assosa University

Faculty of agriculture and NATURAL RESOURSEs

Department of plant science

HAND OUT FOR THE COURSE,

IRRIGATION PRINCIPLE AND
PRACTICE

PREPARED BY MR.DANIEL A.

2013/2014 G.C
Assosa

Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1. Irrigation Defined

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Literally, Irrigation has been defined as the artificial application of water to the soil for the purpose of
supplying the moisture essential for plant growth.

However, a broader and more inclusive definition (Hansen et al., 1980) is that irrigation is the
application of water to the soil for any number of the following purposes:
o To add water to soil to supply the moisture essential for plant growth
o To provide crop insurance against short duration droughts
o To cool the soil and atmosphere, thereby making more favorable environment for plant
growth.
o To reduce the hazard of frost.
o To wash out or dilute salts in the soil
o To soften tillage pans and clods

1.2. History of Irrigation

In the history of world agriculture, Irrigation is seen both as one of the oldest and newest topics or
practices. This is because it was a well-established practice at the dawn of civilization when written
history began. And, today it is one of the most dynamic areas in world agricultural development.

Civilizations have risen on irrigated lands; they have also decayed and disintegrated in irrigation
regions. This implies that irrigation agriculture is not an unmixed blessing, i.e., if not properly
understood and managed, irrigation can lead to disaster for the individual farmer, for a whole
community, or even sometimes for an entire society. The leading problems in irrigated agriculture are:
o Waterlogging and concomitant salinity development
o Higher level of education or skill and managerial ability than is required for rain-fed
agriculture
o Difficulty of removing excess water fro an individual farmer (needs cooperation).

PRE-NINETEENTH IRRIGATION
Many of the earliest civilizations developed in arid regions where irrigation was indispensable to
social survival. Since the first societies developed in arid regions, it is not clear which was the first
prerequisite-irrigation for social organization or social organization for irrigation agriculture.

Near East, Asia, and Africa

The Nile Valley in Egypt is the site of some of the most ancient irrigation agriculture. Basin irrigation
has been practiced for over 5000 years. Egypt claims to have one of the oldest dams in existence that
has been in continuous use. This dam is 100 m long and 12 m high and has been in place for over

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5000 years. The modern country of Iraq is the location of the famous Tigris and Euphrates river
valleys, an area that supported many successive civilizations, all of which depended upon irrigation.

EAST ASIA
CHINA: Irrigation has been important in China for more than 5000 years. About 2200 years ago a
flood-control and irrigation system was built on the Minkiang River. About 1900 years ago the 1200
km long Imperial Canal was built; it conveyed water for navigation as well as irrigation.
Pakistan-India: The great Indus basin of Pakistan-India has the largest single tract of irrigation in the
world.

Sri Lanka: has some irrigation structures that are 2500 years old.

The West: The parts of Europe bordering the Mediterranean Sea have long been noted for their
irrigation. Countries with significant hectares of land included Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, and
Greece.

In many of the areas mentioned above, irrigation agriculture has been the economic base of societies
throughout recorded history. The original civilizations are only a memory. One of the reasons for the
demise of these civilizations is believed to be failure of irrigation and the consequent crop failure. The
main cause of failure has been attributed to the rise of the water table and waterlogging of
irrigated land.

Water logging caused deposition/accumulation of soluble salts in soil root zone that seriously
interfered with and restricted crop growth.

These twin problems, excess water and excess salts, have led to the assertion by some observers that
irrigation agriculture cannot be a permanent agriculture. However, areas that have supported irrigation
through many millennia prove that irrigation agriculture need not be self-destructive.

Irrigation works of this time were:

o Small
o Individual systems
o Very localized

NINETEENTH CENTURY IRRIGATION

Irrigation began to take new dimensions in terms of:
o The amounts and methods of water diversion
o Management
o Size of irrigation districts

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 o Expansion –began to expand too many countries.
Examples:
o Around 1851 the first barrages on the Nile Delta in Egypt were built.
o Ganga Canal (230 m3/s capacity) was constructed in India.
o Chenab Canal (Pakistan) (with about 280 me/s capacity).
At the end of the century, total world irrigation was estimated at 16.2 million ha, or a five fold
increase compared to the 3.25 million ha during the pre-nineteenth century.
Problems encountered

o Siltation of Canals
o Seepage of water from earthen canals into adjacent lands as a result of which lands became
waterlogged.
o Yearly epidemic of Malaria increased.
Despite these problems, the success of the nineteenth century irrigation provided a springboard for an
expansion in irrigation agriculture.

TWENTIETH CENTURY IRRIGATION

Irrigation of this period is characterized by:
o Completion of large irrigation projects for water storage and diversion both between and
within basins (1910-1930).
o Initiation of large-scale pumping or exploitation of natural underground reservoirs (e.g., in
Arizona and California)
o Design of multipurpose projects for irrigation, flood control, electric-power generation,
wildlife and fish habitat development, and water-based recreations were done.

One of the typical examples is the construction of the Aswan Dam on the Nile Delta.

1.3. SCOPE OF IRRIGATION SCIENCE

Irrigation science is not limited to application of water to soil. Its scope extends from the watershed to
the farm and on to the drainage canal. The following are main concerns of the science of irrigation:
o The watershed yielding the irrigation water
o The stream conveying the water
o The management and distribution of the water
o Drainage problems arising from irrigation practices.
Observing one portion of an irrigation system without considering its other components will lead to
faulty design and inadequate preparation.

Important watershed characteristics are:

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 o The nature of the vegetation
o Water holding capacity of surface and subsurface soils
Important characteristics of stream conveying water:
o The diversion structures built upon it
o Remedial measures to reduce seepage losses and consumptive use along the stream and canals

In addition
o Diversion structures and measuring devices and conveyance channels are all important.

Layout of the irrigation system on the farm, method of control, and disposition of excess and waste
waters are also significant.

CHAPTER 2. SOIL-WATER
One of the most important functions a soil performs for a growing crop is catching water during
periods of rainfall and storing it for the plants to use it at later time. The processes of soil-water
storage and movement can be very complex and highly mathematical. However, a general
understanding of the processes is essential in order to make decisions about basic irrigation, waste
management, and land-use problems. Hence, knowledge of the factors and processes controlling
movement and storage of water in the soil is a prerequisite to the design and operation of efficient
irrigation systems.

2.1. Soil-water content

Soil-water content refers to the amount of water present in the soil. The soil-water content can be
expressed in two ways:
1. on the basis of its quantity
2. on the basis of its energy or potential

Quantitatively, soil-water can be expressed on:

o Mass basis- which refers to the mass of water per unit mass of soil is calculated as:
Mass of wet soil  Mass of oven dry soil Mass of water M
m    w
Mass of oven dried soil Mass of oven dried soil M s
where:
m = mass wetness or gravimetric water content (g/g or kg/kg)
Mw = mass of water (g, kg or any other unit of mass)
Ms = mass of oven-dried soil (g, kg or any other unit of mass)

o Volume basis – which refers to the volume of water per unit volume of soil can be calculated
as follows:

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 Volume of water Vw
v  
Total soil volume VT
where,
v = volumetric water content (L3/L3)
Vw = volume of water (L3)
VT = total soil volume (L3)

Relationship between v and m:

b
v  m 
w
where,
b and w are soil bulk density and density of water, respectively and
Mass of oven dry soil M s
b  
Total soil volume VT

2.2. Forces acting on soil-water

Several forces at the molecular level interact to produce the macroscopic behavior of water in soil.
The main forces acting upon water in soil are:
o Molecular-level cohesive and adhesive forces: hold water between soil particles and on the
surfaces of soil particles. The cohesive forces hold capillary water and adhesive forces hold
the hygroscopic water.

Cohesive forces include:

 Hydrogen bonding
 Van der Waals - London forces

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 Water molecules attracted
to the negatively charged
surfaces of soil solids

Negatively charged
soil solid surfaces

Figure Adsorbed (hygroscopic) water adheres so tightly to soil particles that it can
be removed only by oven-drying the soil.

Adhesion results from double-layer forces. Adsorbed (hygroscopic) water adheres so tightly to soil
particles; it can be removed only by oven-drying the soil.

Adsorbed water

Capillary water

Capillary water coheres to adsorbed water and to itself.

o Gravitational force – acts on soil-water in the macro pores under saturated conditions and
tends to move water downward.
o Osmotic forces – are very important in saline soils and move water across plant membranes.

2.2.1. Soil-water potential and its components

Some points about potential concept

The concept of energy is the most important concept in nature. This is because energy is a
fundamental entity common to all forms of matter. Water retention in the soil is a consequence of
energy effects.

The capacity of doing work is called energy. The concept of energy is, therefore, closely linked to the
concept of work.

W=Fxh

From Newton’s second law of motion,

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 F
F=Mxa a 
M

Therefore, by Newton’s second law of motion, the force required to lift the mass, m, is equal to its
own weight.

F=mxg

 W = mgh.

Depending on how work is done, two kinds of mechanical energy are distinguished:
1. Potential energy – if by virtue of its position or state a body is able to do work.
Ep = mgh
2. Kinetic energy- if a body is able to do work by virtue of its motion.
1
E K  mv 2
2
Since the movement of water in the soil is very slow, the contribution of kinetic energy to flow of
water in the soil is negligible compared to that of potential energy. In the soil system, therefore,
the state and movement of water is determined by its potential energy. The amount of work done,
or potential energy stored, per unit mass in bringing any mass, m, from the reference to the point
in question is called potential.
Therefore, potential can be defined variously as:
1. Amount of work done per unit mass (Energy per unit mass):
Work mgh
Potential    gh  L2T  2
Mass m
2. Work done per unit volume:
Work mgh
Potential     w gh  ML1T  2
Volume v
3. If the quantity being transported is expressed in terms of weight:
work mgh
Potential   hL
weight mg
Therefore, potential can be expressed in different ways.
Note that the absolute unit of work is ML2T-2.
Definition of Soil-water potential
Soil-water potential is defined as the amount of work that must be done per unit quantity of pure free
water in order to transport reversibly and isothermally an infinitesimal quantity of water from a pool
of pure water at specified elevation at atmospheric pressure to the soil-water. Potential refers to the
energy status of water in soil, as it relates to water in other regions of soil. Thus, the energy status of
soil water can be defined in terms of the difference in free energy between a known amount of water
in the soil (say 1 mol) and the same amount of pure (no solutes), free (no external forces other than
gravity) water at a standard temperature, pressure and fixed, reference height above sea level. The free
energy per mol of a substance defines its chemical potential. So for water in soil, we define the soil
water potential  by the equation:

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  = w(soil) - wo(standard state)

where w is the chemical potential (free energy per mol) of water. The unit of  is energy per mole (J
mol-1), but to be compatible with pressure measurements,  is often expressed as energy per unit
volume (J m-3) by dividing the above equation by:

 w   ow

Vw

A difference in soil water potential between two points in space is a soil water potential gradient, the
driving force for all soil water movement. Water moves from regions of more positive (or less
negative) to regions of more negative potential.

The total (net) potential in a soil region is composed of several component potentials (is the result of
the various forces acting on soil-water):

 t   g   m / p   0  ...

where:
t = total soil-water potential
g = gravitational potential
m/p = matric and/or pressure potential
0 = osmotic potential
… = other less important potentials.

1. Gravitational Potential (relative vertical position)

Gravity is the dominant force acting on soil water when soils are wet. Water tends to flow downward-
from a region of more positive potential to one of less positive potential- under the influence of
gravity, until the force of gravity is balanced by that of capillarity.

g = wgh
Gravitational potential is positive above the reference level, negative below the reference point and
zero at the reference point.

2. Matric potential
Matric potential is due to the attraction of soil surfaces for water as well as to the influence of soil
pores. Matric potential is, therefore, the result of two phenomena
o Adsorption
o Capillarity

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The soil solids tightly adsorb water, whereas capillary forces are responsible for the water being held
in the capillary pores. The value of matric potential is either negative or zero.

3. Osmotic Potential
The osmotic potential is attributable to the presence of solutes in the soil. It results from dissolved
solutes lowering the free energy of soil-water and is always negative.
The magnitude of the osmotic potential can be calculated by means of the following equation:
 o  icRT

R = 0.082 lit.atm.mol-1K-1
T = Temperature in K (273 + T C)
C = mol l-1 is concentration
i = number of ions.

Differences in osmotic potential (or the osmotic potential gradient) only play a role in causing
movement of water in the soil profile, when there is an effective barrier for salt movement between
the two locations at which the difference in osmotic potential was observed. Otherwise, the
concentration of salts will become the same throughout the profiles by the process of diffusion and the
difference in osmotic potential will no longer exist.

Therefore, the osmotic potential doesn’t act as a driving force in soil-water flow. Barriers for the
movement of salts are formed by the surface of roots.

4. Pressure Potential
Pressure potential represents the difference in hydrostatic pressure from the reference. The pressure
potential at the water table (phreatic surface) is, by definition, set equal to zero. As distance above the
water table increases, pressure (matric; capillarity) potentials become increasingly negative. As
distance below the water table increases, pressure (hydrostatic) potentials become increasingly
positive due to the weight of overlying water. The pressure per unit volume is:
P   w gh ,where h is submergence height.

2.2.2. Soil-water characteristic curve

There is a relationship between water content and water potential for each soil. The soil-water
characteristic curve, also referred to as the soil moisture retention curve, depicts the relationship
between soil water content and soil water potential.

This relationship generally depends on the soil's particle size distribution and soil structure. In
general, sands and gravels lose water very readily upon drainage, while loams and clays lose much
less water upon drainage. Coarse texture soils like sand consist mostly of large pores which empty of
water when a relatively small force is applied. Fine texture soils have a broader pore size distribution

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and larger particle surface area. Consequently, a larger change in water potential is required to remove
the same amount of water. Greater surface area means more water is adsorbed via electrostatic forces.
Soil-water potential

Soil-water content

Figure: Example of soil water characteristic curve.

2.2.3. Soil-water constants

The three soil-water constants on soil water characteristic curve are:
o Saturation
o Field capacity
o Permanent wilting point

Figure. Soil-water constants on soil-water characteristic curve.

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1. Saturation: - is the wettest possible condition of a soil. This is when all the soil pores (macro and
micro) are all filled with water. This corresponds to the soil water content at zero (0) matric potential.

2. Field capacity:- is commonly defined as "The amount of water held in soil after excess water has
drained away and the rate of downward movement has materially decreased". This usually takes place
within 2 or 3 days after rain or irrigation in free draining soils. It is the amount of water held against
gravity.

Field Capacity depends on: soil texture, type of clay, organic matter, depth to water table, depth of
soil, and presence of layers in the soil.

Laboratory measurement: Soil water content at -33kPa or -0.33 bar) (clay-loam) or -10kPa or -0.1
bar (sand) suction.

3. Permanent Wilting Point (PWP):- is defined as the soil moisture content where most plants
cannot exert enough force to remove water from small pores in the soil and, hence, can not recover
their turgidity when placed in a saturated atmosphere for 12 hours. PWP is a plant-related property
indicating the lower limit of water availability. It depends on plant properties, soil properties, and
meteorological conditions. Generally, PWP is assumed to be the soil water content at a suction of
--1500 kPa or -15 bar). In reality, plant water stress occurs at much lower (more positive) suctions and
depends on meteorological conditions.

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4. Total available water-holding capacity (TAWC)
This is defined as "the water held in the root-zone between field capacity and permanent wilting
point". That is all the water which the plant can withdraw from the soil.
TAWC   FC   PWP
Once the plant is drawing water from below the stress point its growth is hampered. This is influenced
by soil structure and texture.

