the blades and
the casing is normally very small for greater efficiency. Some blades are mounted
slightly loose in the rotors, but tighten up by centrifugal force when the compressor is
turning. When the compressor is slowly turned over or run down, a tinkling sound may
be heard.
20
Gas Turbines
NOTES
Figure 26 - Blades mounted on a compressor wheel.

The stator blades of the compressor project radially toward the rotor shaft. The air that is
accelerated by the rotor moves through the stator blades. The stator blades deliver the air
to the next stage at a workable direction, velocity, and pressure to obtain the maximum
possible compressor blade efficiency. Each space between a rotor blade and an adjacent
blade in the stator acts as a diffuser. Some engines will have compressor stator blades that
can have the pitch changed by a linkage attached to each stator blade. The blade's
position is controlled by the fuel control system. Variable pitch stator blades help the
turbine engine maintain maximum compressor efficiency over the operating speed of the
engine. These variable blades can almost eliminate any compressor surge. Constant speed
gas turbine engines will not use variable pitch stator blades.
Combustion Chamber Parts and Operation

Most of the commonly used combustion chambers (combustors) are designed with
several main parts and areas so that combustion is continuous and complete (Figure 27).
• The combustion chamber housing (combustor) is the outside housing.
• The combustion chamber liner (flame tubes) is the inside of the housing.
• The fuel nozzle (fuel injector, atomizer, or vaporizer) injects the fuel.
• The igniter ignites the fuel/air mixture.
Figure 27 - Combustion chamber zones.
21
Gas Turbines
NOTES The Zones in the Combustion Chamber
There are three zones in the combustion chamber (Figure 27).
• The primary zone is in the first part of the combustion chamber liner where fuel
injection and ignition begins.
• The intermediate zone is where combustion continues and begins to mix with
secondary air.
• The dilution zone is where combustion should be complete but secondary air is
mixed with the burnt gases.
Primary Air and Secondary Air

Primary air is air that enters the combustion liner (flame tube) to be mixed with fuel and
burnt.
Secondary air is air that has no part in the combustion process. It moves around the
outside of the liner (flame tube) to control the temperature of the liner. In the intermediate
zone the secondary air will enter the liner through small holes. In the dilution zone the air
will become completely mixed with the burned gases through larger holes in the liner.
The combustion chamber housing encases the internal components and holds them in
their correct position. It is connected to the diffuser on the inlet end and to the transition
piece at the turbine end where the hot gases are directed to the first set of turbine nozzles.
The combustion chamber must contain and seal the air and hot gases from leaking.
Combustors have no moving parts but are the hottest places in the gas turbines.
The first part of the combustion chamber liner (flame tube) contains the fuel nozzle and
igniter and is referred to as the primary zone. The primary zone protects the injector and
the flame from air currents that could cause a flameout. The primary zone anchors the
flame and provides sufficient air, time (due to its length), temperature, and turbulence to
complete the combustion of the fuel. Continual combustion works on the principle of
flame propagation. That is, once the fuel in the combustor is ignited, burning is
continuous as long as there is an uninterrupted supply of fuel.
The primary air that flows into the inlet end of the liner provides sufficient air for
complete combustion of the fuel. In the intermediate zone, holes or slots allow for the
entry of secondary air to mix in with the flow of the primary air. This helps to reduce
high-temperature gas pockets and keeps the liner (flame tube) walls cooled. At the end of
the combustion chamber liner is the dilution zone, where the remaining secondary air is
mixed after combustion to provide an outlet stream of hot gases at a temperature
acceptable to the turbine. Some combustion chambers use vanes or baffles to mix the air
or gases.
There is not much difference in ignition duration between liquid fuels (such as kerosene)
and natural gas. In some gas turbines, the liners (flame tubes) may be different lengths for
some fuels. Heavier fuels that burn slower will require longer flame tubes so that each
fuel particle has a longer period of time to burn completely.
The flame tube is the hottest part of the system and generally is the first to wear out. They
either burn through or distort past manufacturer's specifications. Therefore, it is very
important to ensure proper cooling within the combustor.
22
Gas Turbines
The transition piece connects the combustion chamber to the turbine and is a duct or NOTES
passage long enough to make sure that the hot air is thoroughly mixed so that there are no
remaining hot gas pockets.
Styles of Combustion Chambers (Combustors)

The can type chamber is most often used on engines with centrifugal compressors. Each
shell has a liner and a fuel nozzle (Figure 28).
Figure 28 - Can type combustion chamber.

Annular type chambers are used with axial flow compressors. They have one housing
around the shaft and one undivided liner inside the housing (Figure 29). The fuel nozzles
are evenly spaced around the liner. They are very efficient and light, but cannot be
repaired without extensive engine disassembly.
Figure 29 - Annular combustion chamber.
23
Gas Turbines
NOTES The can-annular chamber is a combination of both can and annular types. They are used
with axial flow compressors. They have individual cans (liners) mounted in an annular
case (Figure 30). The cans are individual combustion chambers with their own injectors
that are interconnected by small passages, sometimes called crossfire tubes, that enable
the flame to pass to each can during start-up. The advantage of this arrangement is that it
provides a rigid assembly and parts can be replaced individually.
Figure 30 - Can-annular combustion chamber.
The Igniter
The igniter is normally a spark ignition system in which high energy is discharged from a
capacitor to the ignition lead and through to the igniter plug. This process is very similar
to the spark ignition system of an automobile engine. Unlike the automotive application
however, the igniter of the gas turbine is used only during start-up cycles. After start-up,
the continuous flame ignites the incoming fuel. The turbine may only have one or two
igniters for the whole engine; the second igniter is for backup. With the can type, there
will have to be an igniter for each can.
Fuel Nozzle (Fuel Injector, Atomizer or Vaporizer)

