Contents

Unit-1
Physics and the Laws of Nature
Units of Length, Mass and Time
Dimensional Analysis
Significant Figures
Converting Units
Order-of-Magnitude Calculations
Scalars and Vectors
Problem Solving in Physics

Unit-2
Position, Distance and Displacement
Average Speed and Velocity
Instantaneous Velocity
Acceleration
Motion with Constant Acceleration
Applications of the Equations of Motion
Freely Falling Objects

Unit-3
Scalars Versus Vectors
The Components of a Vector
Adding and Subtracting Vectors
Unit Vectors
Position, Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Vectors
Realite Motion

Unit-4
Motion in Two Dimensions
Projectile Motion: Basic Equations
Zero Launch Angle
General Launch Angle
Projectile Motion: Key Characteristics

Unit-5
Force and Mass
Newton's First Law of Motion
Newton's Second Law of Motion
Newton's Third Law of Motion
The Vector Nature of Forces: Forces in Two Dimensions
Weight
Normal Forces

bod = benefit of the doubt

nbod = not benefit of the doubt
nb = take note of
.
. . = therefore

R.T.Q. = read the question

E.T. = exam technique

^ = nearly
? = amused/confused (and accompanying sarcastic comment)
Force

A force is any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object.

Force is a vector.

there are two types of force,

contact non-contact

friction gravitational force

drag magnetic force

normal (reaction) nuclear force

applied electric force

Powers

T tera = x1012
G giga = x109
M mega = x106
K kilo = x103
C centi = x10-2
m milli = x10-3
µ micro = x10-6
n nano = x10-9
p pico = x10-12

Units, Dimensions and Dimensional Analysis

A unit units are standards for measurement of physical quantities that need clear definitions to be
useful.
 units help determine unknown quantities from graphs
derived units in base SI

Equations must be dimensionally accurate.

different units cannot be added or subtracted,

the units of both sides of the equation must match

SI units

meter length
second time
candela luminous intensity
kelvin temperature
mole amount of substance
ampere current
kilogram mass

You can calculate two additional quantities on a graph

the gradient of a graph gives another value

area under line

derived units

F=m.a

N = kg . ms-2

pressure = force / area

pa = N / m2 = kg / m s2
 E = mc2
J= kg m2 /s2

V= W/Q

voltage = work done (J) / charge (c)

current = charge / time

A=c/s

A.s = charge

kg m2 /s2 . 1/A.s

kg m2 / s3 A

Lord Feeney warns us to be careful with quantities and units

determining the dimensions of coefficients/constants/unknown

Powers and Scales, Orders of Magnitude

significant figures

scientific numbers, powers of 10

quark
estimated mass and energy:

2MeV

2 . 106 . 1.6 x 10-19

= 3.2 x 10-13 J

E = mc2
m = E/c2
distance to sun
150 million km

light year
9.46 × 1012 km

parsecs
based on parallax error
should be perpendicular to measurement device/display

astronomical unit (au)

150 million km
distance from earth to sun
inside the solar system

p.s.: the only reason there are so many numbers on the whiteboard is because we are seeing
where scales are used
Rounding

N.B. → propagation of error

do not round a series of numbers or calculations or the cumulative effects make the
answer wrong

Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy is the correctness of the result.

Precision is the reproducibility of the result.

If an experiment is precise, it means the data are close to each other

could be determined by looking at the data and the scatter graph

Precision is the amount of significant digits that a device can measure to.

Significant figures have rules.

Non-zero digits are always significant.

Any zeros between two significant digits are significant.
Only a final zero or trailing zeros in the decimal portion are significant.
Zeroes that express real, exact numbers are significant. Like apples.
Space holder zeroes are significant.

When adding/subtracting, number of decimals are considered,

When multiplying/dividing, number of significant figures are considered,

The answer is rounded accordingly.

Accuracy is measured by percent error.

Absolute error= |measured value - accepted value|

 Percent error= absolute error/accepted value x 100 %

has no units,

The larger the percentage, the less accurate the value.