Figure: Relationships between soil types and total available soil moisture holding capacity, field
capacity and wilting point.

5. Readily-available water-holding capacity (RAWC)

If plant growth rather than survival is of interest, or if irrigation is available, it is 'the water held in the
root-zone between field capacity and the stress point' that is of interest. This may be called the readily
available water-holding capacity and as a rough estimate is roughly half the TAWC.

RAWC   FC   cr
Critical moisture content is, 'the soil water content in the root zone at which plant growth starts to be
significantly affected by water stress. ‘
2.2.4. Factors affecting soil-water-holding capacity

Knowledge of the factors affecting soil water-holding capacity is important as it this will tell us where
we can influence and control the soil’s water-holding capacity. The following are the major ones:

o Soil texture
o Type and quantity of clay present

o Soil structure

o Organic matter

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1. Soil texture
Generally speaking, fine-textured soils hold more water than the coarse-textured soils.
2. Type of clay
Kaolinite holds less water than montmorillonite. Clays that have both internal and external surface
generally have better water-holding capacity than those with only external surfaces (2:1-clays hold
more water than the 1:1-clays). In general, soil-water holding capacity increases with an increase in
clay content.
3. Soil structure
Structure affects the pore size distribution. It can make a soil more permeable and allow gravitational
water to drain more quickly. It can also improve root penetration and make plants exploit water from
more of the soil profile, thereby increasing the “effective” water-holding capacity of the soil. We can
do some thing to manage the soil structure.
4. Organic matter
Organic matter affects the soil’s water-holding capacity in two ways:
o It encourages aggregation and structure improvement.
o If present in large amounts, it greatly increases the soil’s water-holding capacity (acts as a
sponge).
2.3. Movement of water in soils
Three types of water movement within the soil:
1. Saturated flow
2. Unsaturated flow
3. Vapor movement

Saturated flow-takes place when the soil pores are completely filled with water.
Unsaturated flow-occurs when the larger pores in the soil are filled with air, leaving only the smaller
pores to hold and transmit water.
Vapor movement-occurs as vapor pressure differences develop in relatively dry soils. In all the cases
water flows in response to energy gradients, with water moving from a zone of higher to one of lower
water potential.
2.3.1. Darcy’s equation
The flow of water through soil can be quantified using Darcy’s law. Henri Darcy, a French engineer,
did an experiment on flow of water through porous material such as sand in his effort to investigate
the behavior of vertical sand filter beds for the water supply to the town of Dijon in France. The result
of his experiment indicated that the quantity (volume) of water filtering through the sand bed per unit
time depended on:
o The cross-sectional area of the bed
o The thickness of the bed (length of the bed)
o The height of water on the filter bed

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 o Proportionality constant, K
The famous experimental Darcy formula is:
A ( h  L) t
QK
L
Where
Q=volume of water passing through the sand filter (cm 3)
L=length of the sand filter bed (cm)
A=cross-sectional area of the sand filter bed (cm 2)
h=height of water on the filter bed (cm)
t=time (sec)
K=proportionality constant (cm.sec-1)

h A

Screen
Figure: The Darcy sand filter

The equation shows that the discharge rate Q, being the volume V flowing through the column per
unit time, is directly proportional to the cross-sectional area and to the hydraulic head drop H, and
inversely proportional to the length of the column L.
V AH
Q 
t L
Substituting,
Q V H
q  
At At L
Where q is the specific discharge rate (volume of water passing through a unit cross-sectional area of
material per unit time and is termed flux (cm3cm-2sec-1 or cmsec-1)
H/L is the head drop per unit distance in the direction of flow and is called hydraulic gradient.
H
q  K
L

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The proportionality factor K is known as the hydraulic conductivity (cm sec -1) and the equation is
known as Darcy’s law.

For unsaturated conditions in which the water content and, hence, matric potential varies with both
time and space, the equation for the flux is:

dH
q   K ()
dz
dH
q   K ()
dz
In this equation, the negative sign indicates that the flow is in the direction of decreasing hydraulic
gradient. It also shows that in unsaturated soils the hydraulic conductivity varies with the water
content and soil-water potential.

Hydraulic conductivity of soils (K)

Hydraulic conductivity, as it appears in Darcy’s equation, is the ratio of the flux to the hydraulic
gradient or the slope of the flux versus gradient curve. It measures the ability of the soil to conduct
water. Mathematically, K can be calculated from:
q
K
dH
dz
The units of K are the same as the units of q when hydraulic head is expressed in height of water.
Hydraulic conductivity of a given soil is constant under saturated conditions provided that the
structure of the soil is stable.

The values of K are known to vary between 10 -2 – 10-3 cm sec-1 for sandy soils and 10-4 to 10-7 cm sec-1
for clayey soils. The practical use of these values is of paramount importance in using the soils for
different purposes. To elaborate this, let’s assume that we constructed an unlined (earth-bottom)
reservoir or pond to store water against losses caused by downward seepage. Now, the question is
which of the materials, sand or clay, will cause minimum seepage loss? If we use coarse sand at the
bottom with K-value of 10-2 cm sec-1, the seepage loss will be about 8.6 m day-1. On the hand, if we
use fine loam at the bottom with K-value of 10 -4 cm sec-1, the daily seepage loss will be about 0.09 m
day-1. If we use bed of clay with K-value of 10-6 cm sec-1, the loss will be 0.86 mm day-1 only.

Factors affecting hydraulic conductivity of soils

Hydraulic conductivity, K, is not an exclusive property of the soil alone, since it depends upon the
attributes of the soil and of fluid property together. Soil characteristics that affect K include:

o Total porosity
o Pore size distribution

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 o Tortuosity
which together constitute pore geometry.
Soils containing straight, uniform and larger diameter pore channels have high saturated hydraulic
conductivity.

Fluid attributes that affect K include:

o Fluid density
o Fluid viscosity
These attributes are affected by the temperature of the soil. This implies that hydraulic conductivity of
the soil is affected by the temperature of the soil.

Example on Darcy’s equation

Use the information in the diagram to calculate the required parameters. The experiment was run for 1
minute.

5 cm

K = 1cm/min

L = 20 cm

A = 200 cm2

Calculate:
a. the discharge through the sand filter bed
b. the flux

Solution:

KA h  L  t 1  200 5  20   1
a. Q  Q  250cm 3
L 20

Q 250cm 3
b. q    1.25cm / min
At 200cm 2  1 min

2.4. Soil-water measurement

Soil water status must be monitored for effective irrigation water management. The soil acts as a
bank, storing water for use by the crop. Adequate soil water in the crop root zone provides for
optimum plant growth. If the water in the soil is depleted below a given level, crop yields can be
decreased. Soil water measurement is useful in determining:

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 o How much water is available for crop use
o When to irrigate
o How much irrigation water to apply
Soil water measurement must be an integral part of any irrigation scheduling program. Soil water
monitoring can help conserve water, conserve energy, and produce optimum crop yields.

Perhaps the most useful are gravimetric sampling, the neutron probe and the touch-and-feel method.

I. Gravimetric sampling

Gravimetric sampling involves collecting a soil sample from each 15-30 cm of the soil profile to a
depth at least that of the root penetration. The soil sample of approximately 100-200 grams is placed
in an air tight container of known weight (tare) and then weighed. The sample is then placed in an
oven heated to 105 °C for 24 hours with the container cover removed. After drying, the soil and
container are again weighed and the weight of water determined as before and after readings. The dry
weight fraction of each sample can be calculated.

The bulk density of the soil must be known to convert percent to water volume. The soil water volume
at field capacity and permanent wilting point must be known to determine the percent of available
water in the soil.


v  m b
w

The Soil Moisture Deficit or depletion, SMD, is a measure of soil moisture between field capacity and
existing moisture content, θi, multiplied by the root depth:

SMD = (θfc - θi)* RD

II. APPEARANCE AND FEEL TEST

Visual observation and feel of the soil is probably the most versatile method for irrigators to use to
monitor soil water. A soil probe, auger, or spade is used to obtain a soil sample. Although not exact,
comparing the appearance and feel of the soil with Table below can give an estimate of available soil
water. Soil probing can be used as a check on other monitoring methods and is especially useful in
monitoring the depth of penetration of irrigation applications and rainfalls. Sometimes other
problems, like compacted soil layers, can be detected from the probing. Also, the irrigator is not tied
to specific locations to monitor, but can check any location in the field as needed (although, as with

18
gravimetric sampling, the exact same location cannot be re sampled). Soil samples for estimating
water content should be taken from the active root zone. One sample should be taken from the upper
quarter of the root zone and one or two more samples from lower levels. For example, with a 36- inch
major root zone, sampling should probably be done at the 6- to 12-inch depth and the 24- to 30-inch
depth. Although measuring soil water by appearance and feel is not precise, with experience and
judgment the irrigator should be able to estimate the level with a reasonable degree of accuracy.

Table: Guidelines for evaluating soil moisture by feel

Feel or Appearance of Soil

Percent
Depletion Loamy sands to fine sandy
Fine sandy loams to silt loams Silt loams to clay loam
loams

0 (field no free water on ball* but

same same
capacity) wet outline on hand

makes ball but breaks easily makes tight ball, ribbons easily, easily ribbons slick
0-25
and does not feel slick slightly sticky and slick feeling

balls with pressure but easily pliable ball, not sticky or slick, pliable ball, ribbons
25-50
breaks ribbons and feels damp easily slightly slick

balls under pressure but is slightly balls still

50-75 will not ball, feels dry
powdery and easily breaks pliable

dry, loose, flows through hard, baked, cracked,

75-100 powdery, dry, crumbles
fingers crust

2.5. Infiltration
Infiltration is the term applied to the process of water entry into the soil generally by downward flow
through all or parts of the soil surface. This process is the key factor in both irrigated and rain-fed
agriculture because it determines:
o The volume of water entering the soil profile
o The volume of runoff, if any, over the surface during rain or irrigation.
The balance between the two processes, in turn, determines the water economy of plants and the
danger of erosion.

Infiltration terminologies
a. Infiltration rate “i”
It is the volume flux of water flowing into the profile per unit of soil surface area.
Infiltration depth (cm) dI
i = i
Time (sec) dt

19
20
b. Infiltration capacity/Infiltrability

This is the infiltration flux resulting when water at atmospheric pressure is made freely available at
the soil surface. This designates the limiting rate which the soil can absorb through its surface.

c. Final infiltration capacity/steady-state Infiltrability

This is the asymptotically a constant rate which the soil attains after some time and from which it
appears to decrease no more. The steady-state Infiltrability is practically equal to the saturated
hydraulic conductivity.

d. Cumulative infiltration “I”

This is the total amount of water infiltrating a unit cross-sectional area since the beginning of the
water application. It is the time integral of the infiltration rate, and has a curvilinear dependence with
a gradually decreasing slope.
t
I   idt
0
Infiltrability

Decreasing infiltrability

Steady infiltrability

Time

Figure: Time dependence of Infiltrability under shallow ponding.

21
 Cumulative
infiltration

Time
Figure: Time dependence of cumulative infiltration under shallow ponding
Time dependence of infiltration rate

The infiltration rate is naturally high during the early stages of infiltration but tends to decrease
monotonically and eventually to approach asymptotically a constant rate termed the final infiltration
capacity, steady state Infiltrability, basic infiltration.

2.6. Soil-water management

The key to efficient water utilization is the reduction of water losses and increase of plant water-use
efficiency. Because it is impossible to control rainfall amount and distribution, it is not possible to
have complete control of soil-water. However, there are certain things that can be done to reduce soil-
water losses. The Table below lists the various ways water can be lost and gives possible control
measures.
Table. Various ways of water loss and possible control measures
Type of water loss Control measure

Runoff Use terraces, strip crop, add grasses to the rotation, increase
infiltration by improving soil structure and adding mulches
Evaporation from soil surface Space plants to give a complete soil cover, use mulches
Evaporation from plant surfaces None
Transpiration Remove weeds and grasses from growing crops
Percolation Increase soil water-holding capacity , add organic matter from
crop residues

The other scenario for soil-water management is increasing plant efficiency through either of the
following techniques:
o Plant crops at the proper time to utilize seasonal rainfall.
o Plant varieties adapted to meet water-availability conditions.

22
 o Use plant-spacing arrangements that will fully utilize soil water.
o Avoid compaction which causes plow pans that will limit rooting depths.
CHAPTER 3. SALINITY PROBLEMS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT IN IRRIGATED
AGRICULTURE
3.1. Scope and significance of salinity
The productivity of arid land soils is constrained by:
o Excess soluble salts
o Excess exchangeable sodium
o Moisture scarcity/drought.
These problems make saline and alkali soils characteristic feature of arid regions. Salinity, as a
problem, is all but a universal threat in arid areas where irrigation waters contain appreciable
quantities of soluble/dissolved salts. In irrigated agriculture, the major sources of salinity are water
table high in salts and salts in applied water. Therefore, salinity control should be one of the prime
objectives of irrigation management. In humid regions, this problem is of peripheral importance as
rain water in these areas is almost free of dissolved salts.

To prevent soil salinity from reaching harmful levels, it is necessary to remove a portion of the
concentrated soil solution from the crop root zone by leaching. For soils with adequate drainage and
infiltration, salts will be leached whenever water applications exceed evapotranspiration. Therefore,
the key to salinity control is a net downward movement of soil water in the root zone.

3.2. Crop salt tolerance

The adverse effects of salinity in the soil on plant growth vary with the crop being grown. The
presence of salinity in the soil solution resulting from either indigenous salt or that added by irrigation
can affect growth in two ways:
1. It can reduce the osmotic potential and hence the water potential, thereby reducing water
availability. This is referred to as the Osmotic effect (Nonspecific salt effect).
2. It can increase the concentration of certain ions that have a characteristic toxic effect on plant
metabolism beyond the osmotic effect. This is called specific-ion effect.

1. Osmotic effect
The osmotic potential and matric potential are additive and under normal field conditions determine
the soil-water potential. Therefore, at any given matric potential, an increase in salinity is manifested
by a reduction in the value of the total water potential, which is reflected in a decreasing water uptake
by the roots and subsequent reduction in plant transpiration. The term physiological drought has been
applied to the apparent shortage of water within a plant when growing in a moist saline soil. During
this time the osmotic potential of the plant changes in such a direction as to maintain a constant water-
potential gradient between the soil and the plant roots. This is known as osmotic adjustment. The

23
physiological changes that occur within the plant during the process of osmotic adjustment have an
adverse effect on plant growth. The plant functions that are affected include:
o Photosynthesis
o Hormone production
o Stomatal opening
o Respiration
However, morphological and anatomical changes may help them sustain favorable plant-water
relations and improve the chances of plant survival. The changes involve:
o Fewer and smaller leaves
o Fewer stomata per unit leaf area
o Increased succulence
o Thickening of both leaf cuticles and surface layers of wax.