The fuel injector is used to spray the fuel in a fine mist for combustion. Fuel injectors can
also be called atomizers or vaporizers. Some combustion chambers have spiral vanes
before the injector to cause the combustion air (primary air) to swirl and mix with the
fuel. The fuels used in gas turbine fuel injectors are either liquid or gaseous.
Liquid fuels are injected into the combustor by two basic methods.
• The first is to use an atomizer, which sprays a fine mist into the chamber. The
fuel is burned in this form. This is the usual system.
• The second way is to vaporize the fuel with heat in the combustion chamber.
Fuel is metered into a tube surrounded by combustion gases that evaporate the
fuel. The fuel mixture is discharged into the combustion chamber where it is
mixed with more air and ignited.
24
Gas Turbines
Gaseous fuels use larger injector nozzles than liquid fuels because the fuels are already in NOTES
a vapour form.
Some combustion chambers can be changed from gaseous fuels to oil fuels (kerosene)
during operation without any adverse effect. Gas turbines can use almost any fuel for
combustion, but because distillate fuels (such as kerosene and heavy residual oils) leave
residue downstream, gaseous fuels (such as natural gas or butane) are preferred. Liquid
fuels can also cause serious damage to the turbine blades if the atomizer is not working
properly. This happens when the burning liquid is not completely atomized. Unburned
fuel travels to the turbine where it will pit and wear down the blades.
Turbine Power Assembly

The turbine assembly has two main parts:
• nozzles (stationary), often called turbine nozzle vanes, turbine guide vanes,
nozzle diaphragms, or nozzle guide vanes and
• turbine rotor (rotating turbine wheels) (Figure 31).
The turbine assembly harnesses the power of the hot expanding gases. The turbine has to
withstand the greatest stress from heating and loading. Large turbines are usually axial
flow with alternating rows of rotating and stationary blades (nozzles). The blading
arrangement for gas turbines is very similar in appearance to that of a steam turbine and
the same principles of expansion through the blades apply. You will notice that each
consecutive turbine wheel is larger than the previous one. This is required to handle the
increased volume of gas as it is expanded in the nozzles and turbine blades.
Gas turbine blades and nozzles are subject to very high temperature and expansion
factors. Gas turbine blades are made from special materials and may use secondary air for
internal cooling. They also have a lower ratio of blade length to wheel diameter than
steam turbines. This means that the blades are generally made shorter to be able to
withstand the high rotational and consequently high surface speeds.
Figure 31 - Turbine rotor assembly.
25
Gas Turbines
NOTES Nozzles
The nozzles are located after the combustion chamber and just before the turbine blades.
Nozzles use reaction-type blades that are fastened in a stationary diaphragm that holds
them in an equally spaced circular pattern (Figure 32). The nozzles use the convergent-
divergent principle (Bernoulli's principle) to increase the velocity of the gases when they
move through the blades. They are also set at a specific angle so they discharge the mass
gas flow from the combustion chamber into extremely high-speed jets toward the turbine
rotor blades. The diaphragm has an inner shroud and an outer shroud with the blades
fixed between them. The diaphragm is usually split in two halves for easy installation and
repair.
Figure 32 - Nozzle diaphragms.

Nozzles are often made of high-strength steel to withstand the direct impact of hot high-
pressure, high-velocity gases from the combustion chamber. To increase the endurance of
the nozzles, new alloys, ceramic, ceramic coating and air-cooled nozzle vanes are being
used. Some gas turbines will use nozzle vanes (blades) built with many small holes or
slots on the leading and trailing edges where secondary air is forced through them for
cooling (Figure 33).
Figure 33 - Air cooling of the nozzle vanes.
Turbine Rotor
The turbine rotor (Figure 31) is an assembly that consists of:
• shaft,
• discs and
• blades.
26
Gas Turbines
The rotor discs are welded or bolted to a low alloy steel shaft. The turbine exerts a high NOTES
torque load on the shaft, which then exerts a high torque load on the compressor. The
blades on the rotor discs are attached and locked securely to the rotor with sufficient
clearance to allow for thermal expansion (Figure 34). The turbine rotor assembly is
dynamically balanced because of the high rotational speeds. The speed range of most
industrial turbine rotors is from 3600 rpm to 9000 rpm. Some small turbines may be up to
42 000 rpm. These high rotational speeds impose severe centrifugal loads on the wheels.
The temperatures are also severe, from 10500F to 23000F, which lowers the strength of
the materials. For this reason the engine speed and temperature are controlled within safe
limits by the governor and the fuel system. The compressor is usually attached to the
turbine rotor by either a splined shaft on smaller turbines or a one-piece shaft on larger,
horizontally split turbines.
Figure 34 - Methods of mounting blades on a rotor.