Vectors and Scalars

scalars only have magnitude

speed (km/h)
distance
mass
time

vectors have magnitude and direction

direction is shown by +/- if on a linear plane

velocity (km/h south)

displacement
acceleration
weight
momentum
force

cos for close and sin for stretch

as in what happens when we bring the angle to an axis.

tip-to-tail

watch! out! for mechanics questions

sometimes, the questions are backwards
in the sense that we are given the answer and need to work out the other things
Mechanics

Average is the mathematical mean

a quantity over a defined period

Instantaneous is the rate of a an exact time of point

acceleration is the
change in velocity

area under line is

velocity

gradient is jerk

displacement is area
under the line

gradient is acceleration
 acceleration is the area
under the line

gradient is velocity

gradient (m) on a linear graph = rise / run = y2 - y1 / x1 - x2

gradient (m) on a curved graph = same shit with two ends of the graph

IF it’s instantaneous, do it with the given point and the starting point of the graph

OR with a tangent of the line

equations of motion
if a is constant, apply 4 equations of motion

if a=0, don’t.
Av=inst
(s=d/t etc will do instead)

Vf = Vi + at
no displacement

Vf2 = Vi2 + 2ax

no time

x = Vit + ½at2
no final velocity

x = (Vf + Vi)/2 . t
no acceleration

Lord Feeney wants us to write down variables to solve mechanics problems

Relative Velocity

Relative velocity is the velocity of an object from another point of view.

hence, the word relative

when it is only in the first dimension, the relative velocity of an object is the difference between
the velocity of the object and the velocity of the point of view.

when it is on two dimensions, both x and y axes should be calculated and trigonometry is done to
find the product.

a speed

ground speed
object’s velocity/speed relative to the ground

Projectile Motion

Projectile motion is motion in two dimensions where there is a constant acceleration in one axis
and zero acceleration in the other.

motion in each axis can be treated independently AND then mutual key terms can be used to
solve the question

range = V02 sin2 θ / g

thmax =
hmax = V02 sin2 θ / 2g
tflight = 2V0 sin θ
parabolic

these only apply if Δy is zero.

GIVE TRAJECTORY EVEN IF IT IS NOT EXPLICITLY REQUESTED.

Newton’s Laws

first law (inertia)

for an object travelling at constant velocity (be that velocity zero), it will continue to do
so in the absence of an externally applied force.

second law
Fnet=ΔP/Δt, p=mv
net force is equal to the rate of change of momentum
if mass is constant:
Fnet=ma

third law
if object A exerts a force on object B, object B will exert an equal and opposite force on
object A

drag is the reaction force

human beings cannot feel velocity, we can only feel acceleration

friction
friction is a reaction force,
meaning that if no force is being applied, friction will not apply any force either.

friction acts in the opposite direction the object wants to slide

f = mN
msN

mkN
normal force (reaction/contact)

the force that acts perpendicular to a surface due to a force applied to it

V= 0, constant

a = 0, Fnet = 0

in this situation, there must be another force to cancel out weight, so that Fnet = 0

SINCE we can all sit on chairs, normal force can change to balance out different
weights, therefore it is a reaction force

common misconceptions:

normal force is equal and opposite to the weight

N and W are force pairs as predicted by Newton’s

third law

NOPE,

N can be equal and opposite to the weight,

however, consider slopes

they have to be acting on two different

objects

therefore the statements above are not valid

weight is a force, therefore has a unit of N.

the “kg” is for mass. americans are wrong, and peasants.

gravitational force is exerted between ALL MASSES

as a being with mass, you attract everything in the universe on some degree

Fg = G M1 M 2 / r 2

SO, using the info above to answer the question “what is the force pair of weight?”

it’s the gravitational force the given object exerts on the earth (assuming that is where the
experiment is conducted)

this satisfies Newton’s third law

rotating axis to be more convenient with the f.b.d.

weight
weight is a force and its unit is N. it is the force that is exerted depending on the
gravitational field the object is currently in and that is acting upon the object’s mass

w=m.g

drag
resistance against an object moving through a fluid

drag = ½ C g AV 2

!know what drag is dependent on!

velocity, surface area and the density of the fluid

this determines things like terminal velocity in free fall, and the top speed of a car.

tension
force in a string/rope/chain
acts in both directions

3 has their weight acting

downwards and tension from
rope3 acting upwards
T3 = W 3

2 has their weight and the

tension acting downwards
(from rope3) and tension2
upwards to support each other
T2 = W 2 + T 3
1 has their weight and the tension acting downwards (from rope2) and tension1 upwards to
support each other
T1 = W 1 + T 2

force pairs
are a result of Newton’s third law,

things to check are two equal and opposite forces acting on two different objects

see: walking

internal forces
are forces that have no overall effect on the system (do not appear on system calculations)
but do appear on individual components of the system

they are a result of Newton’s third law of motion

normal force

if a force is exerted on a surface,

the surface exerts back a reaction
force

that’s normal force

apparent weight

weight = mg
weight varies, mass doesn’t (assuming bits of your body don’t fall off)

this being said, your body weight on earth can vary.

