WEN 3319: HYDRAULIC STUCTURES

Prerequisites: Hydraulics

Introduction
This course is intended to introduce the learner to the application of basic design principles to the
problems specific to water engineering

Learning General Objectives:

At the end of this course, the learner should be able to:
a) Describe the principles of planning, design, construction and operation and maintenance of
hydraulic structures.
b) Explain the planning and design hydraulic structures
c) Describe the construction hydraulic structures
d) Discuss how to operate and maintain hydraulic structures

Topics and Learning Activities:

Overview of hydraulic structures: Classification of hydraulic structures, Retaining and storage
structures, Abstraction and diversion structures, Water control structures, Drainage works
structures, Water treatment structures, Support and elevating structures, Transmission structures.
Dams: Classification of dams, Based on function, Based on hydraulic design, Based on
materials/structural action, Based on size. Earth dams: Water requirements and storage reliability,
Dam location, Planning, Design of an earth dam, spillways, Design and completion report,
Construction, rehabilitation and maintenance, Construction and rehabilitation problems, Erosion
control and catchment protection. Gravity dams: Definition, Typical cross section, Forces, Failure
modes, Principal and shear stresses, Stability analysis, Load combinations, Section of a dam.
Other water storage structures: Water storage Pans, Sand dams, Rock catchment, sub-surface
dams.
Learning activities: lecture, discussions, field trip, design exercise, exercises
Learning Resources: Models, Videos,

References

1. Irrigation and water power engineering 16th edition by Dr. B. C. Punmia, Dr. Pande B. B.
Lal, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain
2. Water works Engineering planning, design and operation by Syed R. Qasin, Edward M.
Motley, Guang Zhu
3. Small dams and pans Manual

Assessment: Main exam: written 70% CATs 30%

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 A. CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
1. Water storage structures

A water pan

A pan is a small reservoir created by excavating open ground, to collect and store surface runoff
from uncultivated grounds, from hillsides, roads, rocky areas and open rangelands.

 Pans rely wholly on surface runoff and do not receive ground water contribution.

Ponds
 Ponds are excavated depressions (1 m-3 m deep), and holding at least over 100 m3 but less than
5,000 m3 of water.
 Ponds are constructed in areas where some ground-water recharge is possible, mostly due to
high water table.

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 2. Water control structures

The structures controlling diversion into a supply canal are called regulators. The design
principles are the same as those used in the design of barrages, except that the regulators are a
smaller version of barrages. The entry sill of a regulator must be such that it permits entry of the
maximum flow at various pondage levels. Silt-excluder tunnels are often provided in the barrage
bays adjacent to the regulator, so that the heavier silt-laden bottom layers of water bypass through
the tunnels.

3. Abstraction & Diversion structures

I. Intake structures

An intake structure (or head regulator) is a hydraulic device constructed at the head of an irrigation
or power canal, or a tunnel conduit through which the flow is diverted from the original source
such as a reservoir or a river.

Intake structures are used for collecting water from the surface sources such as river, lake, and
reservoir and conveying it further to the water treatment plant. These structures are masonry or
concrete structures and provides relatively clean water, free from pollution, sand and objectionable
floating material.

The main purposes of the intake structure are:

a) To admit and regulate water from the source, and possibly to meter the flow rate.
b) To minimize the silting of the canal, i.e. to control the sediment entry into the canal.
c) To prevent the clogging of the entrance with floating debris.

In high-head structures the intake can be either an integral part of a dam or separate; for example,
in the form of a tower with entry ports at various levels which may aid flow regulation when there
is a wide range of fluctuations of reservoir water level. Such a provision of multilevel entry also
permits the withdrawal of water of a desired quality.

The following are its major appurtenances of an intake structure:

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 i. The raised inlet sill to prevent entry of the bed load of the river
ii. The skimmer walls (with splitter pier) at the inlet to trap floating ice and debris
iii. The coarse rack (trash rack) to trap subsurface trash, equipped with either manual or
automatic power-driven rack cleaning devices
iv. The settling basin (sand trap) followed by a secondary sill (entrance sill) diverting the
bottom (sediment-laden) layers towards the desilting canal
v. The flushing (desilting) sluice to flush the deposited silt
vi. The intake (head regulator) gates to control the flow rate into the canal
vii. The scouring (tunnel) sluices in the diversion weir to flush the bed load upstream of the
inlet sill.