Blade and Disc Cooling
The nozzles (stationary blading in the diaphragm) direct the hot gases onto the rotor
blades. Rotor blades harness the energy of the hot high-velocity gases by changing it into
rotating mechanical energy. The blades and discs get very hot. Because both the nozzles
and turbine blades are subjected to extreme temperatures they must be cooled or run at
lower temperatures. To combat the heat, larger turbines have internally air-cooled blades
and discs to reduce these thermal stresses (Figure 35).
Figure 35 - Air cooling rotating blades.
27
Gas Turbines
NOTES This is done by pushing air under a thermal shield that protects the shaft and part of the
disc, which keeps the shaft from direct gas exposure. The shield directs the air to the
holes in the rotating turbine blades (Figure 36).
Figure 36 - Air cooling of the turbine section.

This cooling can reduce blade temperatures by as much as 300° C (572° F) (Figure 37).
By cooling both the turbine and nozzle blades, higher combustion temperatures are
allowed which make for a higher power, more efficient, and longer lasting turbine engine.
Figure 37 - Typical turbine blade temperatures not cooled and air-cooled.
28
Gas Turbines
Bearings, Shafts and Seals
NOTES
Bearings
Two other important components of the turbine are the bearings which support the shaft
and the shaft seals.
• The rotor(s) sit in pairs of bearings (either journal or rolling type). One of the pair
incorporates a thrust bearing assembly.
• Anti-friction turbine bearings are not standard-type bearings but are special high-
temperature, high-speed bearings.
Seals
In gas turbines, labyrinth seals are used as shaft seals on both the compressor and turbine.
These seals work the best because of the high rotational speeds, high temperatures, and
high surface speeds encountered in the gas turbine. Labyrinth seals are often assisted in
sealing by jets of air routed from the compressor section (Figure 38).
Labyrinth sealing systems are also used to keep the gases from leaking out of the casing
and between stages.
Figure 38 - Turbine bearing lubrication with air seals (labyrinth seals).
Gas Turbine Controls and Auxiliary Systems
The gas turbine control systems determine what happens during all operating conditions
including start-up, run, and shutdown. The turbine must also have auxiliary support
systems that keep the turbine operating. Auxiliary systems and control systems can
become extremely complex. Every operation and function of the turbine is monitored and
will have a shutdown sequence if there is a malfunction in the system. These protection
systems monitor the performance of the turbine. Any malfunctions are detected and shut
down by the appropriate system. Auxiliary systems help the turbine run more efficiently
within its design specifications.
29
Gas Turbines
NOTES The main systems are:
• governor control,
• lubrication system,
• fuel system,
• starting system,
• cooling system and
• instrumentation and computerized control.
Some protection systems include engine over speed (governor), high temperature, low oil
pressure, high oil temperature, flame detection, vibration and fuel pressure. These are but
a few of the controls and systems available on gas turbines. These systems are essential
for protection of the gas turbine and related equipment.
The turbine system consists of sequencing controls such as switches, relays, timers and
solid state devices. These sequencing controls determine start-up, ignition, acceleration
and run. Most overriding controls are computerized remote controls or programmable
logic controllers (PLCs).
Governor Control
The governor's purpose is to automatically control the turbine speed under varying loads.
The governors provide automatic regulation of fuel and compressor vanes (where
applicable) for both starting and normal operation of the gas turbine. These controls can
be very complex, depending on the installation of the turbine, the degree of automation,
environment, and the operating characteristics of the turbine.
Lubrication Systems
The lubrication system supplies oil to the bearings for lubrication and cooling. Depending
on the turbine size, the lube oil may also be used for hydraulic operation of its controls.
Synthetic oils with low viscosity (thin oil) and high viscosity index are recommended for
gas turbines because of their high quality and better resistance to high temperature
oxidation than petroleum oils. Gears of the turbine's accessory drives will have their own
pumps and reservoirs. Most larger gas turbines require a Lubrication Oil Console Control
System which will have at least two systems; one for active use and the other for standby.
The lubrication system will have oil coolers that are thermostatically controlled to avoid
over-cooling the lubricant. Some turbines may have a gravity rundown tank so that in
case of an emergency shutdown, oil will drain from this reservoir to the bearings while
the turbine is running down. Some turbines may have oil pumps that are driven separately
from the turbine by electric motors. This is so that maximum oil pressure can always be
ensured during start-up, operation and shut down. Small turbines will have integral oil
pumps mounted to the engine. Lube filtration is important. The lubrication system uses a
filtration system that may use magnetic plugs and edge-type filters or pleated-type
elements or a combination of filters.
Fuel Systems
Fuels used in gas turbines can be gaseous or liquid. Liquid systems will require a storage
tank, fuel pump, and filters. The filters are required to remove solids in the fuel as they
could damage the blading if not removed. Some fuels contain sulphur and other
chemicals, which may corrode metal. Salt air from seacoast locations may also have the
same effect and corrode the internal parts of the gas turbine.
30
Gas Turbines
Some stationary power plants may use heavy residual oil (bunker fuel) at reduced cost, NOTES
but sometimes the more expensive fuels are cheaper to use in the long run because of
lower maintenance costs.
Solid Fuels for Gas Turbines