Under extreme conditions /salinity concentration/, some visible symptoms can be seen: For instance,
visible injury symptoms-leaf marginal burn or necrosis.
Table: Four groups of plants based on their sensitivity or salt-tolerance
Sensitive Moderately Moderately tolerant Tolerant
sensitive
Onion Alfalfa Oats Barely
Orange Cabbage Sorghum Cotton
Tomato Sweat potato Wheat
< 8 mmhos cm-1 8-16 16-24 24-32

2. Specific-ion effects
Of principal interest in terms of specific-ion effects are chloride, sodium, and boron.

Chloride
o Exists in a wide range of concentrations in irrigation waters and soils.
o A typical symptom – the burning of the leaf margins and early leaf drop in citrus.
o Symptoms appear in sensitive plants when the concentration in leaves is about 0.5% on a dry
weight basis.
o Most agronomic crops can tolerate up to 5-10% without developing injury symptoms.
Table: Hazardous chloride levels in saturation extracts for various fruit varieties
Variety Chloride (meq/l saturation extract)
Mandarin 25
Sour orange 15
Sweet orange 10
Sodium
 Leaf-burn symptoms occur when leaves of sensitive plants accumulate about 0.25% on a dry-
weight basis.
 As ESP increases, the more tolerant crops show effects of both poor soil conditions and
unbalanced nutrition.

24
Table: Tolerance of various crops to exchangeable sodium percentage
Tolerance to ESP (range Crop Growth responsible under field conditions
at which affected)
Extremely sensitive (ESP = Deciduous fruits, Sodium toxicity symptoms even at low ESP.
2-10) Nuts, citrus, Avocado
Sensitive (ESP = 10-20) Beans Stunted growth at low ESP values even though
the physical condition of the soil may be good.
Moderately tolerant(ESP= Clover, oats, rice Stunted growth due to both nutritional factors
20-40) and adverse soil conditions.
Tolerant (ESP = 40-60) Wheat, cotton, alfalfa, Stunted growth usually due to adverse
barely, tomatoes physical conditions of soil.
Most tolerant (ESP > 60) Rhodes grass Stunted growth usually due to adverse
physical conditions of soil.
Boron
o Unlike chloride and sodium toxicity, affects all crops when even moderately low levels are
present in the soil solution.
o Boron levels greater than 200 ppm are associated with boron toxicity.

Table: Limits of Boron in Irrigation water for different degrees of boron tolerance
Tolerant (4-2 ppm boron) Semi tolerant (2-1 ppm boron) Sensitive (1-0.3 ppm
boron)
Asparagus, Palm, Sugar beet, Sunflower, Potato, Cotton, Tomato, Pear, Apple, Grape,
Alfalfa, Broadbean, Onion, Sweet pea, Field pea, Barely, Wheat, Peach, Apricot, Orange,
Cabbage, Lettuce, Carrot Corn, Oat, Pumpkin, Sweet potato Avocado, Lemon
Factors influencing salt tolerance
1. Growth stage
2. Varieties
3. Environment (temperature, atmospheric humidity)
4. Nutrition
5. Irrigation management
3.3. Evaluation of irrigation water quality
Many problems associated with irrigated agriculture arise from the chemical composition of the water
applied. Since all waters contain varying amounts and different species of salt, considerable effort has
been expended to classify the quality of water in terms of its chemical composition. Therefore,
chemical composition of water is a major factor determining its quality. The total concentration and
the type of constituent ions are parameters to be evaluated in assessing the suitability of water for
irrigation.

The ions analyzed to determine the suitability of water for irrigation include:
1. Cations- Calcium, Magnesium, sodium and potassium, and
2. Anions- Sulfates (SO42-), chloride (Cl-), bicarbonates (HCO3-), carbonates (CO32-)
3. Total salinity as measured by electrical conductivity (EC)
4. Others such as nitrates (NO3-), boron

Reporting results of analysis

25
Most chemical analyses are reported in milliequivalents per liter (meq/l) or milligrams per liter (mg/l).
The latter is essentially the same as parts per million (ppm). The relationship between the units is:
mg
l meq

g equivalent wt l
Total salt concentration can be expressed as total dissolved solids (TDS) in mg/l. This can be obtained
by evaporating to dryness an aliquot of filtered water and weighing the residue. The use of EC has,
however, become the standard of comparison of water salinity. Because of the lower concentration of
salt in water, EC in mhos/cm is often used as the salinity measure for irrigation water and EC in
mmhos/cm is used for soil water.

Criteria for irrigation water quality

Three characteristics that are commonly used to evaluate irrigation water are:
1. Salinity
2. Sodicity
3. Toxicity

1. Salinity
It is measured by the electrical conductivity of the saturation extract. This is based on the fact that
electrolytes dissociate into charged ions in the presence of water. Ions carry electric current; the
greater the concentration of ions, the greater the current conducting capacity or electrical conductivity
of the soil solution. The conductivity is expressed in reciprocal ohms, that is ohms -1, and referred to as
mho (ohm spelled backwards).

The approximate relation of the osmotic potential of a solution to its EC is

0 = -0.36EC. where EC is in mmhos/cm at 25 C and 0 has the units of bars.

Since 0 and EC of a solution are related, it seems reasonable to assume that a relation also exists
between concentration and EC. The following approximate relations are in use:
Salt concentration (mg/l) or ppm = 640 x EC (mmhos/cm)
Total cation concentration (meq/l) = 10 x EC (mmhos/cm)

2. Sodicity Hazard
High concentrations of sodium are undesirable in water because sodium adsorbs onto the soil cation
exchange sites, causing soil aggregates to break down (disperse), sealing the pores of the soil, and
making it less permeable to water flow. Therefore, the major concern from high concentrations of
sodium in soils and irrigation waters is the eventual deterioration of soil structure, resulting in
decreased water infiltration and hydraulic conductivity. Sodium may also add to cropping difficulties
through crusting of seed beds, temporary saturation of surface soil, and/or possible disease, weed,

26
oxygen, and nutritional problems. The tendency for sodium to increase its proportion on the cation
exchange sites at the expense of other types of cations is estimated by the ratio of sodium content to
the content of calcium plus magnesium in water and other cations.

For evaluating sodium problems in irrigation water, the following criteria can be used:
 Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)
 The exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP)

Sodium Adsorption Ratio

Describes or measures the sodium cations in relation to Ca and Mg ions present in a solution;
 Na  
  1
SAR  (mmol / l) 2
(Ca 2   Mg 2  )
2

The SAR indicates the tendency for the soil to become higher in exchangeable sodium; higher SAR
values mean higher exchangeable sodium percentages and lower soil permeability.

Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP)

Measures the sodium cations in relation to the total cations present in a solution:
Exchageable sodium
ESP  x100
Cation exchange capacity

3. Toxicity hazard
Toxicity problems occur if certain constituents (ions) in the soil or water are taken up by the plant and
accumulate to concentrations high enough to cause crop damage or reduced yields. The degree of
damage depends on the uptake and the crop sensitivity. The permanent, perennial-type crops (tree
crops) are the more sensitive. Damage often occurs at relatively low ion concentrations for sensitive
crops. It is usually first evidenced by marginal leaf burn and interveinal chlorosis. If the accumulation
is great enough, reduced yields result. The more tolerant annual crops are not sensitive at low
concentrations but almost all crops will be damaged or killed if concentrations are sufficiently high.

The ions of primary concern are chloride, sodium and boron. Although toxicity problems may occur
even when these ions are in low concentrations, toxicity often accompanies and complicates a salinity
or water infiltration problem. Damage results when the potentially toxic ions are absorbed in
significant amounts with the water taken up by the roots. The absorbed ions are transported to the
leaves where they accumulate during transpiration. The ions accumulate to the greatest extent in the
areas where the water loss is greatest, usually the leaf tips and leaf edges. Accumulation to toxic
concentrations takes time and visual damage is often slow to be noticed. The degree of damage
depends upon the duration of exposure, concentration by the toxic ion, crop sensitivity, and the
volume of water transpired by the crop. In a hot climate or hot part of the year, accumulation is more

27
rapid than if the same crop were grown in a cooler climate or cooler season when it might show little
or no damage.
Toxicity can also occur from direct absorption of the toxic ions through leaves wet by overhead
sprinklers. Sodium and chloride are the primary ions absorbed through leaves, and toxicity to one or
both can be a problem with certain sensitive crops such as citrus. As concentrations increase in the
applied water, damage develops more rapidly and becomes progressively more severe.

Classes of irrigation water

The classes of irrigation water made on the basis of their salinity and sodicity are presented in the
Table and Figure below.
Table. Salinity and sodicity classes of irrigation water
Salinity EC (hos/cm at Class Sodium Hazard
25C) SAR Class
Low 0-250 C1 0-10 S1(Low)
Moderate 250-750 C2 10-18 S2(Medium)
Medium 750-2250 C3 18-26 S3(High)
High 2250-4000 C4 >26 S4(Very high)
Very high 4000-6000 C5
Excessive >6000 C6

This classification system combines salinity and sodicity. For example, a water sample classified as
C3-S2 would have a medium salinity rating and a medium sodium rating. The scale for sodicity is not
constant because it depends on the level of salinity. For example, an SAR of 8 is in the S1 category if
the salinity is from 100 to 300 mhos/cm; S2 if the salinity is from 300 to 3000 mhos/cm, and S3 if
the salinity is greater than 3000 mhos/cm.

Figure: Diagram showing the classification

of irrigation water.

Calcium added to irrigation water can lower the SAR and reduce the harmful effects of sodium. The
effectiveness of added calcium depends on its solubility in the irrigation water. Calcium solubility is
controlled by both the source of the calcium (e.g. calcium carbonate, gypsum, calcium chloride) and
also the concentration of other ions in the irrigation water. Compared to calcium carbonate and

28
gypsum, calcium chloride additions will result in higher concentrations of soluble calcium and be the
most effective at lowering irrigation water SAR. However, calcium chloride is considerably more
expensive than calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate (gypsum).

Carbonate and bicarbonate ions in the water combine with calcium and magnesium to
form compounds which precipitate out of solution. Removing calcium and magnesium
increases the sodium hazard to the soil from irrigation water.

Description of the classes

i. Salinity classes (Reference should be made to Figure above for this classification)

C1 - Low salinity water - can be used for irrigation with most crops on most soils with little
likelihood that soil salinity will develop. Some leaching is required, but this occurs under normal
irrigation practices except in soils of slow and very slow permeability.

C2 - Medium salinity water - can be used if a moderate amount of leaching occurs. In most cases
plants with moderate salt tolerance can be grown without special practices for salinity control.

C3 - High salinity water - cannot be used on soils with moderately slow to very slow permeability.
Even with adequate permeability, special management for salinity control may be required and plants
with good salt tolerance should be selected.

C4 - Very high salinity water - is not suitable for irrigation under ordinary conditions, but may be
used occasionally under very special circumstances. The soils must have rapid permeability, drainage
must be adequate, irrigation water must be applied in excess to provide considerable leaching, and
very salt tolerant crops should be selected.

ii. Sodium hazard classes

S1 - Low sodium water - can be used for irrigation on almost all soils with little danger of
development of harmful levels of exchangeable sodium.

S2 - Medium sodium water - will present an appreciable sodium hazard in fine textured soils,
especially under low leaching conditions. This water may be used on coarse textured soils with
moderately rapid to very rapid permeability.

S3 - High sodium water - will produce harmful levels of exchangeable sodium in most soils and
requires special soil management, good drainage, high leaching, and high organic matter additions.

S4 - Very high sodium water - is generally unsatisfactory for irrigation purposes except at low and
perhaps medium salinity.

29
 Under irrigation, soil and water compatibility is very important. If they are not
compatible, the applied irrigation water could have an adverse effect on the chemical
and physical properties of the soil and in turn on the plant growth.

Boron concentration and toxicity

Boron, although an essential element, becomes toxic if present in excess. Sensitivity to boron
encompasses a wide variety of field and tree crops, although fruit, nut, and berry crops are particularly
sensitive.

Boron is the most commonly encountered element found in toxic concentrations in water. Because it
is quite soluble, boron is found in water where drainage and geologic strata supply boron source
minerals. The problem of boron levels for plants is accentuated because the range between
nutritionally deficient and toxic levels of boron is relatively narrow.

Table. Classification of irrigation water based on boron content

B (ppm) Toxicity hazard
< 0.5 Safe for sensitive crops
0.5-1.0 Sensitive crop will show slight to moderate injury
1.0-2.0 Semi tolerant crops will show slight to moderate injury
2.0-4.0 Tolerant crops will show slight to moderate injury
>4.0 Hazardous for nearly all crops

3.4. Management and reclamation of salt-affected soils

3.4.1. Management of salt-affected soils

Two major scenarios can be followed to manage salty soils:
1. Salinity control
2. Improving water penetration

1. Salinity control
Managing the soil to minimize salt damage is a necessary part of using salted soils. The following are
important techniques that can be used to control salinity.

a. More frequent irrigation/water control

Salts concentrate in the soil solution as water is extracted by the crop. Hence, concentrations are
lowest are lowest following an irrigation and highest just before the next irrigation. Increasing
irrigation frequency increases the average soil water content. Particularly the upper portion of the root
zone is maintained low in salinity if each irrigation is adequate. Frequent irrigations also permit small
water applications that minimize surface runoff. Simply applying more water is lost to surface runoff
or lowers application efficiency.

30
b. Crop Selection

When using saline irrigation water, selection of a salt-tolerant crop may be required to avoid yield
reductions. The choice of crops is based on:
o Tolerance to salt
o Adaptability to the climate or soil characteristics
o Value of the crop

c. Planting position
Salt moves with water, and some will accumulate in the surface soil or furrow ridge tops as water with
its salt moves upward and evaporates. One has to make sure that the crop is planted on positions
where the soil around the plant is low in salinity. In furrow irrigation systems, it wise to avoid the
centers of wide ridges and the tops of narrow ridges where salt will be most concentrated from furrow
irrigation.

High salt, seeds germinate with

Seed difficulty

a. Single bed

Normal soil

Figure. Methods of preparing seedbeds and of planting to reduce the effects of soluble salts
on plants. Shaded areas illustrate locations where salt would normally concentrate
because of water flow and evaporation.

2. Improving water penetration

31
Both chemical and physical methods can be used to improve soil permeability lost due to excess
sodium in the soil. Among the physical methods that improve water penetration, the following are
important:
o Increase the irrigation frequency
o Deep tillage (chiseling, subsoiling) –usually only temporary.
o Extending the duration of each irrigation – may increase the amount of water infiltrating, but
aeration, waterlogging, excessive surface runoff, and surface drainage problems may result.
The duration of the preplant irrigation can safely be extended to allow the soil profile to fill.
This irrigation may provide the only opportunity to fill the deeper part of the crop root zone
without secondary effects on the growing plant.
o Using sprinklers to match the rate of water application to the soil infiltration rate
o Using organic residues
Chemical Methods

Amendments may be effective where soil permeability has been decreased by the use of irrigation
waters low in salinity (ECw < 0.5 dS/m) or by the presence in the soil or water of excessive amounts
of sodium, carbonate, or bicarbonate. Amendments will not be useful if low permeability is caused by
soil texture, compaction, or water-restricting layers.

When low infiltrations are due to a high soil ESP, improved permeability should result if either the
concentration of sodium in the irrigation water is decreased or the concentration of calcium and
magnesium are increased. No inexpensive process or chemical is available for removing sodium from
irrigation water. However, the following chemicals can be used:
o Gypsum as a source of calcium
o Sulfur or sulfuric acid to dissolve calcium from lime in the soil
3.4.2. Reclamation of Salt-Affected Soils
Two scenarios are to be followed:
1. Removal of excess soluble salts from the root zone
2. Reduction of excess exchangeable sodium from exchange sites
1. Removal of excess soluble salts
Proven way to reduce soluble salt concentration in the root zone is leaching. Leaching is a process of
dissolving the soluble salts and removing the soluble salts from the desired soil layers by the
downward movement of water. Reclaiming salty soils involves three general rules/procedures:
a. Establish internal drainage for those soils with inadequate natural internal drainage.
b. Leach out most of the soluble salts using good quality irrigation water.
c. Replace excess exchangeable sodium for sodic and saline-sodic soils.

