16.885J/ESD.

35J - Oct 1, 2002

16.885J/ESD.35J
Aircraft Systems Engineering

Introduction to Aircraft
Performance and Static Stability
Prof. Earll Murman
September 18, 2003
 16.885J/ESD.35J - Oct 1, 2002

Today’s Topics
• Specific fuel consumption and Breguet range
equation
• Transonic aerodynamic considerations
• Aircraft Performance
– Aircraft turning
– Energy analysis
– Operating envelope
– Deep dive of other performance topics for jet transport
aircraft in Lectures 6 and 7
• Aircraft longitudinal static stability
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Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption (TSFC)

TSFC lb of fuel burned
• Definition:
(lb of thrust delivered)(hour)
• Measure of jet engine effectiveness at converting fuel to
useable thrust
• Includes installation effects such as
– bleed air for cabin, electric generator, etc..
– Inlet effects can be included (organizational dependent)
• Typical numbers are in range of 0.3 to 0.9. Can be up to 1.5
• Terminology varies with time units used, and it is not all
consistent.
– TSFC uses hours
– “c” is often used for TSFC
ct lb of fuel burned
– Another term used is
(lb of thrust delivered)(sec)
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Breguet Range Equation

• Change in aircraft weight = fuel burned
dW ctTdt ct TSPC/3600 T thrust

• Solve for dt and multiply by Vf to get ds

VfdW VfW dW VfL dW
ds Vfdt   
ctT ctT W ct D W

• Set L/D, ct, Vf constant and integrate

3600 L W
R Vf ln TO
TSFC D W empty
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Insights from Breguet Range Equation

3600 L W
R Vf ln TO
TSFC D W empty

3600 represents propulsion effects. Lower TSFC is better

TSFC

Vf L represents aerodynamic effect. L/D is aerodynamic efficiency

D

Vf L af Mf L . af is constant above 36,000 ft. Mf L important

D D D

W
ln TO represents aircraft weight/structures effect on range
W empty
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Optimized L/D - Transport A/C

“Sweet spot” is in transonic range.
20

Losses
due to
Max (L/D)

10 shock
Concorde
waves
1 2 3
Mach No.

Ref: Shevell
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Transonic Effects on Airfoil Cd, Cl

Cd

Region I. II. III.

Mcr Mdrag 1.0 M

8
divergence

M<1
I. M < Mcr
8

M<1
M>1
V
8

II. Mcr < M < Mdrag

8

divergence

M>1 M<1
V
8

III. M > Mdrag Separated flow

8

divergence
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Strategies for Mitigating Transonic Effects

• Wing sweep
– Developed by Germans. Discovered after WWII by Boeing
– Incorporated in B-52
• Area Ruling, aka “coke bottling”
– Developed by Dick Whitcomb at NASA Langley in 1954
• Kucheman in Germany and Hayes at North American contributors
– Incorporated in F-102
• Supercritical airfoils
– Developed by Dick Whitcomb at NASA Langley in 1965
• Percey at RAE had some early contributions
– Incorporated in modern military and commercial aircraft
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Basic Sweep Concept

• Consider Mach Number normal to leading edge

sin P=1/ Mf
P Mf
Mn=Mfcos/ P = Mach angle,
/ the direction
disturbances
travel in
supersonic flow
• For subsonic freestreams, Mn < Mf - Lower effective “freestream”
Mach number delays onset of transonic drag rise.
• For supersonic freestreams
– Mn < 1, / > P - Subsonic leading edge
– Mn > 1, / < P - Supersonic leading edge
• Extensive analysis available, but this is gist of the concept
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Wing Sweep Considerations Mf > 1

• Subsonic leading edge

– Can have rounded subsonic type wing section
• Thicker section
• Upper surface suction
• More lift and less drag
• Supersonic leading edge
– Need supersonic type wing section
• Thin section
• Sharp leading edge
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Competing Needs
• Subsonic Mach number
– High Aspect Ratio for low induced drag
• Supersonic Mach number
– Want high sweep for subsonic leading edge
• Possible solutions
– Variable sweep wing - B-1
– Double delta - US SST
– Blended - Concorde
– Optimize for supersonic - B-58
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Supercritical Airfoil
Supercritical
airfoil shape
Cp keeps upper
surface velocity
Cp, cr
from getting too
large.
Uses aft camber
x/c
to generate lift.
V
8