There have been some experiments to use coal, wood and peat as fuels for gas turbines.
Natural Gas
Natural gas (methane and some ethane) is the ideal fuel for stationary gas turbines, but
gaseous fuels are not practical for mobile applications. No vaporization is needed.
Natural gas is also a very clean fuel with no contaminants to cause blade deposits,
corrosion or erosion. There are very few pollutants from natural gas emissions. One
shortcoming is that natural gas from the utility line may require a pressure booster. In
some installations sulphur-bearing natural gas is used. This causes corrosion to turbine
parts and also leads to pollution. There are many stationary industrial gas turbines that
use natural gas.
LPG
LPG gas (propane) has excellent burning characteristics, which are practically identical to
those of natural gas. The cost of the fuel is more than natural gas.
Liquid Fuel
The most common fuel used in gas turbines is in liquid form because most gas turbines
are used for aircraft and marine applications. Some of the most common fuels are listed
below:
• alcohol,
• kerosene,
• gasoline,
• stove oil,
• diesel,
• heavy residual oil (bunker oil) and
• blend of diesel and gasoline (common).
Starting Systems
A gas turbine is not self-starting. Thus, a starting motor is an essential auxiliary. Under
operating conditions air is supplied by the compressor driven by the compressor turbine.
On start-up the gas turbine needs a large supply of high-pressure air. To get this the gas
turbine must be rotated to about 20% to 30% of its maximum speed before the fuel is
turned on. This is done to give sufficient air compression so that when fuel is injected the
flame is travelling in the correct direction and so the gas turbine will have enough power
to drive the compressor and maintain a speed increase. An electric starter motor, diesel
engine, small steam turbine or a small gas turbine can be used to turn the gas turbine. The
starter may have a speed increaser to drive the turbine. Once the gas turbine is started the
starter is uncoupled from the turbine shaft.
Cooling Systems
Gas turbines have cooling systems to keep the lube oil and power turbine sections within
operating range. These systems can be completely air-cooled, but in stationary
applications liquid cooling is often used for the lube oil cooling and external cooling of
31
Gas Turbines
NOTES the power turbine. All internal cooling of the blades and discs is accomplished using
secondary air that is diverted from the low-pressure sections of the compressor.
Instrumentation and Computerized Control

Protective devices, like governors for speed protection, pyrometers or heat sensors for
detection of overheating, vibration detectors and eccentricity detectors are part of the
instrumentation to keep the turbine operating safely.
A complex system of controls is used for gas turbines that are in remote areas and
operated by microwave or phone wires.
Temperature measurements
The highest temperature on the unit is found at the point where the heated air leaves the
combustion chamber.
The power that the turbine develops can be determined by measuring the temperature
before and after the turbine wheels. These values will give an indication of the energy
harnessed by the turbine.
Instrumentation
The amount of instrumentation associated with a gas turbine can vary considerably, but
would ordinarily include indications of the following variables:
• rpm of power turbine,
• rpm of gas generating turbine (if separate),
• inlet air temperature,
• gas temperature before the turbine,
• gas temperature after the turbine,
• exhaust temperature,
• lubricating oil pressure,
• oil tank level,
• oil cooler temperature, in,
• oil cooler temperature, out,
• surge conditions,
• vibration measurements on various parts of the engine and
• fuel supply pressure.
32
Gas Turbines
NOTES
Objective Four
Describe inspection, servicing and maintenance procedures for gas turbines.
Safety Considerations
When working on and around gas turbines there are several precautions you must follow
to avoid injury to yourself and others.
• Follow all the rules and general safe working practices when working around gas
turbines. (See the Introduction and Safety module for more information on
general safety rules.)
• Obey and practice the lockout and tag policies that are stated for all other
machines.
• Hearing protection is mandatory when working around a gas turbine that is in
operation due to the very high frequency noise which will cause hearing loss.
• Special consideration should be given to the high heat involved in a gas turbine
that is in operation or when it has just been shut down. Do not commence work
until the turbine has cooled sufficiently. Use protective clothes if operations must
be performed while the turbine is still hot.
• Do not enter any of the inlet ducting to make inspections or corrections while the
turbine is operating because the suction of the compressor may draw you into the
turbine machine.
Factors Affecting Maintenance and Overhaul

Gas turbines are high-performance machines with many parts under high heat and stress.
This will mean that the maintenance can not be ignored. When maintenance is required, it
must be done or very expensive breakdowns will occur. The maintenance and overhaul
requirements of the gas turbine engine, as for any type of engine, are determined by the
requirements of the individual installation. Each make and type of turbine has different
overhaul and maintenance procedures. The older turbines may not have the most current
high-quality metallurgy in their components and may require more frequent attention.
The manufacturer's service manuals and consultants should be the final authority on
procedures and practices for repairing gas turbines.
The most important factors related to the frequency of engine maintenance and overhaul
are:
• type of operation,
• fuel type and quality and
• conditions in which the machine operates.
The larger industrial turbine engines are generally serviced and overhauled on site. This
overhaul usually requires shutdown of operations for a short period of time. Gas turbines
that are designed for stationary industrial applications will tend to be more robust and
may not require as frequent maintenance as the turbines originally designed for aircraft.
Gas turbines that were originally built for aircraft and modified for industrial use are
designed to be compact and light; thus aircraft-type gas turbine engines may have
compromises with respect to endurance and life. Consequently, these engines may
require more frequent and sophisticated inspection, maintenance and overhaul.
33
Gas Turbines
NOTES This disadvantage is in part offset by separable, easily handled subassemblies. Many of
these turbines are built in a modular construction (Figure 39). These features permit the
changing of the engine's prebalanced components or even a complete engine replacement
in several hours. This reduces downtime and maintenance costs. These engines are
normally sent to the manufacturer for rebuilding.
Figure 39 - A modularized gas turbine assembly.