II. Barrages
A barrage is a type of low-head, diversion dam which consists of a number of large gates that can
be opened or closed to control the amount of water passing through. This allows the structure to
regulate and stabilize river water elevation upstream for use in irrigation and other systems.
Barrages generally include canal regulators, low-level sluices to maintain a proper approach flow
to the regulators, silt excluder tunnels to control silt entry into the canal and fish ladders for
migratory fish movements.

III. Weirs

A weir is a concrete or masonry structure which is constructed across the open channel (such as a
river) to change its water flow characteristics. Weirs are constructed as an obstruction to flow of
water. These are commonly used to measure the volumetric rate of water flow, prevent flooding
and make rivers navigable.

Weirs and barrages are relatively low-level dams constructed across a river to raise the river level
sufficiently or to divert the flow in full, or in part, into a supply canal or conduit for the purposes
of irrigation, power generation, navigation, flood control, domestic and industrial uses, etc. These
diversion structures usually provide a small storage capacity.

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Diversion facilities such as tunnels or canals, provided to divert the flow from the site area, are
sometimes used as part of the permanent facilities (e.g. penstocks, spillways, sluices, conveyances
to turbines, or discharge channels from turbines, etc.).

In general, weirs (with or without gates) are bulkier than barrages, whereas barrages are
always gate controlled.

Types of Weirs:

1. Types of Weirs based on Shape of the Opening

 Rectangular weir
 Triangular weir
 Trapezoidal weir

2. Types of Weirs based on Shape of the Crest

 Sharp-crested weir
 Broad- crested weir
 Narrow-crested weir
 Ogee-shaped weir

3. Types of weirs based on Effect of the sides on the emerging nappe

 Weir with end contraction (contracted weir)

 Weir without end contraction (suppressed weir)

Classification Based on Shape of Opening

Rectangular weir:

 It is a standard shape of weir. The top edge of weir may be sharp crested or narrow
crested.
 It is generally suitable for larger flowing channels.

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Flow over rectangular weir:

Triangular weir:

 The shape of the weir is actually reverse triangle like V. so, it is also called V-notch weir.
 This type of weirs is well suitable for measuring discharge over small flows with greater
accuracy.

Flow over triangular weir

Trapezoidal weir:

 Trapezoidal weir is also called as Cippoletti weir. This is trapezoidal in shape and is the
modification of rectangular weir with slightly higher capacity for same crest strength.
 The sides are inclined outwards with a slope 1:4 (horizontal: vertical)

Flow over cippoletti weir or trapezoidal weir

 In cippoletti weir both sides are having equal slope. So, we can divide the trapezoid into
rectangle and triangle portions.
 So, Total discharge over trapezoidal weir Q = discharge over rectangular weir + discharge over
triangular weir.

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Classification according to shape of the crest:

Sharp-crested weir

 The crest of the weir is very sharp such that the water will springs clear of the crest.
 The weir plate is levelled at the crest edges to obtain necessary thickness. And weir plate
should be made of smooth metal which is free from rust and nicks.
 Flow over sharp-crested weir is similar as rectangular weir.

Broad-crested weir:

 These are constructed only in rectangular shape and are suitable for the larger flows.
 Head loss will be small in case of broad crested weir.

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Narrow-crested weir:

 It is similar to rectangular weir with narrow shaped crest at the top.

 The discharge over narrow crested weir is similar to discharge over rectangular weir.

Ogee-shaped weir:

 Generally, ogee shaped weirs are provided for the spillway of a storage dam.
 The crest of the ogee weir is slightly rises and falls into parabolic form.
 Flow over ogee weir is also similar to flow over rectangular weir.

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Classification based on end contractions.

Contracted weir

The crest is cut in the form of notch and then it is similar to rectangular weir. Head loss will
occur in this type.

Suppressed weir

The crest is running all the way across the channel so head loss will be negligible.

Discharge over a Rectangular Weir

Example 1
A rectangular weir of length 10 m is discharging water under a constant head of 400 mm. Find
discharge over the weir in litres/s. Assume coefficient of discharge as 0.623.
Workings
Given, L = 10 m, H = 400 mm = 0.4 m, Cd = 0.623

Example 2
A weir of 8 m long is to be built across a rectangular channel to discharge a flow of 9 m3 /s. If the
maximum depth of water on the upstream side of weir is to be 2 m, what should be the height of
the weir? Adopt Cd = 0.62.