Gives nose
down pitching
moment.
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Today’s Performance Topics

• Turning analysis
– Critical for high performance military a/c. Applicable to all.
– Horizontal, pull-up, pull-down, pull-over, vertical
– Universal M-Z turn rate chart , V-n diagram
• Energy analysis
– Critical for high performance military a/c. Applicable to all.
– Specific energy, specific excess power
– M-h diagram, min time to climb
• Operating envelope
• Back up charts for fighter aircraft
– M-Z diagram - “Doghouse” chart
– Maneuver limits and some example
– Extensive notes from Lockheed available. Ask me.
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Horizontal Turn
ht path
W = L cosI, I = bank angle Flig

Level turn, no loss of altitude

R

Fr = (L2 - W2)1/2 =W(n2-1)1/2 z

θ

Where n { L/W = 1/ cosI is the load

factor measured in “g’s”.
But Fr = (W/g)(V2’/R)
So radius of turn is
φ
L

R = V2’/g(n2-1)1/2 z

Fr φ
And turn rate Z = V’/R is
Z= g(n2-1)1/2 / V’
R

Want high load factor, low velocity

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Pull Up Pull Over Vertical

θ

W R
R
L
L
θ
L
R

θ W

Fr = (L-W) =W(n-1) Fr = (L +W) =W(n+1) Fr = L =Wn

= (W/g)(V2’/R) = (W/g)(V2’/R) = (W/g)(V2’/R)
R = V2’/g(n-1) R = V2’/g(n+1) R = V2’/gn
Z = g(n-1)/ V’ Z = g(n+1)/ V’ Z = gn/ V’
 Vertical Plan Turn Rates
2.5

Let TÝ Z
Vertical plane
2.0 Kθ = turn rate
Horizontal plane
turn rate Pull Over
KZ = (n+1)/(n2-1)1/2
1.5
Turn rate ratio, Kθ

Pullover from in
verted attitude
Vertical maneuver Vertical Maneuver
1.0
Pull-up from level attitude
KZ = n/(n2-1)1/2

0.5
Pull Up
0 KZ = (n-1)/(n2-1)1/2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Load factor, in 'g's

For large n, KZ » 1 and for all maneuvers Z # gn/ V’

Similarly for turn radius, for large n, R # V2’/gn.
For large Z and small R, want large n and small V’
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Z # gn/ V’ = gn/a’M’ so Z ~ 1/ M’ at const h (altitude) & n

Using R # V2’/gn, Z # V’/R = a’M’/R. So Z ~ M’ at const h & R
For high Mach numbers, the turn radius gets large
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Rmin and Zmax

Using V’ = (2L/U’SCL)1/2 = (2nW/U’SCL)1/2
R # V2’/gn becomes R = 2(W/S)/ gU’CL
W/S = wing loading, an important performance parameter
And using n = L/W = U’V2’SCL/2W
Z # gn/ V’= g U’V’ CL/2(W/S)
For each airplane, W/S set by range, payload, Vmax.
Then, for a given airplane
Rmin = 2(W/S)/ gU’CL,max
Zmax = g U’V’ CL,max /2(W/S)

Higher CL,max gives superior turning performance.

But does n CL,max = U’V2’ CL,max/2(W/S) exceed structural limits?
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V-n diagram
CL < CLmax
2nmax W
V*

Load factor n
U fCL, max S
Structural damage

Highest Positive limit load factor

possible Z

q > qmax
Stall area

Lowest
possible R 0 V

8
V*

Negative limit load factor

Stall area Structural damage

CL < CLmax

Each airplane has a V-n diagram.