Figure 39 shows an industrial version of an aero-engine, which has been modified by
removing the LP compressor and LP turbine modules.
Type of Operation
The ‘hot section' parts of the gas turbine engine will give the most problems even though
they are designed to operate over a wide temperature range. These hot section
components are the combustion chambers, transition piece liners, turbine nozzles, and
blades. Inspection and maintenance requirements will increase due to the thermal shock
resulting from extreme load fluctuations. Several factors that affect maintenance are the
frequency of start-up, inlet temperature, and maximum operating temperature.
Frequent starts and stops may be considered one of the most significant factors in the
overall maintenance requirements of the gas turbine. Engine start-ups can produce
temperatures higher than normal. These frequent starts produce abnormal thermal stress
in the engine components like the combustion chamber and turbine section. Engines that
start up twice a day for peak power loads will need more frequent maintenance than
engines that run at a steady speed and load. Under these steady state conditions engines
may run for several years without major overhauls. If excessively hot gas stream
temperatures exist, they should be followed by prompt inspection and maintenance. This
may prevent costly repairs later.
As a rule, gas turbine engines are designed to operate at high temperature levels to gain
maximum thermal efficiency. The development and use of high temperature alloys and
ceramics have greatly increased the life expectancy and performance of hot section
components. When the inlet temperatures are higher than normal this will result in higher
combustion temperatures. Operation above the maximum recommended temperatures
34
Gas Turbines
will increase the frequency and requirements for inspection and repair for these NOTES
components.
Type and Quality of Fuel

Natural gas and propane provide excellent fuels for stationary gas turbine engines, but
when they are not practical or available, distillate or liquid fuels are used. Units burning
natural gas or other clean gases will require less maintenance because they burn clean and
do not leave deposits on the blades.
Some liquid and gaseous fuels may contain corrosive and erosive contaminants like
sulphur that will adversely affect engine life and performance. If the components of the
gas supply are unknown, the gas should be analyzed to determine the quantity and quality
of contaminants that may harm engine components. If fuel of questionable nature is to be
used, consult the manufacturer for recommendations on that particular engine. One of the
disadvantages of liquid fuels is that they can cause erosion of the blades if the fuel is not
fully vaporized and some of these fuels leave deposits on the blades.
Operating Conditions
A gas turbine passes large volumes of air through its system. Contaminants in the engine
air supply, such as dust and smoke, can form deposits on engine blades and reduce its
efficiency. Abrasive particles can scar or erode the blades. Foreign chemicals in the air
supply, salt spray from coastal locations or unatomized fuel can cause pitting of the
internal parts. These will all lead to a reduction in the efficiency in the compressor and
turbine and require extra maintenance.
Inspection of the Turbine

Routine inspections include the usual examination of external lines, connections and
engine mounts. Attention should be given to signs of engine vibration. In cases where
ingested foreign objects damage the compressor or turbine blades, a very high frequency
vibration may result. This type of vibration has a very small amplitude, but can be very
damaging due to the high frequency. Most gas turbines will have vibration
instrumentation for continuous or frequent vibration checks.
You can inspect the first stage of compressor blading for damage or dust accumulation
without much disassembly. Some industrial atmospheres may form an oily dust deposit,
which may cause a loss of power and an increase in fuel consumption. You may also find
blade erosion from sand particles. If you find compressor blade build up, it can normally
be washed off.
The last stage of the turbine blading will be reasonably accessible and should be
examined for possible damage. Its condition will be a good indicator of the condition of
other stages.
Other checks require more extensive removal of parts, but are necessary for proper
inspection. Combustion chambers, turbine inlet vanes, and fuel nozzles should be
examined if the turbine temperatures are above normal. These high temperatures may be
caused by dirt in a fuel nozzle or turbine blading deterioration from over-temperature
operation. It is important that defective fuel nozzles be replaced promptly, as serious
damage can result from continuous over-temperature operation. Pyrometer readings are
often good indicators of potential problems.
35
Gas Turbines
NOTES On larger gas turbine machines, there will often be access points for inspecting various
parts of the turbine and compressor with tools like borescopes or fibrescopes. This makes
it possible to make correct diagnosis without major dismantling of the machine.
It is a good practice to manually rotate the engine very slowly without the fuel flow to
check for excessive interference and rubbing of air seals or blades.
Engine Wash System

Many of the gas turbines are equipped with a wash system that is used to remove the
build-up on the compressor blades (Figure 40). Contaminants will gradually build up on
the blades from contaminants in the air. This will lead to a reduction in compressor
efficiency. Periodically, (approximately every month) a cleaning solution is sprayed onto
the compressor blades as it is turning. This can be done with the turbine driven by the
starting mechanism or during the operation of the gas turbine. First a soak cleaning fluid
is sprayed into the compressor blades, followed by spraying a wash-off fluid and finally
an inhibiting fluid.
Figure 40 - Gas turbine wash and safety systems.
Troubleshooting
The following are some of the typical symptoms encountered on gas turbines.
Power Loss and High Fuel Consumption