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Workings
Given, L = 8 m, Q = 9 m3 /s, Depth of water = 2 m, Cd = 0.62
Let, H = Height of water above the sill of the weir.

Therefore, height of weir should be = 2.0 - 0.72 = 1.28 m

Height of the weir = 1.28 m

Discharge over a Triangular Weir

Example 1
A right-angled V-notch was used to measure the discharge of a centrifugal pump. If the depth at
the V- notch is 200 mm, calculate the discharge over the notch in l/s. Assume the coefficient of
discharge is 0.62

Workings
Given: H = 200 mm = 0.2 m, Ɵ = 900, Cd = 0.62, g = 9.81

= 8/15 * 0.62 * tan 45 * Sq.rt (2*9.81) * 0.2 5/2

= 1560 l/s

Example 2
Water flows over a rectangular notch of 1 m length over a depth of 150 mm. Then the same quantity
of water passes through a triangular right-angled notch. Find the depth of water through the notch.
Take Cd for the rectangle and triangular notch as 0.62 and 0.59 respectively.

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Workings

For the rectangular weir,

L = 1 m, H = 150 mm =0.15 m, Cd = 0.62
For the triangular weir,
Ɵ = 900, Cd = 0.62, H = ?

First, consider the flow over the rectangular weir; we know that flow over the rectangular weir is
given by:

, which is calculated to give:

Q = 0.106 m3/s

Now this same quantity of water flows over the triangular notch;

i.e. from

0.106 = 8/15 * 0.59 * tan 45 * Sq.rt (2*9.81) * H 5/2

H = 0.357 m

Thus the depth of water through the notch, H = 0.357 m

Exercise
Discharge over a Broad Crested Weir
Determine the maximum discharge over a broad-crested weir 60 meters long having 0.6 m height
of water above its crest. Take coefficient of discharge as 0.595. Also determine the new discharge
over the weir, considering the velocity of approach. The channel at the upstream side of the weir
has a cross-sectional area of 45 sq meters.
Given,

L = 60 m, H = 0.6 m, Cd = 0.595, A = 45 m2

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4. Cross drainage structures
a) Aqueducts

An aqueduct is a cross-drainage structure constructed where the drainage flood level is below the
bed of the canal. Small drains may be taken under the canal and banks by a concrete or masonry
barrel (culvert), whereas in the case of stream crossings it may be economical to flume the canal
over the stream.

In modern engineering, however, aqueduct refers to a system of pipes, ditches, canals, tunnels,
and supporting structures used to convey water from its source to its main distribution point.

When both canal and drain meet more or less at the same level the drain may be passed through
an inverted siphon aqueduct underneath the canal; the flow through the aqueduct here is always
under pressure. If the drainage discharge is heavily silt laden a silt ejector should be provided at
the upstream end of the siphon aqueduct; a trash rack is also essential if the stream carries floating
debris which may otherwise choke the entrance to the aqueduct.

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 b) Level crossing

Level crossing facilities are provided when both the drain and the canal run at the same level. This
is more frequently used if either of the flows occurs for a short period (e.g. flash floods in the

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drain); in addition, the mixing of the two bodies of water must also be acceptable after quality
considerations.

The plan layout of a level crossing with two sets of regulators, one across the drain and the other
across the canal, is shown in Fig. 10.2. Normally, the canal regulator regulates its flow with the
drain regulator kept closed. Whenever the flash floods occur, the canal gates are closed and
drainage gates opened to let the flood flow pass.

When the drainage flow is small it may be absorbed into the canal through inlets. The flow in the
canal may be balanced, if necessary (in the case of small canals), by providing suitable outlets (or
escapes). The inlet and outlet structures must also be provided with energy dissipaters wherever
necessary.

c) Culverts

The culvert consists essentially of a pipe barrel (conveyance part) under the embankment fill, with
protection works at its entrance and exit. At the entrance a head wall, with or without wing walls,
and a debris barrier are normally provided. If necessary, an end wall with energy-dissipating
devices is provided at the exit.