Source: Anderson
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Summary on Turning
• Want large structural load factor n
• Want large CL,MAX
• Want small V’
• Shortest turn radius, maximum turn rate is
“Corner Velocity”

• Question, does the aircraft have the power

to execute these maneuvers?
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Specific Energy and Excess Power

Total aircraft energy = PE + KE
Etot = mgh + mV2/2
Specific energy = (PE + KE)/W
He = h + V2/2g “energy height”
Excess Power = (T-D)V
Specific excess power*
= (TV-DV)/W
= dHe/dt
Ps = dh/dt + V/g dV/dt
Ps may be used to change altitude, or accelerate, or both
* Called specific power in Lockheed Martin notes.
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Excess Power
Power Required

Power
PR = DV’ = q’S(CD,0 + C2L/SARe)V’ PA
Excess
= q’SCD,0V’ + q’SV’C2L/SARe power PR

= U’SCD,0V3’/2 + 2n2W2/U’SV’SARe

Parasite power Induced power

required required
V

8
Power Available
Excess power
PA = TV’ and Thrust is approximately depends upon
constant with velocity, but varies velocity, altitude
linearly with density. and load factor
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Altitude Effects on Excess Power

PR = DV’ = (nW/L) DV’
= nWV’ CD/CL
From L= U’SV2’ CL/2 = nW, get
V’ = (2nW/ U’SCL)1/2
Substitute in PR to get
PR = (2n3W3C2D/ U’SC3L)1/2
So can scale between sea level “0” and
altitude “alt” assuming CD,CL const.
Valt = V0(U0/Ualt)1/2, PR,alt = PR,0(U0/Ualt)1/2
Thrust scales with density, so
PA,alt = PA,0(Ualt/U0)
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Summary of Power Characteristics

• He = specific energy represents “state” of aircraft. Units are in
feet.
– Curves are universal
• Ps = (T/W-D/W)V= specific excess power
– Represents ability of aircraft to change energy state.
– Curves depend upon aircraft (thrust and drag)
– Maybe used to climb and/or accelerate
– Function of altitude
– Function of load factor
• “Military pilots fly with Ps diagrams in the cockpit”,
Anderson
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A/C Performance Summary

Factor Commercial Military Fighter General Aviation
Transport Transport
Take-off Liebeck
hobs = 35’ hobs = 50’ hobs = 50’ hobs = 50’
Landing Liebeck
Vapp = 1.3 Vstall Vapp = 1.2 Vstall Vapp = 1.2 Vstall Vapp = 1.3 Vstall
Climb Liebeck
Level Flight Liebeck
Range Breguet Range Radius of action*. Breguet for prop
Uses refueling
Endurance, E (hrs) = R (miles)/V(mph), where R = Breguet Range
Loiter
Turning, Emergency handling Major Emergency
Maneuver performance handling
factor
Supersonic N/A N/A Important N/A
Dash
Service 100 fpm climb
Ceiling

Lectures 6 and 7 for commercial and military transport

* Radius of action comprised of outbound leg, on target leg, and return.
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Stability and Control

• Performance topics
deal with forces and
translational motion
needed to fulfill the
aircraft mission
• Stability and control
topics deal with
moments and
rotational motion
needed for the aircraft
to remain controllable.
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S&C Definitions
L' • L’ - rolling moment
• Lateral motion/stability

M
• M - pitching moment
• Longitudinal
Elevator deflection
motion/control
N

• N - rolling moment
• Directional motion/control

M
Moment coefficient: CM
q Sc
f
Rudder deflection
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Aircraft Moments

• Aerodynamic center (ac): forces and moments can be completely

specified by the lift and drag acting through the ac plus a moment about
the ac
– CM,ac is the aircraft pitching moment at L = 0 around any point
• Contributions to pitching moment about cg, CM,cg come from
– Lift and CM,ac
– Thrust and drag - will neglect due to small vertical separation from cg
– Lift on tail
• Airplane is “trimmed” when CM,cg = 0
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Absolute Angle of Attack

CL CL
CL, max CL, max

dC αL dC αL
d d
p e= p e=
lo lo
ts ts
Lif Lif

αL=0
α αa

Lift coefficient vs geometric angle of attack, α Lift coefficient vs absolute angle of attack, αa

• Stability and control analysis simplified by using

the absolute angle of attack which is 0 at CL = 0.
• Da = D + DL=0
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Criteria for Longitudinal Static Stability

CM,cg

CM,0 Slop
e = dC
M,c
dα g
a

αe αa
(Trimmed)