Loss of power and high fuel consumption can be caused by dirt deposits on compressor
blading from airborne dust. You should use the wash system first to remove these
deposits. If the wash is not effective, clean the blades by introducing a cleaning material
(usually ground walnut shells) into the compressor inlet while the engine is running.
Damaged turbine blading can cause similar problems. Low turbine inlet temperature and
low fuel flow may indicate a defective fuel control.
36
Gas Turbines
Vibration Problems
NOTES
High-frequency vibration is checked with a vibration analyzer and is usually at the same
frequency as, or a multiple of, engine speed. Vibration may be caused by excessive
rubbing between a large diameter rotor and seal, or between blade tips and a shroud.
Vibration also results from out-of-balance conditions, usually from broken or damaged
blading in the turbine or compressor. (See Vibration Analysis and Balancing modules.)
High Combustion Temperature

Since the gas turbine is sensitive to excessive turbine inlet temperature, it may be
necessary on occasion to record the temperature during a starting cycle or to check the
temperature distribution around the combustion chambers to determine if one nozzle or
one combustion chamber is malfunctioning. Most gas turbines will be equipped with
pyrometers around the combustion section. These will give an idea where problems may
be. The fuel control system may require examination.
Failure to Start
A defective fuel control or lack of ignition are the usual reasons for failure to start. Most
engines have one or two igniters for ignition even though there may be a greater number
of combustion chambers. At least one igniter is required to start the combustion, and the
flame then travels through crossover tubes to all combustors.
Repair and Overhaul

Generally major components and accessories are reasonably accessible. Large stationary
turbines are horizontally split to allow access and inspection to both the compressor and
turbine sections. Other designs are adapted to sectionalized repair techniques. The repair
can frequently be accomplished by replacing components and sending the damaged ones
to a repair or overhaul shop. On some engines it is possible to remove a portion of the
casing to replace damaged blades at the installation site if only a limited number of
blades are damaged. This is usually done by replacement of each blade with another
blade having the same moment-balance.
All major assembly or component repair is a specialized operation and must be

accomplished according to the engine manufacturer's specification. It is a good practice
to get a representative from the manufacturer to oversee any major overhauls. These
people will have current information on upgrades and problem areas for their machines.
The overhaul of gas turbines may include such operations as the following.
• Perform a precision balance of all high-speed rotor assemblies.
• Inspect for cracks in all highly stressed parts, such as turbine and compressor
blades and wheels, engine shafting, gears, welded joints, sheet metal assemblies,
etc. Magnetic parts may be examined by magnetic particle inspection. Turbines
have many non-magnetic materials, like stainless steel, titanium, and other high-
temperature materials, which can be examined by fluorescent penetrant
inspection with ultraviolet light.
• Most gas turbines contain large diameter labyrinth seals, which must be
examined for excessive rubbing. These may require reworking to remove burrs
that have been raised by normal light rubbing.
• The electronic equipment used in governor and fuel control systems must be
checked to assure proper control of turbine operation.
37
Gas Turbines
NOTES
Objective Five
Describe installation and start-up procedures for gas turbines.
Installation of Gas Turbines

Installation requirements for industrial gas turbine engines are as many and varied as the
number of applications. Each location and engine will have certain features, which will
be peculiar to that installation. Only the fundamental requirements common to most
industrial gas turbine installations will be addressed here.
Installation Considerations
Most industrial gas turbines are supplied complete with an integral base or skid to support
the basic engine and accessories required for each particular installation. These will
include a starting motor, accessories gearbox, fuel and lubrication pumps, auxiliary fuel
and lubrication pumps, and a reduction gearbox if required. In some instances the base
may be extended to support the driven component (such as pumps or generators). The
bases are designed so that pockets of inflammable fuel or lubricating oil vapour are not
trapped. General construction safety procedures should be followed to ensure that the
installation is adequately safeguarded against hazards. If engines are to be installed in a
foundation pit of any kind, forced ventilation of the pit should be provided.
A few distinct installation advantages of industrial gas turbines are the light weight and
very low vibration of the unit. Some installation observations are as follows.
• It is a good practice to use isolation pads or mounts between the turbine and the
foundation that prevent the transfer of vibration between other machines and the
turbine.
• Gas turbines do not require massive foundations as other prime movers do.
• Rooftops can be practical locations to mount gas turbines.
Inlet and Exhaust Ducting

The inlet and exhaust ducting used in the installation of an industrial gas turbine are
largely dependent on the special requirements of the application (Figure 41).
Inlet ducting will be required to connect the intake filter, cooler, or silencer as needed
with the engine intake. Thermal expansion at the intake is not a problem, but an
expansion joint should be provided. Expansion bellows of the rubberized fabric type will
usually be adequate.
Careful installation and design of the intake system is important. A 1% loss in intake
pressure results in approximately 2½ % loss in engine power. Where a 90° change in
direction of the airstream is required, vanes to help the air make the transition should be
built into the corners to prevent air turbulence. Elbows with a bend radius of 3 times the
diameter of the duct or pipe give a loss of about 15% of dynamic head of air velocity.
Sudden increases in duct cross-section area should be avoided. If it is necessary to draw