The culvert acts as a constriction and creates a backwater effect to the approach flow, causing a
pondage of water above the culvert entrance. The flow within the barrel itself may have a free
surface with subcritical or super critical conditions depending on the length, roughness, gradient,
and upstream and downstream water levels of the culvert. If the upstream head is sufficiently large
the flow within the culvert may or may not fill the barrel, and its hydraulic performance depends
upon the combination of entrance and friction losses, length of barrel, and the downstream
backwater effects.

Following are the different types of Culvert:

 Pipe culvert (single or multiple)

 Pipe-Arch culvert (single or multiple)
 Box culvert (single or multiple)
 Arch culvert
 Bridge culvert
 Metal box culvert

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 d) Bridges

A bridge is a structure built to span a physical obstacle, such as a body of water, valley, or road,
without closing the way underneath. It is constructed for the purpose of providing passage over
the obstacle, usually something that can be detrimental to cross otherwise.

The presence of a bridge across a stream creates constricted flow through its openings because of
(a) the reduction in the width of the stream due to piers and their associated end contractions and
(b) the fluming of the stream itself (in the case of wide streams with flood plains) to reduce the
costs of the structure.

Apart from (local) scour around the piers and bridge abutments and possible bed erosion, there is
a considerable backwater effect of the bridge. The corresponding afflux (rise in upstream water
level) depends on the type of flow (subcritical or supercritical). As most bridges are designed for
subcritical flow conditions in order to minimize scour and choking problems, further discussions
here are mainly confined to subcritical flow.

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5. Water treatment structures
Drinking water treatment structures Wastewater treatment structures
Screens o Screens
Dosing/mixing tanks o Grit chambers
Flocculation/coagulation tanks o Primary clarifiers
Sedimentation tanks o Aeration tanks
Rapid sand filter o Secondary clarifiers
Disinfection chamber o Activated sludge reactor
Storage tanks o Disinfection chambers

Wastewater treatment structures

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6. Transmission or water supply structures

A water supply system or water supply network is a system of engineered hydrologic and
hydraulic components which provide water supply. A water supply system typically includes:

a) A drainage basin
b) A raw water collection point (above or below ground) where the water accumulates, such as a
lake, a river, or groundwater from an underground aquifer
c) Water purification facilities. Treated water is transferred using water pipes (usually
underground).
d) Water storage facilities such as reservoirs, water tanks, or water towers.
e) Additional water pressurizing components such as pumping stations may need to be situated
at the outlet of underground or above ground reservoirs or cisterns (if gravity flow is
impractical).
f) A pipe network for distribution of water to the consumers (which may be private houses or
industrial, commercial or institution establishments) and other usage points (such as fire
hydrants).
g) Connections to the sewers are generally found downstream of the water consumers, but the
sewer system is considered to be a separate system, rather than part of the water supply system.

7. Retaining wall
change in ground elevation that exceeds
the angle of repose of the soil.
 A basement wall is one kind of retaining
wall
 Retaining walls provide lateral support to
vertical slopes of soil. They retain soil
which would otherwise collapse into a
more natural shape. The retained soil is
sometimes referred to as backfill.
 Retaining walls can be constructed with a
 A retaining wall is a structure designed variety of building techniques and with
and constructed to resist the lateral different materials such as steel, timber,
pressure of soil, when there is a desired or reinforced soil

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 B. DAMS

A dam is a hydraulic structure of fairly impervious material built across a river to create a reservoir
on its upstream side for impounding water for various purposes. Reservoirs created by dams not
only suppress floods but also provide water for activities such as irrigation, human consumption,
industrial use, aquaculture, and navigability.

Structure of a dam

A dam consists of various components as shown in the figure below:

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Different parts & terminologies of Dams:

i. Crest: The top of the Dam. These may in some cases be used for providing a roadway or
walkway over the dam.
ii. Parapet walls: Low Protective walls on either side of the roadway or walkway on the crest.
iii. Heel: Portion of Dam in contact with ground or river-bed at upstream side.
iv. Toe: Portion of dam in contact with ground or river-bed at downstream side.
v. Spillway: It is the arrangement made (kind of passage) near the top of dam for the passage
of surplus/ excessive water from the reservoir.
vi. Abutments: The valley slopes on either side of the dam wall to which the left & right end
of dam are fixed to.
vii. Gallery: Level or gently sloping tunnel like passage (small room like space) at transverse
or longitudinal within the dam with drain on floor for seepage water. These are generally
provided for having space for drilling grout holes and drainage holes. These may also be
used to accommodate the instrumentation for studying the performance of dam.
viii. Sluice way: Opening in the dam near the base, provided to clear the silt accumulation in
the reservoir.
ix. Free board: The space between the highest level of water in the reservoir and the top of the
dam.
x. Dead Storage level: Level of permanent storage below which the water will not be
withdrawn.
xi. Diversion Tunnel: Tunnel constructed to divert or change the direction of water to bypass
the dam construction site. The dam is built while the river flows through the diversion
tunnel.