32
The use of organic mulches can hasten the reclamation of saline soils if only rainfall or limited
irrigation is used. The mechanism is that mulch slows down surface evaporation. This slowing down
of surface evaporation slows down salt movement to the soil surface in evaporative water. This in turn
increases the net downward movement of salt.

HOW MUCH WATER IS REQUIRED TO LEACH OUT THE SOLUBLE SALTS?

The irrigation water needed (in excess of that required to saturate the soil to field capacity) to
sufficiently leach the soil so as to assure a proper salt balance for the crop being grown is called the
leaching requirement. In short, it is the additional amount of water needed to remove the excess
salts from saline soils. The leaching requirement can be calculated as:
EC iw
LR 
EC e
The leaching requirement is considered the fraction of infiltrated irrigation water that must be leached
through the root zone to maintain the salinity of the soil at some given value. When values of EC iw
and ECdw are substituted into the LR equation, a fraction is obtained that estimates the increment of
additional water that must be applied, though not necessarily at each irrigation, to maintain soil
salinity within acceptable limits. Since this water is above the crop’s consumptive use, it represents
the minimum amount of water that will appear as drainage.

Example: Assume that an irrigation water has an EC of 1.08 mmhos/cm. The field corn planted has a
50% yield reduction at a soil saturation extract conductivity of 6mmhos/cm. Calculate the additional
amount of water to add if the water needed to wet the profile to field capacity is 6.35 cm.
Solution:
EC iw 1.08mmhos / cm
LR    0.18
EC dw 6mmhos / cm
This decimal or fraction is that fraction of the amount of water needed to wet the soil that must be
added additionally. The total water needed is therefore:
6.35 cm + (0.18)(6.35 cm) = 7.49 cm.
2. Reclaiming Sodic and Saline-Sodic Soils
Reclamation of these soils involves:
1. Chemical processes to replace sodium-ions adsorbed on soil-exchange sites mainly by
divalent cations.
2. Mass-transfer processes to remove the replaced sodium from the soil solution. The water used
must be high in Ca and Mg.
Most of the time calcium is used to replace sodium in sodic soils. Of all calcium compounds, calcium
sulfate (gypsum-CaSO4.2H2O) is considered the most convenient. Because of its limited solubility

33
(0.241 g/100 ml of water at 0C), gypsum does not create an additional salinity problem when it is
used.

Elemental sulfur and sulfuric acid can also be used. When sulfur is added to the soil, Thiobacillus
bacteria slowly oxidizes the sulfur to sulfuric acid. The sulfuric acid plays the following roles:
1. Hydrogen ions of sulfuric acid replace sodium ions on the exchange sites.
2. If the soil contains lime (CaCO 3), the sulfuric acid may react to form gypsum, which then has
the same effect as applied gypsum.
The following chemical reactions show how gyspusm replaces sodium from the exchange sites and
soil solution.

Na2CO3 + CaSO4  CaCO3 + Na2SO4 ( leachable ) + CO2  + H2O

Na Micelle
Micelle
+ CaSO4  Ca + Na2SO4 (leachable)
Na

The reactions of sulphuric acid with compounds containing sodium may be shown as follows:

Na2CO3 + H2SO4  CO2 + H2O + Na2SO4 (leachable)

Na Micelle H Micelle
+ H2SO4  + Na2SO4 (leachable)
Na H

CaCO3 + H2SO4 + H2O  CaSO4.2H2O + CO2

When sulfur is used, leaching should be delayed until the sulfur has oxidized and gypsum has been
formed.

34
 CHAPTER 4- WATER REQUIREMENT OF CROPS
4.1. Important definitions
Evapotranspiration, ET: the combined process by which water is transferred from the earth’s surface
to the atmosphere. It is the combination of two processes:
Evaporation: from wet soil surfaces, lakes, rivers, oceans, etc.
Transpiration: from plant tissue through stomata to the atmosphere.
When water supply is not limiting, the level of ET is largely related to the evaporative demand of the
atmosphere imposed by the climate.
For a given crop, it is also determined by:
 The crop itself and so its growth characteristics,
 Soil and soil-water condition (such as water availability, hydrodynamic properties, etc).
Potential Evapotranspiration, PET: the maximum level of evapotranspiration induced by the
climatic conditions. There is no limiting factor concerning the crop (effective
full ground cover and optimal development), optimum availability of water,
and optimum agronomic management.
Reference Crop Evapotranspiration, ET o: ET from an extended surface of 8 to 15 cm tall green
grass cover of uniform height, actively growing, completely shading the
ground and not short of water.
Maximum Evapotranspiration, ETm: represents the rate of maximum evapotranspiration of a
healthy crop grown in large fields under optimum agronomic and irrigation
management. The following conditions prevail:
ETm = PET: at effective field ground cover and optimal full crop development stage.
ETm < PET: for any other crop development stage.
Actual Evapotranspiration, ETa: the ET of a given crop under the prevailing moisture conditions at
that moment. This means that the crop water requirements can full be met or
not from the available water supply.
ETa  ETm under the following conditions:
o ETa = ETm when the water supply is adequate enough to fulfill the climatic demand. This
means the crop water requirement is fully met.
o ETa < ETm when the water supply is insufficient to fulfill the climatic demand or the water
requirement of the crop is not fully met.
The following general relationship applies:

ETa  ETm  PET

For a given climate, crop and crop development stage, the maximum evapotranspiration in mm/day of
the period considered is:

35
 ETm  K c xETo

where Kc is called crop coefficient and incorporates the effects of crop growth stage, crop density, and
other cultural factors affecting evapotranspiration.

Effective precipitation (EP): also called effective rainfall is that portion of the total rainfall that is
useful or usable in any phase of crop production. It can also be defined as that portion of
rainfall that contributes to meeting the ET requirement of a crop. It is portion of the
rainfall that goes to the soil water reserve. It can be estimated as:

where:
Pe = effective precipitation (mm or cm)
Pt = total precipitation (mm or cm)
R = surface runoff loss (mm or cm)
DP = Deep percolation loss (mm or cm)

Rainfalls that are considered of less value include:

o High intensity or large amount per unit time
o Rainfall on already wet soil

Irrigation water requirement (WR): the depth of water needed to meet the water loss through ET of
a disease-free crop, growing in large fields under non-restricting soil conditions including soil
water and fertility and achieving full production potential under the given growing
environment. It refers to the amount of water required to raise a successful crop in a given
period. It includes:
o Water lost as evaporation from crop field
o Water transpired from plant tissue and metabolically use by crop plants
o Water lost during application which is economically unavoidable
o Water used for special operations such as:
 Land preparation
 Puddling of rice
 Salt leaching
The water requirement of a crop can be formulated as:

WR  E  T  IP  Wm  Wu  Ws
WR  ET  Wm  Wu  Ws
WR  CU  Wu  Ws
36
where:
WR = water requirement of a crop, cm
E = evaporation from crop field, cm
T = transpiration by crop plants, cm
IP = intercepted precipitation by the crop that gets evaporated, cm
Wm = water metabolically used by crop plants to make their body weight, cm
Wu = unavoidable water loss during application, cm
Ws = water applied for special operations, cm
ET = evapotranspiration from crop field, cm
CU = consumptive use of water by the crop (ET + Wm), cm
The water required by crops is essentially met from different water sources such as rainfall (effective
rainfall), irrigation, soil water and ground water storages. Water requirement can therefore be
formulated in terms of sources of water as:

WR  Pt  IR g  SW  GW  ( R  DP)

WR  Pe  IR g  SW  GW

where:
Pt = total precipitation, cm
IRg = gross irrigation requirement of a crop, cm
SW = soil water contribution for crop use, i.e. change in storage, cm
GW = groundwater contribution (usually from shallow water table), cm
R = runoff loss, cm
DP = deep percolation loss, cm
Pe = effective rainfall, cm

The soil water contribution can be estimated as follows:

n
 si  hi 
SW   100
xA si xDi
i 1

where:
si = soil water content at the time of sowing for the ith layer (% mass)
hi = soil water content at the time of harvesting for the i th layer (% mass)
Asi = Apparent specific gravity (dimensionless)

37
Di = depth or thickness of the ith layer, cm.

4.2. Determining Evapotranspiration or consumptive use of crop

Various methods have been in use to determine the crop water requirement also called
evapotranspiration or consumptive use. The reason why crop evapotranspiration is used as an estimate
of the crop water requirement is because this is the major component compared to the other
components mentioned above. Others are considered negligible compared to this component. The
methods can be broadly classified into two as:

1. Direct methods: these are the field measurement methods that directly measure or calculate crop
evapotranspiration. However, they are very expensive and are mainly used to provide data to
calibrate indirect methods for estimating evapotranspiration from climatic data. Generally, they
are the water balance or hydrologic methods and include:
a. Lysimeter method,
b. Field experimentation method,
c. Soil water depletion or soil moisture studies, and
d. Inflow-out flow methods mainly for large fields.
2. Pan evaporimeter
3. Empirical methods

1. Direct Method
a. Lysimeter method
A lysimeter is a device by which an experimental soil located in a container is separated
hydrologically from the surrounding soil. It is a soil tank in which crops are grown. The method
involves:
o Growing crops in lysimeters installed in crop fields to provide the crop environment, and
o Measuring the water balance components during the crop growing period.
Measurements are made on the following components of the water balance:
o Water added by precipitation or irrigation
o Change in soil water storage
o Water lost through evapotranspiration, and
o Water lost through runoff and deep percolation.
Once measurements on these components are made, the crop evapotranspiration/consumptive use can
be computed from the following formula:

ETcr  Pt  IR  SW  ( R  DP)

CU or ETcr  Pe  IR  SW

38
The terms in the equation are as defined before.

The construction of the lysimeter should be in such a way that the measurements of surface runoff and
deep percolation are possible or possible to avoid these losses.

b. Field experimentation method

This method involves experiments with different levels of irrigation. Measurements of water supplied
to the crop through effective rainfall, irrigation and changes in soil water storage during the growing
season are made. The quantity of water used to produce the yield that appears most profitable is taken
as the crop consumptive use or crop water requirement. The crop evapotranspiration may be
formulated as:

ETcr or CU  Pe  IR  SW
 n  M  M hi  
ETcr or CU  Pe  IR    si  xAsi xDi 
 i 1  100  

Where:
CU = seasonal consumptive use in cm
Pe = effective rainfall in cm
IR = irrigation water applied giving the most profitable yield in cm
SW = soil water contribution in cm
b
Asi = apparent specific gravity of the ith layer, dimensionless ( )
w
Di = depth or thickness of the ith layer in cm
n = the number of layers in the profile

N. B.
o Careful measurement of runoff, if any, should be made.
o Measured amount of irrigation water should be applied on the basis of soil water depletion
and excess application is avoided to prevent deep percolation.

Weak points:
o Actual soil water status before and after irrigation,
o Short period consumptive use, and
o Peak period consumptive use cannot be known through this method.

Example:
An experiment showed that a rape seed crop gave the optimum yield when two irrigations of 5 cm
depth each were applied. The crop received an effective rainfall of 9.5 cm during the crop growth

39
period. The average gravimetric water content at sowing and harvesting of the crop were 21.32 and
14.25 per cent respectively. The root zone of the crop was 75 cm thick and bulk density of the soil
was 1.49 gcm-3. Estimate the water requirement of the crop.
c. Soil water depletion method
This method works well for a fairly uniform soil and deep (3 m and above) water table not to
influence the soil water fluctuation in the root zone. Soil water contents in different layers of the root
zone are measured just before and after irrigation or rainfall and during the period between two
successive irrigations as early as soil sampling is possible after irrigation or rainfall. The seasonal
consumptive use is obtained by summing up soil water depletion or losses of soil water during
different periods of measurements in the growing season. The short period consumptive use is
calculated from the depletion of soil water between two successive soil samplings by the formula
given as:

n
 M1i  M 2i 
Cu    100
  A si  Di

i 1

40
where:
Cu = consumptive use during the period between successive samplings, cm
M1i = soil water at the time of first sampling in the i th layer, per cent
M2i = soil water at the time of second sampling in the ith layer, per cent

The seasonal consumptive use is obtained by:

n
CU   Cu
i 1

2. ET estimated from pan evaporation

Evaporation from an open water surface provides an index of the integrated effect of radiation, air
temperature, air humidity and wind on evapotranspiration. However, differences in the water and
cropped surface produce significant differences in the water loss from an open water surface and the
crop. The pan has proved its practical value and has been used successfully to estimate reference
evapotranspiration by observing the evaporation loss from a water surface and applying empirical
coefficients to relate pan evaporation to ET o. The relationship can be presented as:
ETo  K p  E P
ETcr  K c  ETo
where:
KP = pan coefficient
EP = pan evaporation
Kc = crop coefficient
ETo = reference crop evapotranspiration
ETcr = crop evapotranspiration

3. Estimating evapotranspiration by empirical formula

Empirical methods involve estimating potential evapotranspiration or reference crop
evapotranspiration from climatological parameters using various empirical formulae. The reason for
use of the different empirical formulae was earlier difficulties in direct measurement of water
requirement of crops. Meteorologists developed methods to estimate amount of water needed to
obtain optimal crop yields based essentially on:
o climatological data (weather data)
o crop coefficients
o to some extent on other factors

41
Some of the empirical methods include:
1. Blaney-Criddle formula
2. Thorthwaite formula
3. Penman mthod (modified Penman formula)
4. Radiation method
5. Jensen-Haise method

In this course, only the first three will be discussed in detail.

1. The Blaney-Criddle Formula

This method was first proposed in 1945 by H.F. Blaney and W.D. Criddle based on western USA
field measurements of evapotranspiration. The method has been used on a world-wide basis but local
calibration has been considered highly desirable.

The method is based on the principle that ET is proportional to the product of daylength percentage
and mean air temperature. The monthly constant of proportionality has been called the crop growth
stage coefficient. The formula can be described as follows:

Cu (in)  f  k
tp tp
f   Cu  k 
100 100
tp tp
Cu (cm)  2.54  k   Cu (mm)  25.4  k 
100 100
ktp
CU   Cu  CU ( mm)  25.4  
100
where,
Cu = monthly consumptive use (in, cm or mm)
CU = seasonal consumptive use for a given period (in, cm, or mm)
9 
t = mean monthly temperature (F) ( t ( F) 
0
 t C  32  )
5
f = monthly consumptive use factor
k = empirical consumptive use crop coefficient for the month (dimensionless)
p = monthly daylight hours expressed as percentage of daylight hrs of the year

Example: From the given information, calculate the monthly and seasonal consumptive use of a
wheat crop sown on 1st April and harvested on 31st October.

2. The Thornthwaite Formula

In 1948, Thronthwaite suggested an empirical formula for estimating potential evapotranspiration
using mean monthly temperature and seasonal heat index. The formula is:

42
 a
 10  t 
e  1.6 
 I 
where:
e = unadjusted monthly potential ET (cm) (month of 30 days each & 12 hrs of day time)
t = mean monthly air temperature (C)
I = annual or seasonal heat index, i.e. sum of 12 months heat indices.
The monthly heat index, i, is calculated as:
1.514
t
i 
5
,I  i
a = an empirical exponent computed by the equation:
a  0.000000675  I 3  0.0000771 I 2  0.01792  I  0.49239
The unadjusted e value is corrected for the actual daylight hours and days in a month as follows:
 X  Z 
e '  e  
 12  30 
where:
e’ = adjusted value of PET
X = actual daylight hours
Z = actual number of days in a month

The monthly consumptive use is calculated as:

Cu  k  e ' , where k is assumed crop coefficient.