air out from the inlet plenum for other purposes where the air velocity is relatively low,
use a bell mouth entry to the duct. This will minimize the effect on the inlet airflow to the
gas turbine compressor.
38
Gas Turbines
Exhaust ducting may lead directly to the stack, or it may pass through a recuperative heat NOTES
exchanger if one is used. Some exhaust ducting may lead to a boiler (cogeneration
system), silencer or other unit or combination of units before entering the stack.
Figure 41 - A skid-mounted gas turbine installation.
Mild steel exhaust ducting is adequate for most installations up to a gas temperature of
approximately 900° F. Above this temperature, specialized alloy steels should be used to
minimize corrosion. Expansion joints in exhaust ducting should be used to accommodate
considerable thermal expansion at the hot end of the engine. These should be fabricated
from an appropriate stainless steel. Exhaust ducting restrictions should be avoided
because it will adversely affect the gas turbine performance. A 1% increase in the gas
turbine's exhaust back pressure will lead to a decrease in available power of about 1.5%.
Liquid Cooling Systems

Not all gas turbines require water, as some are air-cooled. In stationary applications,
where weight and size are not a concern, water-cooling is often used. Liquid cooling may
be used in an evaporative air inlet cooler, lubricating oil cooler, gas compressor inter-
cooler or waste heat boiler. This equipment requires separate pumping systems.
39
Gas Turbines
NOTES Turbine Noise Reduction
Gas turbines can be noisy. The sound generated is largely in the intake and exhaust.
Many installations have sound-absorbent materials in the walls and roof of the turbine
building. Some of the thermal insulation around the engine also acts to dampen noise. In
many installations, the exhaust has sound-deadening material lining the inside of the
exhaust stack. The exhaust aerodynamics are also carefully designed to reduce noise.
Thermal Insulation
Thermal insulation is used to cover the turbine combustion system casings, exhaust ducts,
heat exchanger ducting and boilers. This insulation is required for personal protection, to
avoid excessive heat release to the building and to reduce sound transmission. Thermal
insulation also reduces system losses and increases operating efficiency. Special
consideration should be given to how the insulation covers the engine casings so that
component removal or inspection is not made difficult. In low-velocity sections of the
exhaust ducting, thermal insulation may be installed in the inside rather than the outside
of the duct to provide absorption of high-frequency noises which would otherwise be
radiated up the stack. Inside heated buildings, insulation of the intake system will avoid
condensation and frost formation on the ducting.
Accessibility
Space should be provided for adequate access to the gas turbine for maintenance. This
should include clearance for removal of parts, and a place to store them while further
work is being done. This problem is made more difficult by overhead ductwork and
piping and can be simplified by proper lifting equipment. Large openings may be
required to pass a gas turbine to its mounting position, but this should not be necessary
unless the whole unit is removed. Permanent passages and doorways must be large
enough to accommodate the largest individual part.
Gas Turbine Start-Up

Before starting a turbine, you must check all systems for proper operation. The start-up
should not take place unless all the checks are complete and competent personnel are
present. The manufacturer will provide instructions for and in many cases supervise the
initial start-ups on new machines. Existing installations will have the start-up procedures
in place to be performed by the plant operators. Typical pre-start-up checks include:
• the lubricating system is properly connected and complete
• check the lubricating oil level in the reservoir
• coupling guards must be in place
• control circuits must be energized or pressurized
• all insulation doors and blankets should be in place
• all trips are reset
• all covers are on and secured
• the throttles are at minimum fuel flow
• all auxiliary equipment is ready to run
• any exhaust or intake dampers are open
• all safety locks and tags are removed
• the driven machine is capable of being operated
40
Gas Turbines
NOTES
Self-Test
Answer true or false to the following statements.
1. The gas turbine is an internal combustion engine.

a) true
b) false
2. The gas turbine is a constant flow engine.

a) true
b) false
3. The main parts of a gas turbine are the compressor, combustion chamber and the
turbine.
a) true
b) false
4. The gas turbine is a very efficient engine.

a) true
b) false
5. In a split shaft gas turbine engine, the power turbine is connected to the compressor.
a) true
b) false
6. Reaction blades on turbine engines harness the energy only due to the redirection of
gases.
a) true
b) false
7. Reaction blades are symmetrical and have a space between the two blades that is
equal.
a) true
b) false
8. Nozzles are stationary and have blades that are shaped like reaction blades.
a) true
b) false
9. The events of operation of a gas turbine are intake, compression, power and exhaust,
in that order.
a) true
b) false
10. The highest pressures in a gas turbine are in the diffuser.

a) true
b) false
11. The diffuser is downstream of the turbine blades.