 various situations like going up/down with an elevator

to accelerate upwards, Fnet=mg + ma

to accelerate downwards, Fnet=mg - ma

to stay where we are, Fnet = 0

translational equilibrium
Fnet = 0
a = 0, therefore it has a constant velocity

static equilibrium
Fnet = 0
V = 0, therefore there is no movement

springs

Hooke’s Law
F = -kx
this is the restoring force of the spring (hence the negative sign), not the force we’re
applying to it

also works with compressing a spring

when the gradient of the F (N) and x (m) graph starts to change, that means that the
spring has been broken
the point in the graph that the gradient starts to change is called the limit of
proportionality
 elastic limit, in this case

everything has an elastic limit

in some cases, when an elastic is stretched beyond its elastic limit, it turns into a plastic

Atwood’s machine

left hand sind: m1a = T - m 1g

right hand side: m2a = m2g - T

a = [(m2 - m1)/(m2+m1)] * g

the top part (m2-m1) indicates which way the system is accelerating
if m1 = m2, a = 0

if m2>m1, accelerates m2’s way

if m1>m2, accelerates m1’s way

machine questions:
8th grade science questions

this weird person only needs to apply W/2 N to pull the weight

T = W/2 N as well
Moment and Torque
rotational kinematics

The moment of a force is a measure of its tendency to cause a body to rotate about a
specific point or axis.
moment = force * perpendicular distance to pivot

perpendicular distance as in if the

force is along the x axis, the
distance from the pivot point
would be in the y axis.

M=F*x

if two forces are equal to one another and are rotating in different directions (one clockwise and
the other anti-clockwise), they cancel each other out.

if child1’s mass is equal to child2’s, the

seesaw will not rotate
 m1 = 30 kg

m2 = 300 kg

M1 = (30*9.81) N * 1.5 m

= 441.5 Nm

since M1 = M2 for the seesaw to stay in equilibrium,

M2 = (300*9.81) N * x = 441.5 Nm

x = 0.15 m

Torque is a measure of the force that can cause an object to rotate about an axis.

τ=F*d

British System of Moments

a couple is two equal and opposite forces that have distance between them

F1 and F2 create a clockwise moment

Mnet = F1 * r + F2 * r

= F1 * 2r = F * d

American System of Moments

everything is called torque
two pivot problems
consider pivot one as the pivot

calculate moments

consider pivot two as the pivot

calculate moments

equilibrium means:

Fnet = 0: translational

Mnet = 0: rotational

considering pivot 2:
any force acting at the pivot has a moment of nothing.
because perpendicular d is equal to zero

Mnet = 0 = Mperson + Mboard + MN1

= (70*9.81*2.2) + (30*9.81*1.1) - (N1*0.4)

N1 = 4586 N

considering pivot 1:

Mnet = 0 = Mperson + Mboard + MN2

= (70*9.81*2.6) + (30*9.81*1.5) - (N2*0.4)

N2 = 5567 N

For an object to be stable, its centre of mass needs to be supported, lay within the base of the
object.
ladder problems

This system is in a state of static equilibrium.

Fnet = 0

Mnet = 0

considering pivot 2:

MN2, Mf = 0 since d = 0

ΣFx = 0, N1 = fr = ΜN2

ΣFy = 0, N2 = W

ΣM = 0, 0 = MW + MN1
0 = (M2 * g * x1) + (N1 * x2)

N.B.: DO NOT MIX UP MOMENTS AND FORCES

centre of mass
points where all the mass can be considered to be concentrated

centre of gravity
also where the object’s weight can be considered to act

∑[m * rx, y, z] / mt

the location of the origin is irrelevant and is usually chosen for convenience

direction is IMPORTANT.

two special scenarios

uniform density
replace the masses with area
shapes cut out of other shapes
consider them two whole objects, the cut out part being a negative mass
Work Done, Energy, Power and Stuff

All based upon the fundamental principle that energy is conserved.

energy in = energy out

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it may only be transferred from one form to
another.