3. The modified Penman formula

In 1948, Penman developed a formula for computing ET from open free water surface using
important climatic parameters such as:
o Solar radiation
o Temperature
o Vapor pressure, and
o Wind velocity

This formula was later extended to vegetated surfaces and has been modified by different workers to
include more climatic parameters. The one commonly used world-wide at present is the FAO
modified Penman-Monteith equation. The estimates of the crop ET are obtained by multiplying the
estimated values of reference crop ET by the crop coefficient. The modified formula of Penman can
be written as:

ET0   Rn  G     15.36 w 1  w 2 U 2    e s  e a 
 
where:

43
ET0= reference crop ET (cal/cm2 day also called langleys/day)
 = slope of saturation vapor pressure – temperature curve (mbar/C)
 = psychrometric constant (mbar/C)
Rn = net radiation (cal cm-2 day-1)
G = soil heat flux (cal cm-2 day-1)
U2 = wind movement (km/day) at 2 m above the surface
es = saturation vapor pressure (mbar)
ea = mean actual vapor pressure (mbar)
w1, w2 = wind term coefficients
15.36 = constant of proportionality (cal cm-2 day-1 mbar-1)

When wind velocity is measured at a height different from 2 m, the following formula can be used to
correct the wind velocity to 2 m height:
0.2
2
U2  UZ 
 Z
where:
Uz = wind movement at height Z
Z = height of anemometer above ground in m

The ET0 in cal cm-2 day-1 or langleys day-1 can be converted into mm/day using the following
relationship:
ET0 (cal / cm 2 day)
ET0   10

where  is called latent heat of water and is calculated using the following formula:
  595.9  0.55T
T is mean temperature in C. The unit of  is cal/cm3.
Estimation of crop evapotranspiration
The procedure involves the use of an estimated reference ET and experimentally developed crop
coefficients. The experimentally determined crop coefficients reflect:
o Physiology of the crop
o The degree of crop cover
o Effects of soil water availability
The crop coefficient (Kc) is determined experimentally from ETcr and reference crop ET as:
ETcr
Kc 
ET0

44
The procedure also involves division of the crop growth cycle into different, generally four, growth
stages and assignment of Kc values for each growth stage. The generally recognized growth stages are
the following.

1. Initial stage: -includes germination and early growth when the soil surface is mostly bare
and, hence, ground cover is less than 10%.
2. Crop development stage: -covers the period from the initial stage to effective full ground
cover (70-80%).
3. Mid-season stage: -from effective full ground cover to the start of maturation as indicated by
the changes in leaf color or dropping of leaves.
4. Late season stage: - from the end of mid-season stage to full maturity or harvest.

The Kc values as function of growth stage and time, generally, shows the following trend.

Late season
development

stage
Mid-season stage
stage
Crop
Initial stage
Kc value

Growth stages

45
 CHAPTER 5 IRRIGATION METHODS
Methods of irrigation are broadly grouped into four:
1. Surface or gravity irrigation
2. Subsurface or subirrigation
3. Sprinkler or overhead irrigation, and
4. Trickle or drip irrigation.

5.1. Surface irrigation

Surface irrigation refers to irrigating lands by allowing water to flow over the soil surface from a
supply channel at the upper reach of the field. The two general types of surface irrigation are:
1. Basin irrigation
2. Furrow irrigation

5.1.1. Basin Irrigation

This subtopic indicates which crops can be grown in basins, which land slopes are acceptable and
which soil types are most suitable.

Figure. Basin irrigation

A. Suitable crops
Basin irrigation is suitable for many field crops. Paddy rice grows best when its roots are submerged
in water and so basin irrigation is the best method to use for this crop. Other crops which are suited to
basin irrigation include:
 Pastures, e.g. alfalfa, clover;
 Trees, e.g. citrus, banana;
 Crops which are broadcast, such as cereals, and
 To some extent row crops such as tobacco.

Basin irrigation is generally not suited to crops, which cannot stand in wet or waterlogged conditions
for periods longer than 24 hours. These are usually root and tuber crops such as potatoes, cassava,
beet and carrots, which require loose and well-drained soils.

B. Suitable land slopes

46
The flatter the land surface, the easier it is to construct basins. On flat land only minor levelling may
be required to obtain level basins. It is also possible to construct basins on sloping land, even when
the slope is quite steep. Level basins can be constructed like the steps of a staircase and these are
called terraces.

C. Suitable soils
Which soils are suitable for basin irrigation depends on the crop grown. A distinction has to be made
between rice and non-rice or other crops.
Paddy rice is best grown on clayey soils, which are almost impermeable as percolation losses are
low. Rice could also be grown on sandy soils but percolation losses will be high unless a high water
table can be maintained.

Although most other crops can be grown on clays, loamy soils are preferred for basin irrigation so that
waterlogging (permanent saturation of the soil) can be avoided. Coarse sands are not recommended
for basin irrigation, as due to the high infiltration rate, percolation losses can be high. Also soils which
form a hard crust when dry (capping) are not suitable.

Basin Layout

Basin layout not only refers to the shape and size of basins but also to the shape and size of the bunds.
What is the shape of the basin: square, rectangular or irregular? What is the size of the basin: 10, 100,
1000 or 10 000 m2? How high should the bund be: 10, 50 or 100 cm? What is the shape of the bund?
These aspects are discussed in the following sections.

Shape and size of basins

The shape and size of basins are mainly determined by the land slope, the soil type, the available
stream size (the water flow to the basin), the required depth of the irrigation application and farming
practices.
(a) Basin width
The main limitation on the width of a basin is the land slope. If the land slope is steep, the basin
should be narrow, otherwise too much earth movement will be needed to obtain level basins. Table 1
provides some guidance on the maximum width of basins or terraces, depending on the land slope.
Three other factors which may affect basin width are:
 Depth of fertile soil,
 Method of basin construction, and
 Agricultural practices.
If the topsoil is shallow, there is a danger of exposing the infertile subsoil when the terraces are
excavated. This can be avoided by reducing the width of basins and thus limiting the depth of
excavation.

47
Basins can be quite narrow if they are constructed by hand labour but will need to be wider if
machines are used so that the machines can easily be moved around.

If hand or animal powered tillage is used then basins can be much narrower than if machines are used
for cultivation. If machines are used then it is important to make sure that basin widths are some
multiple of the width of the machines for efficient mechanization.

Table 1 Approximate values for the maximum basin or terrace width (m)
Maximum width (m)
Slope (%) Average Range
0.2
45 35-55
0.3
37 30-45
0.4
32 25-40
0.5
28 20-35
0.6
25 20-30
0.8
22 15-30
1.0
20 15-25
1.2
17 10-20
1.5
13 10-20
2.0
10 5-15
3.0
7 5-10
4.0
5 3-8

(b) Basin size

The size of basins depends not only on the slope but also on the soil type and the available water flow
to the basins (stream size). The relationship between soil types, stream size and size of the basin is
given in Table 2. Values are based on practical experience, and have been adjusted in particular to suit
small-scale irrigation conditions.

Table 2 Suggested maximum basin areas (m2) for various soil types and available stream
sizes (l/sec)
Stream size (l/sec) Sand Sandy loam Clay loam Clay
5 35 100 200 350
10 65 200 400 650

48
15 100 300 600 1000
30 200 600 1200 2000
60 400 1200 2400 4000
90 600 1800 3600 6000

49
Example of how to estimate Basin Sizes
Question: Estimate the dimensions of basins, when the soil type is a deep clay loam and the land slope
is 1%. As basin construction is mechanized, the terraces should be as wide as possible. The
available stream size is 25 l/sec.
Answer: From Table 1 the maximum basin or terrace width for a slope of 1% is 25 m (range 15-25
m).
From Table 2 the maximum basin size for a clay loam soil and an available stream size of
25 l/sec is 1000 m2.
If the total basin area is 1000 m 2 and the width is 25 m, the maximum basin length is
1000/25 = 40 m.
Note: This example shows how to estimate the maximum basin dimensions. This basin can be
made smaller than this if required and still be irrigated efficiently with the available stream
size.

The size of the basin is also influenced by the depth (in mm) of the irrigation application. If the
required irrigation depth is large, the basin can be large. Similarly, if the required irrigation depth is
small, then the basin should be small to obtain good water distribution.

The size and shape of basins can often be limited by farming practice. Many farms in developing
countries are very small and cultivation is by hand. In these circumstances basins are usually small as
they are easy to level and efficient irrigation can be attained with relatively small stream sizes.

On the large mechanized farms, basins are generally made as large as possible to provide large
uninterrupted areas for machine movements. Basin dimensions are chosen to be some multiple of the
width of the machines so as to use the equipment as efficiently as possible. Other reasons to make
basins as large as possible are that less land is wasted in this way (less bunds) and large stream sizes
and a relatively large application depth can be used.

The shape of the basin can be square, rectangular or irregular. The shape is mainly determined by the
slope. On steep and irregular sloping lands, the basins may be long and narrow. The long side of the
basin is along the contour line. If the slope and thus the contour line is irregular, the shape of the basin
will also be irregular.

In summary
Basins should be small if the:
1. Slope of the land is steep
2. . Soil is sandy
3. Stream size to the basin is small
4. Required depth of the irrigation application is small
5. Field preparation is done by hand or animal traction.

50
Basins can be large if the:
1. Slope of the land is gentle or flat
2. Soil is clay
3. Stream size to the basin is large
4. Required depth of the irrigation application is large
5. Field preparation is mechanized.
5.1.2. Furrow irrigation
Furrows are small, parallel channels, made to carry water in order to irrigate the crop. The crop is
usually grown on the ridges between the furrows. Furrow irrigation is suitable for a wide range of soil
types, crops and land slopes, as indicated below. Under which circumstances to choose furrow
irrigation is further discussed in Chapter 7.
A. Suitable crops
Furrow irrigation is suitable for many crops, especially row crops. Crops that would be damaged if
water covered their stem or crown should be irrigated by furrows.

Figure: Top view and cross-section of furrows and ridges.

Furrow irrigation is also suited to the growing of tree crops. In the early stages of tree planting, one
furrow alongside the tree row may be sufficient but as the trees develop then two or more furrows can
be constructed to provide sufficient water. In summary, the following crops can be irrigated by furrow
irrigation:
 Row crops such as maize, sunflower, sugarcane, soybean;
 Crops that would be damaged by inundation, such as tomatoes, vegetables, potatoes,
beans;
 Fruit trees such as citrus, grape;
 Broadcast crops (corrugation method) such as wheat.

51
B. Suitable slopes
Uniform flat or gentle slopes are preferred for furrow irrigation. These should not exceed 0.5%.
Usually a gentle furrow slope is provided up to 0.05% to assist drainage following irrigation or
excessive rainfall with high intensity.

C. Suitable soils
Furrows can be used on most soil types. However, as with all surface irrigation methods, very coarse
sands are not recommended as percolation losses can be high. Soils that crust easily are especially
suited to furrow irrigation because the water does not flow over the ridge, and so the soil in which the
plants grow remains friable.

Furrow Layout

Furrow layout deals with the shape, length and spacing of furrows. Generally, the shape, length and
spacing are determined by the natural circumstances, i.e. slope, soil type and available stream size.
However, other factors may influence the design of a furrow system, such as the irrigation depth,
farming practice and the field length.

(a) Furrow length

Furrows must be on consonance with the slope, the soil type, the stream size, the irrigation depth, the
cultivation practice and the field length. The impact of these factors on the furrow length is discussed
below.

(i) Slope
Although furrows can be longer when the land slope is steeper, the maximum recommended furrow
slope is 0.5% to avoid soil erosion. Furrows can also be level and are thus very similar to long narrow
basins. However a minimum grade of 0.05% is recommended so that effective drainage can occur
following irrigation or excessive rainfall.

(ii) Soil type

In sandy soils water infiltrates rapidly. Furrows should be short, so that water will reach the
downstream end without excessive percolation losses. In clay soils, the infiltration rate is much lower
than in sandy soils. Furrows can be much longer on clayey than on sandy soils.

(iii) Stream size

Normally stream sizes up to 0.5 l/sec will provide an adequate irrigation provided the furrows are not
too long. When larger stream sizes are available, water will move rapidly down the furrows and so
generally furrows can be longer. The maximum stream size that will not cause erosion will obviously
depend on the furrow slope; in any case, it is advised not to use stream sizes larger than 3.0 l/sec (see
Table 3).

52
(iv) Irrigation depth
Applying larger irrigation depths usually means that furrows can be longer as there is more time
available for water to flow down the furrows and infiltrate.

(v) Cultivation practice

When the farming is mechanized, furrows should be made as long as possible to facilitate the work.
Short furrows require a lot of attention as the flow must be changed frequently from one furrow to the
next. However, short furrows can usually be irrigated more efficiently than long ones as it is much
easier to keep the percolation losses low.

(vi) Field length

It may be more practical to make the furrow length equal to the length of the field, instead of the ideal
length, when this would result in a small piece of land left over (Figure).

Figure: Field length and furrow length.

53
Table 3 Practical values of maximum furrow lengths (m) depending on slope, soil type,
stream size and net irrigation depth
Furrow slope Maximum Clay Loam Sand
(%) stream size Net irrigation depth (mm)
(l/sec) per
furrow
50 75 50 75 50 75
0.0 3.0 100 150 60 90 30 45
0.1 3.0 120 170 90 125 45 60
0.2 2.5 130 180 110 150 60 95
0.3 2.0 150 200 130 170 75 110
0.5 1.2 150 200 130 170 75 110

Important Note:
This table only provides approximate Information relating furrow slope, soil type, stream size and
irrigation depth to furrow lengths. This should only be used as a guide as the data are based primarily
on field experience and not on any scientific relationships. Maximum values of furrow length are
given for reasonably efficient irrigation. However, furrow lengths can be even shorter than those
given in the table and in general this will help to improve irrigation efficiency. Only by installing a
furrow system, following the guidelines, and then evaluating its performance can an appropriate
system be developed for a given locality.

(b) Furrow shape

The shape of furrows is influenced by the soil type and the stream size.
(i) Soil type
In sandy soils, water moves faster vertically than sideways (= lateral). Narrow, deep V-shaped
furrows are desirable to reduce the soil area through which water percolates (Figure below). However,
sandy soils are less stable, and tend to collapse, which may reduce the irrigation efficiency. In clay
soils, there is much more lateral movement of water and the infiltration rate is much less than for
sandy soils. Thus a wide, shallow furrow is desirable to obtain a large wetted area (Figure) to
encourage infiltration.

Figure: A deep, narrow V-shaped furrow on a sandy soil.

54
Figure: A wide, shallow furrow on a clay soil.
(ii) Stream size
In general, the larger the stream size the larger the furrow must be to contain the flow.