a) true
b) false
41
Gas Turbines
NOTES 12. One stage in a gas turbine consists of a set of nozzles and a row of turbine blades.
a) true
b) false
13. The gas pressures in a gas turbine combustion chamber are very high.
a) true
b) false
14. The turbine nozzles convert pressure in the hot gasses to high velocity.
a) true
b) false
15. Restrictions in the air intake of gas turbines are not critical.
a) true
b) false
16. The two types of air compressors used in gas turbines are centrifugal and axial flow.
a) true
b) false
17. Axial flow compressors have stationary blades attached to the stator housing which
change the high velocity air to higher pressure.
a) true
b) false
18. The combustion chamber contains a liner, fuel injector, igniter and an air swirler.
a) true
b) false
19. The secondary air in the combustion chamber is used primarily for combustion.
a) true
b) false
20. The turbine section of the gas turbine engine has stationary nozzles and rotary turbine
wheels.
a) true
b) false
21. The rotating speed of a gas turbine is relatively slow; thus, contact seals are most
often used.
a) true
b) false
22. The turbine section nozzles and turbine blades are often cooled with air from the
compressor section that is passed through holes in the blades.
a) true
b) false
23. Gas turbines often use labyrinth and air seals for their lubrication system.
a) true
b) false
42
Gas Turbines
24. The temperatures before and after the turbine blades are measured with pyrometers. NOTES
a) true
b) false
25. Most gas turbines can be used efficiently at any speed and therefore do not require a
gear reducer.
a) true
b) false
26. Modular construction is one method of keeping gas turbine maintenance easier and
quicker.
a) true
b) false
27. Buildup of materials on the compressor blades has no direct effect on the engine's
performance.
a) true
b) false
28. Many of the engine parts are non-magnetic and must be carefully checked for cracks
and fatigue, using dye penetrant and/or ultrasonic methods.
a) true
b) false
29. Gas turbine inlet and exhaust ducting must not restrict air and gas flow.
a) true
b) false
30. Some gas turbines installations will use regenerators to increase their efficiency.
a) true
b) false
43
Gas Turbines
NOTES
Self-Test Answers
1. a) true 2. a) true 3. a) true 4. b) false 5. b) false
6. b) false 7. b) false 8. a) true 9. a) true 10. a) true
11. b) false 12. a) true 13. b) false 14. a) true 15. b) false
16. a) true 17. a) true 18. a) true 19. b) false 20. a) true
21. b) false 22. a) true 23. a) true 24. a) true 25. b) false
26. a) true 27. b) false 28. a) true 29. a) true 30. a) true
44
Gas Turbines
This learning material is the result of a collaborative effort between Alberta Advanced
Education and the apprenticeship training providers in Alberta.
Keyano College, Lakeland College,

Lethbridge Community College, Medicine Hat College,
Northern Alberta Institute of Technology,
Olds College, Red Deer College,
Southern Alberta Institute of Technology
Alberta Apprenticeship
Excellence Through
Training and Experience
Module Number 160401f
Version 2.0
The Individual Learning Modules Initiative is committed to continuous updating and is interested in your
comments regarding technical accuracy and clarity of presentation. Please visit our web site to register your
comment. To view the ongoing discussion, go to the Bulletin Board.
www.tradesecrets.gov.ab.ca/ilm
The Individual Learning Modules Initiative would like to thank the many companies for their contribution and
gratefully acknowledges their valuable input. A complete listing of contributors can be found at our web site.

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160401f

Figure 1 - Hero's aeolipile.

Figure 2 - Leonardo da Vinci's chimney "turbine".

The Gas Turbine Today

Figure 3 - A small split shaft gas turbine.

Figure 4 - A basic aircraft turbine engine.

Figure 5 - A twin shaft stationary turbine engine with a gear reduction.

Stationary Industrial Applications

Figure 6 - A single shaft industrial gas turbine with an external combustion

Figure 7 - A gas turbine directly coupled to a centrifugal gas compressor.

Advantages of Gas Turbines

High Horsepower per Dollar Installed Cost

Low Maintenance Costs

Quick Start to Full Load Operation

Disadvantages of Gas Turbines

High Noise Level

Experienced Technicians Required

High Air Intake

Complex Control System

Basic Categories for Gas Turbines

Figure 8 - Single shaft turbine.

Figure 9 - Split shaft turbine.

Figure 10 - Twin spool turbine with a power turbine.

Axial Flow Compressors

Gas Turbine Sections

Gas Generation Section

Figure 11 - A single shaft gas turbine.

Gas Turbine Operating Cycles

Semi-Closed Cycle Gas Turbine

Figure 12 - Gas turbine using a regeneration system.

Cogeneration (Combined Steam-Gas Plants)

Basic Turbine Principles

Newton's Third Law

Figure 13 - An illustration of Newton's third law.

Figure 14 - Bernoulli's principle illustrated.

Figure 15 - Impulse blading.

Figure 16 - Reaction blading.

Figure 17 - Turbine blade profile.

Nozzles (Stationary Blades)

Figure 18 - Typical nozzle in a gas turbine.

Figure 19 - Events in a typical gas turbine engine.

Figure 20 - Comparison of events in gas turbine and piston engines.

Gas Turbine Components

Figure 21 - Inlet and exhaust ducting for a stationary gas turbine.

Figure 22 - Types of turbine compressors.

Radial Flow (Centrifugal) Compressor

Figure 23 - Operation of a centrifugal compressor.

Axial Flow Compressor

Figure 24 - Rotor and housing from an axial flow compressor.

Figure 25 - A typical industrial axial flow compressor.

Figure 26 - Blades mounted on a compressor wheel.

Combustion Chamber Parts and Operation

Figure 27 - Combustion chamber zones.

Primary Air and Secondary Air

Styles of Combustion Chambers (Combustors)

Figure 28 - Can type combustion chamber.

Figure 29 - Annular combustion chamber.

Figure 30 - Can-annular combustion chamber.

Fuel Nozzle (Fuel Injector, Atomizer or Vaporizer)

Turbine Power Assembly