the forms of energy

kinetic energy: ½ mv2
gravitational potential energy: mgh
heat/thermal energy
light
chemical potential energy
sound/sonic energy
nuclear
elastic potential energy: ½ Fx: ½ kx2
magnetic energy
electrical potential energy

do not mix up forms and sources of energy

e.g. solar

J= kg m2 /s2

work done = energy transferred (J)

it can be work done by a system

on a system

it can be positive or negative, but it is a scalar

work = F * d

see a question, ask “by which force?” to determine whether -ve or +ve
let us consider:

American person lifts the box to h.

they needed to match weight to lift the box.

work done = F * d
=m*g*h

work done = F * d
=F*x
=m*a*x

can be tied to kinematics

Vf2 = Vi2 + 2ax
a = ( Vf2 - Vi2 ) / 2x

= m * [ ( Vf2 - Vi2 ) / 2x ] * x
= ½ mV2

you can use mechanics, dynamics and conservation of energy to solve problems and they
will get you to the same and right answer when applied correctly.

m = 25 kg

the G.P.E.
= mgh
= 25 * 9.81 * 2.98
= 730.7 J
 the child’s velocity at the end = 3 m/s
= ½ mV2
= 112.5 J
730.7 - 112.5 = 618.2 J of energy has been transferred to another type of energy

the coefficient of friction on the surface of the slide

618.2 J = F * d
= mk * N * d
= mk * N * 3.89
= mk * 157.6 * 3.89
= mk = 1.008

mechanical energy
This term allows us to simplify what energies we are talking about in a given system and
ignore a whole bunch of stuff that is constant/irrelevant.

simply, how much kinetic and potential energy a system possesses

ΣM.E.before = ΣM.E.after

Bob has gravitational potential,

thermal, chemical, electric
potential, elastic potential,
sonic, kinetic, nuclear energy.
mass-matter

when matter and antimatter meet, they annihilate

conservative and non-conservative forces

a conservative force do work that is not lost, it is stored and can be recovered

a non-conservative force do work that is lost

 if it doesn’t move, no work is done!

power
power is the rate of energy transferred

P = W / t or E / t (W)

=F*d/t
= Faverage V

power is an important quantity not just in and of itself but also as it is a commonly used
linking term. power and energy crop up in every branch of physics (for obvious reasons).
so, for example, you can directly connect electrical power of a motor which is
P = IV
= I R2
= V2 / R
and equate it to mechanical work done

efficiency
efficiency, as a word, means the productivity

for physics, efficiency = Energyuseful / Energy total * 100 %

= Power useful / Power total * 100 %

a perpetual motion machine is a mythological device that once started will move forever.
it is not possible to create one.
100% efficiency is not possible
Electrostatics

stationary charge, the thing that gives one an “electric shock”

then what is it? how is it generated? and what rules does it obey?

generally, things are neutral because atoms are neutral. meaning their electrons and protons are
balanced and they have no net charge.

electron = -ve = -1e

proton = +ve = +1e

charge is conserved, and it is quantised, i.e. it comes in multiples of the base N = e

if everything is neutral, what has to happen to build up charge?

we transfer charge from one object to the other thus both become charged.

it is always electrons / -ve moving because ripping a proton away from the nucleus is a)
hard and b) a bad idea. if an atom gains protons, the material changes.

when two materials are rubbed together, electrons are transferred. charge is a conserved quantity,
therefore,
one material is +ve and the other is -ve
charges are equal and opposite
friction provides the energy needed to remove electrons from the outer shell of an atom and
creates stationary charge.

what materials is static charge built up on?

insulators
insulators have no ‘delocalised’ free electrons. so the charge cannot flow away, it
is stuck wherever it landed on the material.

rubber, plastic, balloons, hair etc etc

electron transfer. from the person to

the door. the person is walking and
creating friction and therefore is
charged.

planet Earth is a huge neutral charge sink.

friction is a very common way to build up static charge. it is not, however, the only way to build
up charge in an object. all the methods and approaches (and indeed electric current and circuits)
are based on the fact that opposite charges attract each other and the same charges repel.
friction
conduction
induction

conduction:

if we touch them together, the charge will be

transferred

both will be negative

object 2 will still be more negative because its

size is bigger.

comes down to how densely electrons spread out, they will get as far away from
each other as possible

proportions of the total charge will match proportions of surface area

look at the numbers, see what cancels out etc etc

induction:
to induce a net charge in an object without touching it
(not to be confused with polarization, induction creates charge)