(c) Furrow spacing

The spacing of furrows is influenced by the soil type and the cultivation practice.
(i) Soil type
As a rule, for sandy soils the spacing should be between 30 and 60 cm, i.e. 30 cm for coarse sand and
60 cm for fine sand. On clay soils, the spacing between two adjacent furrows should be 75-150 cm.
(ii)Cultivation practice
In mechanized farming a compromise is required between the machinery available to cut furrows and
the ideal spacings for crops. Mechanical equipment will result in less work if a standard width
between the furrows is maintained, even when the crops grown normally require a different planting
distance. This way the spacing of the tool attachment does not need to be changed when the
equipment is moved from one crop to another. However, care is needed to ensure that the standard
spacings provide adequate lateral wetting on all soil types.
5.2. Subsurface or subirrigation
Subsurface irrigation is defined as irrigation to crops by applying water from beneath the soil surface
either by constructing trenches or installing underground perforated pipe lines. In this system, water is
discharged into trenches and allowed to stand during the whole period of irrigation for lateral and
upward movement of water by capillarity to wet the soil between the trenches.
Conditions that favor subsurface irrigation
a. An impervious subsoil at a depth of 2 m or more.
b. A very permeable subsoil of reasonably uniform texture permitting good lateral and
upward movement of water.
c. Permeable loam or sandy loam surface soil.
d. Uniform topographic conditions and moderate slope.
e. Existence of high water table.
f. Irrigation water is scarce and costly.
g. Soils should be free of any salinity problem.
It must be ensured that no water is lost by deep percolation.

55
Subsurface irrigation is made by constructing a series of ditches or trenches 60 to 100 cm deep.Width
of the trenches is about 30 cm and vertical. Spacing between the trenches varies between 15 to 30 m
depending on soil types and lateral movement of water in soils
Suitable crops
Various types of crops, particularly with shallow root systems are well adapted to subsurface
irrigation system. Some of the crops include: wheat, potato, beet, peas and fodder crops.
Advantages
1. Maintenance of soil water at favorable tension
2. Loss of water by evaporation is held at minimum
3. Can be used for soils with low water holding capacity and high infiltration rate where surface
irrigation methods cannot be adopted and sprinkler irrigation is expensive.
Limitations
1. Presence of high water table or impervious subsoil
2. Poor quality irrigation water cannot be used-good quality water must be available.
3. Chances of saline and alkali conditions being developed by upward movement of salts with
water.
4. Soils should have a good hydraulic conductivity for upward movement of water.
5.3. Sprinkler irrigation
Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water which is similar to natural rainfall. Water
is distributed through a system of pipes usually by pumping. Water under pressure is carried and
sprayed into the air above the crop through a system of overhead perforated pipes, nozzle lines, or
through nozzles fitted to riser pipes attached to a system of pipes laid on the ground. Nozzles of fixed
type or rotating under the pressure of water are set at suitable intervals in the distribution pipes. The
sprayed water wets both the crop and the soil and, hence, has a refreshing effect. Water is applied at
a rate less than the intake rate of soil so that there occurs no runoff. Measured quantity of water
is applied to meet the soil water depletion.
(A) Suitable crops
Sprinkler irrigation is suited for most row, field and tree crops and water can be sprayed over or under
the crop canopy. However, large sprinklers are not recommended for irrigation of delicate crops such
as lettuce because the large water drops produced by the sprinklers may damage the crop.

(B) Suitable slopes

Sprinkler irrigation is adaptable to any farmable slope, whether uniform or undulating. The lateral
pipes supplying water to the sprinklers should always be laid out along the land contour whenever
possible. This will minimize the pressure changes at the sprinklers and provide a uniform irrigation.

(C) Suitable soils

56
Sprinklers are best suited to sandy soils with high infiltration rates although they are adaptable to most
soils. The average application rate from the sprinklers (in mm/hour) is always chosen to be less than
the basic infiltration rate of the soil so that surface ponding and runoff can be avoided. Sprinklers are
not suitable for soils which easily form a crust. If sprinkler irrigation is the only method available,
then light fine sprays should be used. The larger sprinklers producing larger water droplets are to be
avoided.

(D) Suitable irrigation water

A good clean supply of water, free of suspended sediments, is required to avoid problems of sprinkler
nozzle blockage and spoiling the crop by coating it with sediment.

Sprinkler System Layout

A typical sprinkler irrigation system consists of the following components:
 Pump unit
 Mainline
 Laterals
 Sprinklers
The pump unit is usually a centrifugal pump which takes water from the source and provides
adequate pressure for delivery into the pipe system.

The mainline –is the pipe which delivers water from the pump to the laterals. In some cases this
pipeline is permanent and is laid on the soil surface or buried below ground. In other cases it is
temporary, and can be moved from field to field. The main pipe materials used include asbestos
cement, plastic or aluminum alloy.

The laterals deliver water from the mainline to the sprinklers. They can be permanent but more often
they are portable and made of aluminum alloy or plastic so that they can be moved easily.

Figure. Hand-moved sprinkler system using two laterals.

57
A common problem with sprinkler irrigation is the large labour force needed to move the pipes and
sprinklers around the field. In some places such labour may not be available and may also be costly.
To overcome this problem many mobile systems have been developed such as the hose reel raingun
and the centre pivot.

The uniformity of sprinkler applications can be affected by wind and water pressure.
Spray from sprinklers is easily blown about by even a gentle breeze and this can seriously reduce
uniformity. To reduce the effects of wind the sprinklers can be positioned more closely together.

Sprinklers will only work well at the right operating pressure recommended by the manufacturer. If
the pressure is above or below this then the distribution will be affected. The most common problem
is when the pressure is too low. This happens when pumps and pipes wear. Friction increases and so
pressure at the sprinkler reduces. The result is that the water jet does not break up and all the water
tends to fall in one area towards the outside of the wetted circle. If the pressure is too high then the
distribution will also be poor. A fine spray develops which falls close to the sprinkler.
Application rate
This is the average rate at which water is sprayed onto the crops and is measured in mm/hour. The
application rate depends on the size of sprinkler nozzles, the operating pressure and the distance
between sprinklers. When selecting a sprinkler system it is important to make sure that the average
application rate is less than the basic infiltration rate of the soil. In this way all the water applied will
be readily absorbed by the soil and there should be no runoff.
Sprinkler drop sizes
As water sprays from a sprinkler it breaks up into small drops between 0.5 and 4.0 mm in size. The
small drops fall close to the sprinkler whereas the larger ones fall close to the edge of the wetted
circle. Large drops can damage delicate crops and soils and so in such conditions it is best to use the
smaller sprinklers.

Drop size is also controlled by pressure and nozzle size. When the pressure is low, drops tend to be
much larger as the water jet does not break up easily. So to avoid crop and soil damage, the use of
small diameter nozzles operating at or above the normal recommended operating pressure is
preferred.
5.4. Trickle or drip irrigation
Drip irrigation is sometimes called trickle irrigation and involves dripping water onto the soil at very
low rates (2-20 litres/hour) from a system of small diameter plastic pipes fitted with outlets called
emitters or drippers. Water is applied close to plants so that only part of the soil in which the roots
grow is wetted (Figure 60), unlike surface and sprinkler irrigation, which involves wetting the whole
soil profile. With drip irrigation water, applications are more frequent (usually every 1-3 days) than
with other methods and this provides a very favourable high moisture level in the soil in which plants
can flourish.

58
(A) Suitable crops
Drip irrigation is most suitable for row crops (vegetables, soft fruit), tree and vine crops where one or
more emitters can be provided for each plant. Generally only high value crops are considered because
of the high capital costs of installing a drip system.

(B) Suitable slopes

Drip irrigation is adaptable to any farmable slope. Normally the crop would be planted along contour
lines and the water supply pipes (laterals) would be laid along the contour also. This is done to
minimize changes in emitter discharge as a result of land elevation changes.

(C) Suitable soils

Drip irrigation is suitable for most soils. On clay soils water must be applied slowly to avoid surface
water ponding and runoff. On sandy soils higher emitter discharge rates will be needed to ensure
adequate lateral wetting of the soil.

(D) Suitable irrigation water

One of the main problems with drip irrigation is blockage of the emitters. All emitters have very small
waterways ranging from 0.2-2.0 mm in diameter and these can become blocked if the water is not
clean. Thus it is essential for irrigation water to be free of sediments. If this is not so then filtration of
the irrigation water will be needed.

Figure: With drip irrigation, only the part of the soil in which the roots grow is wetted.

Blockage may also occur if the water contains algae, fertilizer deposits and dissolved chemicals which
precipitate such as calcium and iron. Filtration may remove some of the materials but the problem

59
may be complex to solve and requires an experienced engineer or consultation with the equipment
dealer.

Drip irrigation is particularly suitable for water of poor quality (saline water). Dripping water to
individual plants also means that the method can be very efficient in water use. For this reason it is
most suitable when water is scarce.

Drip System Layout

A typical drip irrigation system is shown in Figure 61 and consists of the following components:
 Pump unit
 Control head
 Main line
 Laterals
 Emitters or drippers.
The pump unit takes water from the source and provides the right pressure for delivery into the pipe
system.

The control head consists of valves to control the discharge and pressure in the entire system. It may
also have filters to clear the water. Common types of filter include screen filters and graded sand
filters which remove fine material suspended in the water. Some control head units contain a fertilizer
or nutrient tank. These slowly add a measured dose of fertilizer into the water during irrigation. This
is one of the major advantages of drip irrigation over other methods.

Mainlines and laterals supply water from the control head into the fields. They are usually made
from PVC or polyethylene hose and should be buried below ground because they easily degrade when
exposed to direct solar radiation. Lateral pipes are usually 13-32 mm diameter.

Emitters or drippers are devices used to control the discharge of water from the lateral to the plants.
They are usually spaced more than 1 metre apart with one or more emitters used for a single plant
such as a tree. For row crops more closely spaced emitters may be used to wet a strip of soil. Many
different emitter designs have been produced in recent years. The basis of design is to produce an
emitter which will provide a specified constant discharge which does not vary much with pressure
changes, and does not block easily.

The water savings that can be made using drip irrigation are the reductions in deep percolation, in
surface runoff and in evaporation from the soil. These savings, it must be remembered, depend as
much on the user of the equipment as on the equipment itself.

60
Drip irrigation is not a substitute for other proven methods of irrigation. It is just another way of
applying water. It is best suited to areas where water quality is marginal, land is steeply sloping or
undulating and of poor quality, where water or labour are expensive, or where high value crops
require frequent water applications.

CHAPTER 6. IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

Goals for Water Management in Irrigation

 To conserve surface and groundwater supplies.
 To minimize surface and groundwater contamination.
 To efficiently use precipitation and irrigation for crop production.
 To apply irrigation in a manner that stores water in the crop's active root zone and minimizes
percolation of water below the root zone.
Techniques to Achieve the Goals
 Schedule irrigations with appropriate amounts and frequency.
 Measure current soil water status, rainfall, and irrigation water applied to a field.
 Obtain regional information on evapotranspiration (crop water use).
 Balance rainfall and irrigation applications with crop water use.
 Apply water uniformly by appropriate irrigation method without runoff in the field.
 Modify irrigation system and tillage management as necessary to improve application
uniformity and efficiency, including basin tillage, crop residue management, sprinkler device
selection, and system operation.

6.1. Relationship between crop yield and water

Wealth of knowledge accumulated on this subject reveals that the relationship between crop yield and
water can range from linear to curvilinear response functions. The relationships vary depending on
site conditions (soil and climate). One of the most simple models used to relate crop yield to water use
is that of Stewart (Stewart et al., 1977), which can be given as follows:

Y  ET 
 1   o 1  
YM  ETM 

where:
Y = actual yield (dry matter) (ton/ha)
YM = potential (maximum) yield when ET = ETM.(ton/ha)
o = the slope of the line when Y/YM is plotted against ET deficit
(1-ET/ETM)
ET = actual crop evapotranspiration (cm)
ETM = Maximum crop evapotranspiration (cm)

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The values of YM and ETM are somewhat site-dependent (location and year), but the value of o is
nearly constant. It is possible to estimate both ET and ET M as a function of irrigation management and
other site variables (see chapter 5), and this allows prediction of the relative yield, Y/Y M.

Example: Irrigation = 30 cm, SW = 5 cm, R = 0, PR = 3 cm, D = 1 cm, Y M = 18 tons/ha, ETM = 60

cm, o = 1.25 ton/ha, calculate the ET and actual yield of corn.

Solution:

ET = 30 + 3 + 5 –0 –1 = 37 cm.
Y  37 
 1  1.251  
18  60 
Y  0.52  18  Y  9.36 tons / ha

In the above example, how much yield increase could result from an increase in irrigation of 10 cm?

Answer: If irrigation were applied during the right time, when no drainage would result, then the
irrigation increase would all be used to increase yield as follows:
ET = 47 cm.
Y  47 
 1  1.251    0.73
YM  60 

Y= 0.73 x 18 = 13.1 tons/ha. So, the increase is 3.74 tons/ha or 40%.

6.2. Irrigation scheduling techniques
Irrigation scheduling involves determining the time of irrigation (when to irrigate) and how much
water (irrigation depth) to apply per irrigation. Three major considerations influence irrigation
scheduling:
1. Water needs of the crop
2. Availability of irrigation water
3. Capacity of the root zone soil to store water

Criteria for scheduling irrigation

Three categories of criteria have been in use for scheduling irrigation:
1. Plant criteria
2. Criteria based on soil water status
3. Climatological criteria

1. Plant criteria
The basis for using these criteria is that plants show certain characteristic changes in their
constitution, appearance and growth behaviour with changes in available soil water and atmospheric
conditions. These changes are therefore considered as useful pointers to the time of irrigation. These
changes include:

62
 a. General appearance of crop plants (changes in normal colour, dropping of leaves,
rolling of leaves, etc)
b. Plant water potential and water content of plant tissues
c. Plant growth (retardation in growth of height or internodal length, radial changes in
stem, etc)
d. Critical periods of water need (sensitive stages vary with crops)
e. Indicator plants (sunflower) (Indicator plant for irrigation should be such that it
shows the water stress before the crop has suffered from it).
f. Stomatal aperture (fully open when the supply of water is adequate and start to close
with scarcity of water in soils to restrict the transpiration)
g. Leaf diffusion resistance (LDR) (governed by the degree of stomatal closure and can
be measured by diffusion porometer).
h. Plant temperature (rise in temperature of leaf tissues).
2. Criteria based on soil water status

This is the most accurate and dependable method. It is the determination of the available water which
is more important than the total water content of soils. Besides, information on the optimum water
regime of crops and the available water holding capacity of soils is essential. The optimum water
regime for a given crop in a place is determined experimentally by correlating yields with water
content of soils.

The criteria most often used for scheduling irrigation are the following:
1. Soil water content: based on use of lower limit of soil water content for potential
evapotranspiration for various crops, soil types and atmospheric evaporativity.
2. Critical level of soil water: based on the lowest level of the optimum soil water regime
which has to be determined experimentally for various crops in different soil types and soil
conditions. This requires periodical determination of soil water content to know the time
when the soil water is likely to reach the critical level.
3. Soil water tension: uses tensiometers to monitor the critical soil water tension below which
the growth of crops is curtailed. The water content is calibrated from the soil water
characteristic curve.
3. Climatological approach

This has been discussed extensively in chapter 4. This involves the use of meteorological parameters
for estimating the evapotranspiration and consumptive use of the crop. The methods involve:
1. Empirical formula: developed by Penman, Blaney-Criddle, Thornthwaite and others. In this
method, the daily evapotranspiration loss is deducted from the soil water reserve in root zone
soil after irrigation and a balance is worked out. When the balance shows that the soil water is
depleted to a predetermined level, say, the lower level of optimum soil water regime,

63
 irrigation is applied to replenish the water lost through evapotranspiration. This method
requires the knowledge of water holding capacity of the soil and continuous record of rainfall
and other meteorological parameters. This makes the method complex for an ordinary farmer.
2. Evaporimeter: the evaporation values are multiplied by crop coefficients to get crop
evapotranspiration. Irrigation is applied when crops consume the available soil water to a
certain limit, calculated on the basis of consumptive use rate as determined by evaporimeters.