C must be positive
M,0
wC
M,cg must be negative
wD a
Implied that De is within flight range of angle of attack
for the airplane, i.e. aircraft can be trimmed
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Moment Around cg

M M L (hc  h c) l L
cg ac wb ac t t
wb
L
Divide by q Sc and note that C t
f L,t q S
f t
lS
C C C (h  h ) t t C , or
M ,cg M ,ac L wb ac cS L,t
wb
lS
C C C (h  h ) V C , where V t t
M ,cg M ,ac L wb ac H L ,t H cS
wb
 16.885J/ESD.35J - Oct 1, 2002
C C C (h  h ) V C
M ,cg M ,ac L wb ac H L,t
wb dCL wb
CLwb Da, wb awbDa, wb
Cl dD
Cl, max
Cl, t atDt at (Dwb  it  H )
dC αl
e=
d where H is the downwash at the
s lop
Lif
t
tail due to the lift on the wing
§wH ·
αL=0 H H 0  ¨ ¸Da, wb
αstall
α ©wD ¹
§ wH ·
CL, t atDa, wb ¨1 ¸ at (it  H 0 )
© wD ¹

At this point, the

convention is drop
the wb on awb
ª a § wH ·º
t ¨1 ¸» V a i  H
C
M ,cg
C
M ,ac
wb
 aD «(h  h ) V
a «
¬ ac H a © wD ¹»
¼ H t t 0
 
 16.885J/ESD.35J - Oct 1, 2002

Eqs for Longitudinal Static Stability

ª a § wH ·º
t ¨1 ¸» V a i  H
CM,cg
C
M ,cg
C
M ,ac
wb
 aD «(h  h ) V
a «
¬ ac H a © wD ¹»
¼ H t t 0
 
§ ·
C { ¨C ¸
M ,0 © M ,cg ¹l 0
C
M ,ac
wb
 V a i H
H t t 0 
CM,0 Slop
e = dC
M,c wC ª a § wH ·º
dα g M ,cg t ¨1 ¸»
a a«(h  h ) V
wD «
¬ ac H a © wD ¹»
¼
αa a
αe
(Trimmed)

• CM,acwb < 0, VH > 0, Dt > 0 Ÿ it > 0 for CM,0 > 0

– Tail must be angled down to generate negative lift
to trim airplane
• Major effect of cg location (h) and tail parameter VH=
(lS)t/(cs) in determining longitudinal static stability
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Neutral Point and Static Margin

wC ª a § wH ·º
M ,cg t ¨1 ¸»
a«(h  h ) V
wD «
¬ ac H a © wD ¹»
¼
a
• The slope of the moment curve will vary with h, the
location of cg.
• If the slope is zero, the aircraft has neutral longitudinal
static stability.
at § wH ·
• Let this location be denote by hn hac  VH ¨1 ¸
a © wD ¹
wC
M ,cg
• or wD

a h h
n   ahn  h  a u static margin
a

• For a given airplane, the neutral point is at a fixed location.

• For longitudinal static stability, the position of the center of
gravity must always be forward of the neutral point.
• The larger the static margin, the more stable the airplane
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Longitudinal Static Stability

Aerodynamic center cg shifts with fuel burn,

location moves aft for stores separation,
supersonic flight configuration changes

• “Balancing” is a significant design requirement

• Amount of static stability affects handling qualities
• Fly-by-wire controls required for statically unstable aircraft
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Today’s References
• Lockheed Martin Notes on “Fighter Performance”
• John Anderson Jr. , Introduction to Flight, McGraw-
Hill, 3rd ed, 1989, Particularly Chapter 6 and 7
• Shevell, Richard S., “Fundamentals of Flight”, Prentice
Hall, 2nd Edition, 1989
• Bertin, John J. and Smith, Michael L., Aerodynamics
for Engineers, Prentice Hall, 3rd edition, 1998
• Daniel Raymer, Aircraft Design: A Conceptual
Approach, AIAA Education Series, 3rd edition, 1999,
Particularly Chapter 17
– Note: There are extensive cost and weight estimation
relationships in Raymer for military aircraft.