Dam classification

The following the some of the criteria used to classify dams

a) Based on function
b) Based on materials of construction
c) Based on hydraulic design
d) Based on size and shape

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Based on the dam functions, dams can be classified as follows:

1) Storage dams: They are constructed to store water during the rainy season when there is a
large flow in the river. Many small dams impound the spring runoff for later use in dry
summers. Storage dams may also provide a water supply, or improved habitat for fish and
wildlife. They may store water for hydroelectric power generation, irrigation or for a flood
control project. Storage dams are the most common type of dams and in general the dam means
a storage dam unless qualified otherwise.
2) Diversion dams: A diversion dam is constructed for the purpose of diverting water of the river
into an off-taking canal (or a conduit). They provide sufficient pressure for pushing water into
ditches, canals, or other conveyance systems. Such shorter dams are used for irrigation, and
for diversion from a stream to a distant storage reservoir. A diversion dam is usually of low
height and has a small storage reservoir on its upstream. The diversion dam is a sort of storage
weir which also diverts water and has a small storage. Sometimes, the terms weirs and
diversion dams are used synonymously.
3) Detention dams: Detention dams are constructed for flood control. A detention dam retards
the flow in the river on its downstream during floods by storing some flood water. Thus the

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 effect of sudden floods is reduced to some extent. The water retained in the reservoir is later
released gradually at a controlled rate according to the carrying capacity of the channel
downstream of the detention dam. Thus the area downstream of the dam is protected against
flood.
4) Debris dams: A debris dam is constructed to retain debris such as sand, gravel, and drift wood
flowing in the river with water. The water after passing over a debris dam is relatively clear.
5) Coffer dams: It is an enclosure constructed around the construction site to exclude water so
that the construction can be done in dry. A cofferdam is thus a temporary dam constructed for
facilitating construction. A coffer dam is usually constructed on the upstream of the main dam
to divert water into a diversion tunnel (or channel) during the construction of the dam. When
the flow in the river during construction of the dam is not much, the site is usually enclosed by
the coffer dam and pumped dry. Sometimes a coffer dam on the downstream of the dam is also
required.

Based on the structure and design of the dam, dams can be classified as follows:

1) Earth Dams
An earth dam is made of earth (or soil) built up by compacting successive layers of earth, using
the most impervious materials to form a core and placing more permeable substances on the
upstream and downstream sides. A facing of crushed stone prevents erosion by wind or rain,
and an ample spillway, usually of concrete, protects against catastrophic washout should the
water overtop the dam. Earth dam resists the forces exerted upon it mainly due to shear strength
of the soil. Although the weight of the earth dam also helps in resisting the forces, the structural
behavior of an earth dam is entirely different from that of a gravity dam. The earth dams are
usually built in wide valleys having flat slopes at flanks (abutments). The foundation
requirements are less stringent than those of gravity dams, and hence they can be built at the
sites where the foundations are less strong. They can be built on all types of foundations.
However, the height of the dam will depend upon the strength of the foundation material.

Components of an earth dam

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Design requirement for earth dams

I. Safety against overtopping. This is a function of the spillway capacity and freeboard;
II. Stability. The stability of the slopes should be considered for the case of construction,
steady state and rapid drawdown.
III. Safety against internal erosion. The selection of material for the downstream shell and
the design of internal drainage blanket and toe drain address this aspect;
IV. Functional performance in terms of excessive seepage. The design of the cut-off and
impervious core address this aspect.
V. The embankment must not impose excessive stresses on the foundation or abutments
VI. Seepage flow through the embankment, foundation and abutments must be controlled
so that piping, sloughing, or removal of material by solution does not occur.
VII. Spillways, outlet capacities and freeboard must be sufficient to prevent overtopping.
Freeboard must include allowances for post construction embankment and settlements.