N.B: The criteria used for irrigation scheduling are also the factors that influence
frequency of irrigation.

6.3. Design irrigation frequency

It refers to the time, usually expressed in days, between two irrigations that is necessary to irrigate the
design crop area during the period of peak consumptive use of the crop to be irrigated. It depends on
how fast soil water is extracted when crop is transpiring at its maximum rate. The average
consumptive use rate during this period is used for planning the system. The design frequency can be
decided from the following relationships:
 FC  Mb 
  xA s xD
 100  d
Design irrigation frequency( days)  
Peak period of consumptive use of crop, cm / day Peak period C

where:
FC = Field capacity (% mass)
Mb = soil water content just before irrigation (% mass)
As = apparent specific gravity (dimensionless)
D = depth of crop root zone, cm
D = net irrigation, cm (see section 6.4 below)

6.4. Depth of irrigation

Depth of irrigation refers to the depth to which the applied water would cover an area. The net depth
of irrigation is decided by the amount of water required to bring the soil water content just before an
irrigation to field capacity in the root zone soil. Therefore, the water content of the soil just before
irrigation must be known to calculate the net depth of water required to be applied. The depth of
irrigation is calculated as:
n
FC i  Mb i
d  100
 As i  D i
i 1

where,
d = net depth of water to be applied or net irrigation, cm
FCi = Field capacity of the ith layer of soil in per cent by weight.
Mbi = water content of the ith layer of soil just before irrigation, percent by weight.

64
Asi and Di are as defined in Chapter 4 and n represents the number of soil layers in the root zone D.

Example: For a given irrigated field, the field capacity water content was found to be 20% (mass
basis) and the water content just before irrigation was found to be 15% (mass basis). The average bulk
density of the 75 cm root depth was 1.3 g/cm 3. The peak period consumptive use of the crop was 5
mm/day. Calculate:
a. the depth of irrigation, d and
b. irrigation frequency
Solution:
FC  Mb 20  15
a. d  xAsxD  x1.3x 75cm  4.875 cm
100 100
net irrigation depth 4.875 cm
b. Irrigation frequency  CU

0.5 cm / day
 9.75 days  9 days

It means the crop has to be irrigated every 9 days.

6.4. Irrigation efficiencies
Adequate control and management of irrigation water requires that methods be available to evaluate
irrigation practices from the time water leaves the point of diversion until it is utilized by the plants.
The objective of these efficiency concepts is to show where improvements can be made which will
result in more efficient irrigation.

1. Water-conveyance efficiency
Water conveyance efficiency (Ec) is the percentage of source water that reaches the field. Water-
conveyance efficiency formulated to evaluate conveyance losses can be stated as follows:
Wf
Ec   100
Wd

where:
Ec = water-conveyance efficiency
Wf = Water delivered to field
Wd = Water diverted from source

Conveyance efficiency is generally a concern for irrigation districts that supply a group of farmers
through a system of canals and open ditches.

Example 1. Calculate the conveyance efficiency of an irrigation system when a stream of 95 l/s
received at the farm gate after being diverted from a canal delivered 72 l/s to the field.

Wf 72 l
Solution: Ec  x100  s x100  75.79%
Wd 95 l
s

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2. Water-application efficiency
The concept of water-application efficiency is developed to measure and focus attention upon the
efficiency with which water delivered is being stored within the root zone of the soil, where it could
be used by plants.
Ws
Ea   100
Wf

where:
Ea = water-application efficiency
Ws = water stored in the soil root zone during the irrigation
Wf = water delivered to the farm

Common sources of loss of irrigation water from the farm during water application are mainly:
o surface runoff from the farm (Rf), and
o deep percolation (Df).

Neglecting evaporation losses during the time water is being applied and immediately after, it follows
that:
Wf  Ws  R f  D f
Wf  ( R f  D f )
 Ea   100
Wf
Water application efficiency gives a general sense of how well an irrigation system performs its
primary task of getting water to the plant roots.

Table 5 Range of application efficiencies for various irrigation systems

Type of System Application efficiency range (%)
Surface irrigation
Basin 60-95
Border 60-90
Furrow 50-90
Sprinkler irrigation
Handmove 65-80
Traveling Gun 60-70
Center pivot & linear 70-95
Solid set 70-85
Drip irrigation
Point source emitter 75-95
Line source emitter 70-95

Example 2. Calculate the field water application efficiency of an irrigation system when a stream of
95 l/s received at the farm gate after being diverted from a canal delivered 72 l/s to the field. During
irrigation to wheat crop for 8 hrs, 350 and 158 m 3 of water respectively were lost by runoff and deep
percolation.

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Solution: Water lost during irrigation = runoff loss + deep percolation loss (350 +158 = 508 m 3 x
1000
l/m3 = 508000 l).
Water delivered to the field in liters = (72 l/s ) x (8 x 60 x 60 s/hr) = 2073600 l.
Ws  Wf  R f  DPf   2073600  508000 1565600
Ea  x100   x100  x100  75.50%
Wf Wf 2073600 2073600

3. Water-distribution efficiency

Another important characteristic of irrigation is uniform distribution of irrigation water throughout the
root zone. Under most conditions, the more uniformly water is distributed, the better will be the crop
response. The water-distribution efficiency is calculated as follows:

 Y
E d  1    100
 d

67
where:
Ed = water-distribution efficiency
Y = absolute value of average numerical deviation in depth of water stored from
average depth stored during irrigation
d = average depth of water stored during the irrigation

Water-distribution efficiency measures the extent to which water is uniformly distributed and stored
in the effective root zone soil along the irrigation run.

4. Water-storage efficiency
Water-storage efficiency refers to the percentage ratio of the amount of water stored in effective root
zone soil to the amount of water needed to make up the soil water depleted in crop root zone prior to
irrigation. It may be expressed mathematically as:
Ws
Es   100
We
where:
Es = water storage efficiency in per cent
Ws = amount of water actually stored in root zone soil from the water applied
We = amount of water needed to meet the soil-water depleted in the crop root zone soil prior
to irrigation
5. Water-use efficiency
This is determined to evaluate the benefit of applied water through economic crop production. It can
be described in two ways:

i. Field-water use efficiency

This may be defined as the ratio of the amount of economic crop yield to the amount of water required
for crop growing. It can be calculated as follows:
Y
Eu 
WR
where,
Ez = field water-use efficiency expressed in kilogram of economic yield per hectare-cm or
hectare-mm of water

Y = economic crop yield in kilogram per hectare (kg/ha)

WR = water requirement of the crop in cm or mm

ii. Crop water-use efficiency

This may be defined as the ratio of the amount of economic yield of a crop to the amount of water
consumptively used by the crop. It can be expressed as:

68
 Y
E CU (or WUE) 
CU or ET

where,
ECU = crop water-use efficiency in kilogram of economic yield per hectare-cm or hectare-mm
of water
WUE = water-use efficiency of crop in kg of economic yield per ha-cm or ha-mm of water
Y = economic yield (kg/ha)
CU = consumptive use of water (cm or mm)
ET = evapotranspiration (cm or mm)

CHAPTER 7. LAND DRAINAGE PRINCIPLES

Introduction
In addition to water, plants get oxygen for their root respiration from the soil. Both water and air
occupy the pore spaces and hence compete for space. When all the pores are filled with water, plants
will suffer from oxygen deficiency and show poor growth. The soil should, therefore, contain
balanced amount of these two substances. Drainage plays an important role in maintaining this
balance.

7.1. Drainage benefits and hazards

7.1.1. Benefits
Drainage is the removal of excess gravitational water from soils by natural or artificial means.
Adequate drainage improves soil structure and increases and perpetuates the productivity of soils.
Drainage is the first essential in reclamation of waterlogged saline and alkali soils. Even if only those
lands which have been farmed are considered, drainage benefits irrigation agriculture and the public
in many ways. In general, adequate drainage has the following benefits:
1. facilitates early plowing and planting,
2. lengthens the crop-growing season,
3. provides more available soil moisture and plant food by increasing the depth of root-zone soil,
4. helps in soil ventilation (increases oxygen supply to the roots),
5. decreases soil erosion and gullying, by increasing water infiltration into soil,
6. favors growth of soil bacteria,
7. leaches excess salts from soil, and
8. assures higher soil temperatures.

7.1.2. Hazards
Some wet soils should not be drained, as in the following cases:

69
 1. Land where drainage would adversely affect the environment (e.g., by reducing the number
and variety of aquatic animals).
2. Land where drainage would lower the ambient (surrounding) water table and thereby decrease
the level and volume of water flowing into nearby streams, ponds, springs, and shallow wells.
3. Land where excessive drainage would adversely affect capillary water rise in deep sand soils
and deep organic soils. Such soils may lack sufficient water after drainage because of a slow
and low capillary rise from the water table.
4. Wet soils that contain excess amounts of iron sulfide (FeS 2, pyrite, fool’s gold) should not be
drained. On being drained, the iron disulfide oxidizes to ferrous sulfate and sulfuric acid,
thereby lowering the pH.
5. Land where drainage, particularly for soils low in fertility, may cost more than the increased
value of crops grown on the soil.

7.2. Sources of excess water

The major sources of excess water that make drainage necessary on parts of the irrigated lands are:
o seepage losses from reservoirs or canals, and
o deep percolation losses from irrigated lands.

Flooding of low lands due to overflow of rivers and natural drainage channels during periods of
maximum stream flow constitute important sources of excess water in certain low-valley areas.

The soil permeability is the dominant variable influencing the feasibility and the cost of
drainage. Subsoil formations and permeabilities influence sources of excess water in
soils.

7.3. Soils that need drainage

Much can be learned about the internal drainage of a soil by digging into it. The light-gray colors of
gley indicate long periods of continuous saturation. Periodic aeration usually produces orange-red
mottles caused by oxidation of iron into various iron oxides (such as “rust”). This coloring develops
in the most easily oxidized parts (cracks and other large channels like old root channels). The rest of
the soil may be gray.

sually, poor internal drainage is caused by shallow depths to bedrock or by low-permeability clayey
layers. Depressions with clayey bottoms will pond water, eventually forming peat and muck (organic
soils) soils after thousand of years. Most organic soils need drainage; they are formed because of poor
drainage. Soils may also have poor drainage conditions simply because they simply accumulate more
water (high rainfall or collection of runoff water) than they can dissipate by their slow natural
drainage. After heavy rains poorly drained soils take longer to lose surface water.

70
 The main purpose of drainage is to increase aeration to the growing plant roots.

7.4. Types of drainage systems

There are two chief types of drainage systems:
1. surface drainage system, and
2. subsurface drainage system.

1. Surface drainage system

Surface drainage system is the collection and removal of excess water from the surface of the soil via
open ditches. Surface drainage is achieved primarily by constructing gently sloping open ditches for
water collection and by smoothing the soil surface and creating enough slope to facilitate runoff
toward the drainage ditches.

Surface drainage systems are best adapted to drain flat or nearly flat soils that are:
1. slowly permeable,
2. shallow over rock or fine clay,
3. have surface depressions that trap water,
4. receive runoff or seepage from uplands,
5. require the removal of excess irrigation water, and
6. require lowering of the water table.

2. Subsurface drainage system

In subsurface drainage drains are laid below the soil surface and are covered. The drains do not
interfere with normal movement of farm implements and cultivation practices and no area is wasted
for constructing drains.

There are no technical restrictions on the use of surface drains; they can be used on all kinds of soils.
Subsurface drains, however, require a soil profile that is sufficiently porous for water to percolate
through it to the buried drain tile or porous tubing. Many of the finest-textured clays have such small
pores between the particles that they are too slowly permeable to be drained adequately by many
subsurface drainage systems. Such soils must be drained by a surface drainage technique or an open-
ditch system.

Tiles are short sections of pipe made from fired clay or concrete and may be 30-60 cm long and 10-30
cm or more in diameter. Porous plastic tubes are now made in similar diameters but are a hundred
meters or more long per section.

To inhibit the entrance of soil particles into openings in the sides of tile or plastic drain pipe, gravel is
usually poured around the tile and pipe when laid or before backfilling.

71
7.5. Drainage system selection
The major factors to be considered when selecting a drainage system are soil permeability (the cause
of the poor drainage) and the topographic features of the area. Some of the more important
relationships to be considered when choosing a drainage system are presented in the following Table.

Table 7 Soil and topographic parameters important in selecting the type of drainage system to
install on a poorly drained area
No. Parameter Suggested drainage system
1 Sloping areas Interceptor lines in low areas or seepage spots
2 Closed basins, level areas Outlet problems, may need to pump
3 Deep, permeable sands Any system is adequate
4 Deep, impermeable clays Careful irrigation management; surface and open
ditch drains
5 Shallow permeable soil over impermeable Tube or tile drains just above impermeable layer;
layers careful irrigation management
6 Deep (2.8-3.7 m thick), impermeable soils Sump or well drainage; surface and open-ditch
over coarse sands, gravels drains in humid areas
7 Water table fluctuates with irrigation Tube drain system on a grid and careful irrigation
control
8 Water table fluctuates with rainfall Surface drainage is better; also, consider tube or
tile drains
9 Ponded water in fields Surface grading (sloping) and surface drains

CHAPTER 8. WATER SOURCES AND IRRIGATION POTENTIAL OF ETHIOPIA

Overview
Ethiopia has a vast water resource potential. Yet only 1 percent of the estimated annual surface water
of 110 billion cubic meters is used for irrigation and hydropower. Though the country’s irrigation
potential is estimated at 3-4 million hectares, only small percentage of this is utilized.

8.1. Water sources of Ethiopia

Ethiopia is endowed with a substantial amount of water resources. The surface water resource
potential is impressive, but little developed. The country possesses twelve major river basins, which
form four major drainage systems:
o The Nile basin (including Abbay or Blue Nile, Baro-Akobo, Setit-Tekeze/Atbara and Mereb)
covers 33 percent of the country and drains the northern and central parts westwards;
o The Rift Valley (including Awash, Denakil, Omo-Gibe and Central Lakes) covers 28 percent
of the country;
o The Shebelli−Juba basin (including Wabi-Shebelle and Genale-Dawa) covers 33 percent of
the country and drains the southeastern mountains towards Somalia and the Indian Ocean;
o The North-East Coast (including the Ogaden and Gulf of Aden basins) covers 6 percent of the
country.

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Integrated development master plan studies and related river basin surveys undertaken at the end of
the 1990s indicate that the aggregate annual runoff from nine Ethiopian river basins is about 122 km 3.
The Abbay, Baro-Akobo and Omo-Gibe basins account for about 76 percent of the total runoff from
an area that is only 32 percent of the total area of the country.

Most of the rivers in Ethiopia are seasonal and about 70 percent of the total runoff is obtained during
the period June-August. Dry season flow originates from springs which provide base-flows for small-
scale irrigation.