Coulomb’s Law
F = kq1*q2 / r2
k = 1/4πε0
ε0 = 8.85*10-12 m-3 kg-1 s4 A2
it is the permittivity of free space. the ability of an electric field to
propagate/travel in the given space

the speed of light = C = 1/√m0ε0 = the ability of an electric field to

travel in this space
 two charged objects will exert a force on each other as dictated by the equation above

according to Newton’s 3rd law, F1 = F2

if F is negative, they are attractive/attracted to each other

if it is positive, they repel each other

Fe = F+- - F--

F+- > F-- because r2 > r1

Circuits

circuits requires the understanding of 3 quantities and 2 laws

The Quantities

voltage, resistance and current are the three quantities

V = W/Q
voltage = work done (J) / charge (c)

V = IR
used to determine values

R = V/I

I = ΔQ/Δt
current = charge / time

voltage is work done per unit charge

resistors dissipate energy and oppose the current

current is the flow of charge, or the charge passing per second

energy = I V t
derived from V = W/Q and I = ΔQ/Δt

power = I V
derived from power = W/t, I = Q/t and V = W/Q

power = Vtotal / Rtotal

power = V2/R

the battery is an emf or voltage supply. it transfers energy to the charges/electrons. the
electrons are gaining kinetic energy and therefore moving. current is the flow of charge.
as the voltage increases, the kinetic energy increases and therefore current increases.
 if V is constant and R increases, I decreases.

an emf is a subdivision of voltage, it includes batteries, cells, power supplies.

a P.D. is another subdivision of voltage, it includes resistors, variable resistors and

thermistors.

It is the "difference" in voltage that determines the amount of current. If there is no difference of
voltage, there is no current

This is also referred to as the electric potential difference.

Kirchhoff’s Laws
The sum of the current or leaving a junction or point is equal to zero.
Iin = Iout, depending on the conservation of charge
current is the same everywhere on the system

ΣloopV = 0 OR Σloopemf = ΣloopP.D.’s

series connection means we have one connection in and one connection out
Rtotal=R1 + R2 + R3…
because Vtotal=V1 + V2 + V3…, therefore IRtotal=IR1 + IR2 + IR3…
I is the same for all because current doesn’t change throughout a series, therefore
both sides can be divided by I and we are left with Rtotal=R1 + R2 + R3…

two connections from one corner to another (there are junctions)

1/Rtotal=1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3…
because Itotal=I1 + I2 + I3…, therefore Vtotal/Rtotal=V1/R1 + V2/R2 + V3/R3…
V is the same for all because voltage is the same throughout a parallel circuit, therefore
both sides can be multiplied by R and we are left with 1/Rtotal=1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3…

simplify systems by using the equations above to solve parallel circuit equations

if a battery is facing the other way, it is considered to be negative

ammeter is put on series and voltmeter is put on parallel

 RTQ please. the question can ask about energy dissipated by an individual resistor or by
the sum of the resistors. these are not the same.

resistance = resistivity * the length of the material / cross sectional area

Ohm’s Law
states that for a metallic conductor at constant temperature, the current passing through
the conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends
ohmic resistors obey this law. non-ohmic resistors do not.

Dr. Feeney states that Ohm’s Law =/= V=IR because the equation is applicable for
non-ohmic resistors despite the fact that they do not obey Ohm’s Law.

different materials are ohmic resistors at certain temperature ranges. perfect is impossible.

internal resistance
all power supplies, be it electrical or chemical, have an inherent resistance internally that
we cannot directly know and measure

internal resistance equation

V = Ɛ - Ir
Ɛ = IR + Ir

Imax= Ɛ / r
potential divider
divides the potential, obviously. useful to control the voltage going to sensitive devices. is
the basis of decisions etc. will turn the system on or off due to the voltage it receives.

Vout = (R2/(R1+R2))*Vin

Vin=IR1 + IR2

Vout = IR2

Vout/Vin= IR2/(IR1 + IR2)

Vout = (R2/(R1+R2))*Vin

therefore, if we control the ratio of R1 and R2, we can control Vout.

usually one of the resistors will be a variable resistor

2 things not in this course but is common

multiple supply voltages in parallel.

always start off calculating from furthest away from the energy supply
Fluids, Pressure and Depth

P=F/A

Pfluid = ϱfluid * g * hfluid

deltaP = ϱ fluid * g * deltah

pressure difference / force and buoyancy

buoyancy is the force that causes objects to float