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Types of earth dams

i. Homogeneous earth dam/embankment – are constructed with one type of soil.

ii. Zoned earth dam– consists of clayey soil which provides water tightness to the dam against
seepage.
iii. Diaphragm – consists of a central impervious thin diaphragm of earth, cement concrete or
bituminous concrete surrounded by earth or rock fill.

2) Gravity Dams

A gravity dam is a massive sized dam fabricated from concrete or stone masonry. They are
designed to hold back large volumes of water. By using concrete, the weight of the dam is actually
able to resist the horizontal thrust of water pushing against it. This is why it is called a gravity dam.
Gravity essentially holds the dam down to the ground, stopping water from toppling it over.
Gravity dams are well suited for blocking rivers in wide valleys or narrow gorge ways. Since
gravity dams must rely on their own weight to hold back water, it is necessary that they are built
on a solid foundation of bedrock. Gravity dams are particularly suited across gorges with very
steep side slopes where earth dams might slip. Where good foundations are available, gravity dams
can be built up to any height. The highest dams in the world are of gravity type.

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 Advantages of gravity dams

There is no type of dam more permanent than one of the solid concrete, nor does any other type
require less for maintenance. As compared to earth and rock-fill dams gravity dams have the
following advantages:

i. Gravity dams are relatively stronger and more stable than earth dams. They are particularly
suited across gorges having very steep side slopes where earth dam, if constructed, might slip.
ii. Gravity dams are well adapted for use as an overflow spillway crest. Earth dams cannot be
used as overflow dams. Due to this, a gravity overflow dam is often used for the spillway
feature of earth and rock-fill dams.
iii. They can be constructed of any height, provided suitable foundations are available to bear the
stresses. The height of an earth dam is usually limited by the stability of its slopes requiring a
very wide base width. Highest dams in the world are made of gravity dams only.
iv. Gravity dam is especially suited to such areas where there is likelihood of very heavy
downpour. The slopes of earth dam might get washed away in such a situation.
v. They require the least maintenance.
vi. The failure of this dam, if any, is not sudden. It gives enough warning time before the area to
downstream side is flooded due to the damage of the structure. On the contrary, an earth dam
generally fails suddenly.
vii. Deep-set sluices can be used in the gravity dams, to retard the sedimentation or silt deposit in
the reservoir.

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viii. They are cheaper in the long run since it is more permanent than any other type. Thus the
benefit-cost ratio of such a dam is always higher.

Disadvantages of Gravity Dams

The disadvantages of gravity dam, as compared to an earth dam are as follows:

a) Gravity dams can be constructed only on sound rock foundations. They are unsuitable on weak
foundations or on permeable foundations on which earth dams can be constructed with suitable
foundation treatment.
b) The initial cost of a gravity dam is always higher than an earth dam. Hence, where funds are
limited and where suitable materials are available for the construction of an earth dam, the
earth dam may be preferred.
c) If mechanized plants, such as manufacturing and transporting mass concrete, curing of
concrete etc. are not available, a gravity dam may take more time to construct.
d) They require skilled labour or mechanized plants for its construction.
e) It is very difficult to allow subsequent rise in the height of a gravity dam, unless specific
provisions have been made in the initial design.

Causes of failure of a Gravity Dam

A gravity dam may fail in following modes:

1. Overturning of dam about the toe

2. Sliding – shear failure of gravity dam
3. Compression – by crushing of the gravity dam
4. Tension – by development of tensile forces which results in the crack in gravity dam.

Overturning Failure of Gravity Dam

The horizontal forces such as water pressure, wave pressure, silt pressure which act against the
gravity dam causes overturning moments. To resist this, resisting moments are generated by the
self-weight of the dam.

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If the resultant of all the forces acting on a dam at any of its sections, passes through toe, the dam
will rotate and overturn about the toe. This is called overturning failure of gravity dam. But,
practically, such a condition does not arise and dam will fail much earlier by compression.

The ratio of the resisting moments about toe to the overturning moments about toe is called the
factor of safety against overturning. Its value generally varies between 2 and 3.

sum of resisting moments

Factor of safety against overturning is given by FOS = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

Sliding Failure of Gravity Dam

When the net horizontal forces acting on gravity dam at the base exceeds the frictional resistance
(produced between body of the dam and foundation), The failure occurs is known as sliding failure
of gravity dam. In low dams, the safety against sliding should be checked only for friction, but in
high dams, for economical precise design, the shear strength of the joint is also considered.