Table 1 Ethiopia’s surface water resources by major river basins (km 3)

Major drainage River Basin Area (km2) As % of the Annual As % of
system total area Runoff total
(km3/yr) runoff
Nile Basin 368,812 32.40 84.55 69.0
Abbay 199,812 17.60 52.6 42.90
Baro-Akobo 74,100 6.50 23.6 19.30
Setit- 89,000 7.80 7.63 6.20
Tekeze/Atbara
Mereb 5,900 0.50 0.5 0.60
Rift Valley 317,640 27.90 29.02 23.70
Awash 112,700 9.90 4.6 3.70
Denakil 74,000 6.50 0.86 0.70
Omo-Gibe 78,200 6.90 17.96 14.70
Central Lake 52,740 4.60 5.60 4.60
Shebelli-Juba 371,264 32.70 8.95 7.30
Wabe Shebele 200,214 17.60 3.15 2.60
Genale-Dawa 171,050 15.10 5.80 4.70
North East 79,300
Coast
Ogaden 77,100 6.80 0
Aysha 2,200 0.20 0
Total 1,137,016 100.0 122.52 100.0

The groundwater potential of the country is estimated at about 2.6 billion cubic meters of water, but
so far only a small fraction of the groundwater has been developed and this mainly for local water
supply purposes. Traditional wells are widely used by nomads. Neither desalinization nor treatment of
wastewater is practiced in Ethiopia.

Intense rainfall sometimes causes flooding particularly along the Awash river and in the lower Baro-
Akobo and Wabe-Shebelle river basins, causing damage to standing crops and infrastructures.

Ethiopia has several lakes (an area of about 7000 km 2), a number of saline and crater lakes as well as
several wetland areas. All the lakes, except Lake Tana which is the source of Abbay River in the Nile
Basin, are found in the Rift Valley and among these lakes only Zway has fresh water while the others

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are all saline. Rising water levels in Lake Tana and Lake Awassa after intense rainfall have been
creating concern. Large wetlands serve as a source of water for large rivers, flood retention and
groundwater recharge. They are critical resources because they are areas of high biodiversity and are
often vital to the livelihood strategies of local communities through the provision of environmental
services and socio-economic benefits. Ethiopia has so far put no emphasis on developing and
protecting the large wetlands, although external initiatives are emerging.

Ethiopia has many small, medium and large reservoir dams constructed for hydropower generation,
irrigation and drinking water supply. Small dams are less than 15 m high and have a capacity of less
than 3 million m3. The height of the medium and large dams in Ethiopia is 15−50 m and their capacity
ranges from 4 to 1900 million m3.

In total, there are nine medium and large dams with a total capacity of almost 3.5 km 3. Two large
dams are used for hydropower generation only, one dam is used both for hydropower generation and
irrigation supply, two dams are used for irrigation supply only and the remaining four for water
supply to the city of Addis Ababa and the town of Gondar. Small dams (micro-dams) constructed for
irrigation supply are concentrated in the Amhara and Tigray regional states.

Water use
Written information on water use is not available, but agriculture is obviously the main water-
consuming sector. Based on the total irrigated area, cropping pattern and calendar, annual agricultural
water use is estimated to be in the order of 5.2 km 3, while domestic and industrial water withdrawals
are estimated to be about 0.33 and 0.02 km 3 respectively. Groundwater has not yet been considered
for irrigation development, mainly due to high investment and running costs, but pilot schemes to use
groundwater for irrigation have been started

There is growing concern about water use because of the conflict between the environment and
agriculture particularly in lowland rural areas, where total baseflows are diverted for irrigation
without releasing water for ecological conservation.

International water issues

Most of the rivers of Ethiopia originate within the country and flow across the borders to neighboring
countries, thus becoming transboundary rivers. Sharing the water resources of these transboundary
rivers is very challenging, particularly the Nile tributaries (Abbay, Tekeze and Baro-Akobo) with the
downstream riparian countries Sudan and Egypt. Recently, under an international law supporting the
equitable utilization of the water resources, positive progress has been observed now that riparian
countries are deciding on common water development programs. The Nile Basin Initiative has been
created and a Strategic Action Program prepared which consists of two sub-programs: the Shared
Vision Program (SVP) and the Subsidiary Action Program (SAP). SVP is to help create an enabling

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environment for action on the ground through building trust and skill, while SAP is aimed at the
delivery of actual development projects involving two or more countries. Projects are selected by
individual riparian countries for implementation and submitted to the Council of Ministers of the Nile
Basin Initiative for approval. The council has already accepted four hydropower and four irrigation
development projects proposed by Ethiopia. Sudan, Ethiopia and Egypt have also adopted a strategy
of cooperation in which all projects to be launched concerning the river should seek the common
benefit of all member states and this aspect should be included in the accompanying feasibility
studies.

8.2. Irrigation and drainage development

8.2.1. Evolution of irrigation development

River basin master plan studies and related surveys indicate a maximum irrigation potential of about
5.7 million ha, but about 3.6 million ha is commonly quoted. The irrigation potential of Ethiopia is at
present estimated at about 2.7 million ha, considering the availability of water and land resources,
technology and finance.
Table 2 Potential irrigable and actual irrigated area of the drainage basins, Ethiopia

Basins Potential irrigable Actual irrigated area (ha) % Utilized

area (ha)
Abay (Blue Nile 977,915 21,010 2.10
Rift Valley Lakes 122,300 12,270 10.00
Awash 204,400 69,900 34.20
Omo-Ghibe 450,120 27,310 6.10
Genale-Dawa 435,300 80 0.02
Wabi-Shebele 204,000 20,290 9.90
Baro-Akobo 748,500 350 0.05
Tekeze 312,700 1,800 0.57
Afar 3,000 - -
Mereb 37,560 8,000 21.30
Total 3,495,795 161,010 4.07

Irrigation in Ethiopia dates back several centuries, if not millennia, while “modern” irrigation was
started by the commercial irrigated sugar estate established in the early 1950s by the Imperial
Government of Ethiopia and the Dutch company known as HVA-Ethiopia. Various sources give
different estimates of irrigated area, but recent sources indicate that the area equipped for irrigation
was nearly 290,000 ha in 2001, which is 11 percent of the economical irrigation potential of 2.7
million ha. The actually irrigated area has not been estimated but field assessments in small-scale
irrigation projects indicate that some irrigation schemes are not operating to their full potential and
some are not functional at all due to factors related to shortage of water, damaged structures and poor
water management. On the other hand, farmers are extending canal networks in some modern
irrigation projects and can therefore irrigate more land than is reportedly equipped for irrigation.

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Therefore, the area under irrigation can be considered more or less similar to the area equipped for
irrigation. Four categories of irrigation schemes can be distinguished:
o Traditional irrigation schemes: These schemes are constructed under self-help programmes
carried out by farmers on their own initiative and vary from less than 1 ha to 100 ha. The total
irrigated area is estimated to be about 138 000 ha and about 572,000 farmers are involved.
Traditional water committees, locally known as ‘water fathers’, administer the water
distribution and coordinate the maintenance activities of the schemes. Traditional irrigation is
also very common in peri-urban areas, particularly in Addis Ababa and Bahir Dar, for the
production of vegetables for the local market. The major drawback of traditional irrigation
schemes is related to unstable headworks and faulty systems of irrigation stemming from lack
of technology and knowledge.
o Modern small-scale irrigation schemes: These schemes use technologies for irrigating up to
200 ha and are constructed by the government/NGOs with farmer participation. They are
generally based on direct river diversions but they may also involve micro-dams for storage.
The area equipped for irrigation in 2002 was about 48,300 ha and about 74,100 farmers were
involved. The operation and maintenance of the schemes are the responsibility of the water
users, supported by the regional authorities/bureaus in charge of irrigation development and
management. Water Users Associations (WUAs) are formally established in some schemes
but traditional water management dominates in most of the modern schemes.
o Modern private irrigation: Private investment in irrigation has recently reemerged with the
adoption of a market-based economy policy in the early 1980s. Virtually all irrigated state
farms were privately owned farms until nationalization of the private property in the mid
1970s. At the end of 2000, private investors had developed about 5 500 ha of irrigated farms,
distributed in Afar (37 percent), Oromia (48 percent) and the Southern Nations, Nationalities
and People’s Region (SNNPR) also known as the Southern Region (15 percent).
o Public irrigation schemes: These schemes comprise medium- and large-scale irrigation
schemes with areas of 200−3000 ha and above 3000 ha respectively and a total estimated area
of about 97,700 ha. They are constructed, owned and operated by public enterprises. These
schemes are concentrated along the Awash River Course and were constructed in the
1960s−70s as either private farms or joint ventures. No such schemes have been developed
for the last 7–8 years.

Table 3 Existing irrigation schemes in Ethiopia by Region

Current Irrigation activities
Region Irrigation Modern Irrigation (ha)
Potential (ha) Traditional (ha) Small Modern & large
Oromia 1,350,000 56,807 17,690 31,980
Amhara 500,000 54,035 5,752 -
SNNP 700,000 2000 11,577 6,076
Tigrai 300,000 2,607 10,000 -

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Afar 163,554 2,440 - 21,000
Ben Shangul Gumz 121,177 400 200 -
Gambella 600,000 46 70 -
Somalia 500,000 8,200 1,800 2,000
Hareri 19,200 812 125 -
Dire Dawa 2,000 640 860 -
Addis Ababa 526 352 - -
Total 4,256,457 138,339 48,074 61,057
Source: Tilahun and Paulos, 2004.

About 62 percent of the area equipped for irrigation is located in the Rift Valley, while 29 percent of
the area equipped for irrigation is located in the Nile basin. The remaining 9 percent is located in the
Shebelli-Juba basin. Region-wise, about 39 percent of the irrigated area is in Oromia in central
Ethiopia, followed by 24 percent in Amhara in the north, 15 percent in Afar in the northeast and 12
percent in SNNPR, while the remaining 10 percent is in the other regions. Nearly 100 percent of the
irrigated land is supplied from surface water, while groundwater use has just been started on a pilot
scale in East Amhara. Sprinkler irrigation is practiced on about 2 percent of the irrigated area for
sugar cane production by government enterprises, while localized irrigation has recently started in the
Tigray and Amhara regions Pump irrigation by a group of farm households and private farms is
practiced in some areas, while human-powered (treadle pump) irrigation has also recently started in
the Tigray and Amhara regions. Though quantitative information is not available, spate irrigation and
flood recession cropping are practiced in the lowland areas of the country, particularly in Dire Dawa,
Somali, East Amhara, and Tigray in the eastern and northeastern parts of the country.

8.2.2. Role of irrigation in agricultural production, economy and society

Both irrigated and rainfed agriculture is important in the Ethiopian economy. Virtually all food crops
in Ethiopia come from rainfed agriculture with the irrigation sub-sector accounting for only about 3
percent of the food crops. Export crops such as coffee, oilseed and pulses are also mostly rainfed, but
industrial crops such as sugar cane, cotton and fruit are irrigated. Other important irrigated crops
include vegetables and fruit trees in medium- and large-scale schemes and maize, wheat, vegetables,
potatoes, sweet potatoes and bananas in small-scale schemes. There is a marked value added in
irrigated agriculture. A case study carried out in 2001 estimated that average yields of cereals under
irrigation and rainfed conditions are 1.75 and 1.15 tones/ha respectively. The same study indicated
that production costs per ha were US$90 for cereals, US$60for pulses and US$290 for vegetables,
while the corresponding gross incomes per ha were US$345, US$215 and US$1 870. Development
costs per hectare of smallscale irrigation schemes are US$1 760−2 940 for direct river diversion
schemes and US$4700−7100 for schemes requiring microdams, while the respective annual operation
and maintenance costs per hectare are US$70−120 and US$160−240 respectively.

Supplementary irrigation is widely practiced in all irrigation categories, although separate quantitative
information on the area supplied with supplementary irrigation is not available. The areas under

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traditional and small-scale irrigation systems are supplied with full irrigation during dry periods and
with supplementary irrigation when the rain comes late or withdraws early, or when there is
inadequate rainfall. Rainfed farming has always been the main livelihood for most Ethiopian people
and it is supported by traditional water harvesting practices particularly in central-north, eastern and
southeastern areas of the country.

8.3. Status and evolution of drainage systems

Drainage is as important as irrigation, particularly in the highlands of Ethiopia. However, except in
irrigated lands, drainage is not given the required attention in rainfed agriculture where farmers
construct traditional drain ditches commonly diagonal to the main slope of the farmlands. Because of
irregularity in cross-sections and longitudinal slopes as well as inadequate capacities, the drains are
usually converted to gullies if the same drains are adopted year after year. To avoid this happening,
drain lines are changed every year. Designs of small-scale irrigation schemes incorporate drainage
systems but these are not properly implemented. The typology of the drainage system used in the
country is the surface drainage system (gravity drainage). The construction of subsurface drainage
systems was started for one large-scale irrigation scheme in the Awash Valley for salinity control, but
was discontinued. Separate information on the cost of drainage systems is not available because it is
included in the overall development cost of the irrigation system.

8.4. Water management, policies and legislation related to water use in agriculture Institutions
Several water sector institutions have been established at federal and regional levels under the
regionalization and decentralization policy.

At the federal level, the public institutions involved in water resources development include:
o The Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) is responsible for the overall planning,
development, management, utilization and protection of the country’s water resources, as well
as supervising all water development activities carried out by other institutions. Large-scale
water supply is also handled by the ministry through its Water Supply and Sewerage
Department.
o The Awash Basin Water Resources Management Agency (ABWRMA) is the only basin level
institution established for administering and managing the Awash River Water. Most of the
medium- and large-scale irrigation projects and salinity and flooding problems are
concentrated in this basin.
o The Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) is in charge of water management (irrigation extension),
including water harvesting for smallholder irrigated and rainfed agriculture.
o The Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) is responsible for the preparation of
environmental protection policy, laws and directives. It is also in charge of evaluating the

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 impact of social and economic development projects, particularly irrigation and hydropower
projects, on the environment and is further responsible for follow-up work.

The regional/sub-national institutions involved in the water sector include:

o The Bureaus of Water, Mines and Energy (BoWME) and/or Bureaus of Water Resources
Development (BoWRD) which exist in some regions and are responsible for small-scale
irrigation and rural water supply as well as small-scale hydropower development
o The Commissions for Sustainable Agriculture and Environmental Rehabilitation (Co-SAER)
and the Irrigation Development Authorities which undertake operational activities in line with
their mandates (study, design and construction of small-scale irrigation schemes).
o The Bureaus of Agriculture (BoA) have similar functions at the regional scale as the MoA.
o Several NGOs are involved in the water sector, particularly in small-scale irrigation and rural
water supply projects.

Water management
Medium and large-scale irrigation schemes are managed by government enterprises. The water
management of small-scale irrigation schemes is the responsibility of the farmers themselves, mainly
through informal/traditional community groups. Some formal Water Users Associations (WUAs)
have been established. Apart from the provision of extension and training services to the WUAs on
the part of the MoA/ BoA, no institution is directly involved in water management in smallholder-
irrigated agriculture.

Once the construction of irrigation schemes is completed, they are handed over to the beneficiaries
but maintenance remains within the responsibility of the regional governments. The absence of any
appropriate local-level organs to cater for small-scale irrigation has resulted in a lack of guidance in
irrigation operation and maintenance at a community level. With an increase in irrigated areas and
more users, irrigation water management and rules for water allocation are becoming more complex
and problematic. Disputes are already common, especially between upstream and downstream users.
A decentralization process is under way with regional and lower level administrative organs which are
becoming more autonomous in aspects related to irrigation development and water management. The
strategy is to establish WUAs before projects are implemented and to strengthen them through both
training and involvement in the process so that they can take over the responsibility of operation and
water management when construction is completed.

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