Gravity Dam Failure due to Tension Cracks

Masonry and concrete are weak in tension. Thus masonry and concrete gravity dams are usually
designed in such a way that no tension is developed anywhere. If these dams are subjected to
tensile stresses, materials may develop tension cracks.

Thus the dam loses contact with the bottom foundation due to this crack and becomes ineffective
and fails. Hence, the effective width B of the dam base will be reduced. This will increase p max at
the toe. Hence, a tension crack by itself does not fail the structure, but it leads to the failure of the
structure by producing excessive compressive stresses.

For high gravity dams, certain amount of tension is permitted under severest loading conditions in
order to achieve economy in design. This is permitted because the worst condition of loads may
occur only momentarily and may not occur frequently.

Gravity Dam Failure due to Compression

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A gravity dam may fail by the failure of its material, i.e. the compressive stresses produced may
exceed the allowable stresses, and the dam material may get crushed.

3) Rockfill Dams

A rockfill dam is built of rock fragments and boulders of large size. An impervious membrane is
placed on the rockfill on the upstream side to reduce the seepage through the dam. The membrane
is usually made of cement concrete or asphaltic concrete. In early rockfill dams, steel and timber
membrane were also used, but now they are obsolete.

Mohale dam, Lesoto Africa

4) Arch Dams

An arch dam is curved in plan, with its convexity towards the upstream side. An arch dam transfers
the water pressure and other forces mainly to the abutments by arch action. An arch dam is quite
suitable for narrow canyons with strong flanks which are capable of resisting the thrust produced
by the arch action.

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Hoover Dam, USA

5) Buttress Dams

Buttress dams are of three types: (i) Deck type, (ii) Multiple-arch type, and (iii) Massive-head type.
A deck type buttress dam consists of a sloping deck supported by buttresses. Buttresses are
triangular concrete walls which transmit the water pressure from the deck slab to the foundation.
Buttresses are compression members. Buttresses are typically spaced across the dam site every 6
to 30 meters, depending upon the size and design of the dam. Buttress dams are sometimes called
hollow dams because the buttresses do not form a solid wall stretching across a river valley. The
deck is usually a reinforced concrete slab supported between the buttresses, which are usually
equally spaced.

Buttress Dam

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6) Steel Dams

A steel dam consists of a steel framework, with a steel skin plate on its upstream face. Steel dams
are generally of two types: (i) Direct-strutted steel dams, and (ii)

Steel Dam Timber dam

Cantilever type steel dams. In a direct strutted steel dam, the water pressure is transmitted directly
to the foundation through inclined struts. In a cantilever type steel dam, there is a bent supporting
the upper part of the deck, which is formed into a cantilever truss. This arrangement introduces a
tensile force in the deck girder which can be taken care of by anchoring it into the foundation at
the upstream toe. Hovey suggested that tension at the upstream toe may be reduced by flattening
the slopes of the lower struts in the bent

7) Timber Dams

Main load-carrying structural elements of timber dam are made of wood, primarily coniferous
varieties such as pine and fir. Timber dams are made for small heads (2-4 m or, rarely, 4-8 m) and
usually have sluices; according to the design of the apron they are divided into pile, crib, pile-crib,
and buttressed dams. The openings of timber dams are restricted by abutments; where the sluice
is very long it is divided into several openings by intermediate supports: piers, buttresses, and
posts. The openings are covered by wooden shields, usually several in a row one above the other.
Simple hoists—permanent or mobile winches—are used to raise and lower the shields.

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 C. WATER CATCHMENT PROTECTION

Definition

Catchment protection refers to the precautionary actions, procedures or installations undertaken

to prevent or reduce harm to the environmental integrity of drainage areas used to catch water,
such as reservoir or basins.

Soil conservation and sediment control in catchment areas demand the implementation of long
term global policy, the principal elements of which can be summarized as follows:

 Use of appropriate farming or rangeland methods;

 Afforestation of hill-tops;
 Terracing of steep agricultural lands;
 Use of cut-off drains and artificial waterways where required;
 Grazing control;
 Control of gully development;
 Riverbank protection and development of vegetated riparian buffers zones;
 Proper disposal of pathway and road runoff.

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