Lecture.

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Attributes- Contingency table – 2x2 contingency table – Test for independence of
attributes – test for goodness of fit of mendalian ratio
Test based on -distribution

In case of attributes we can not employ the parametric tests such as F and t.
Instead we have to apply test. When we want to test whether a set of observed values
are in agreement with those expected on the basis of some theories or hypothesis. The
statistic provides a measure of agreement between such observed and expected
frequencies.

The test has a number of applications. It is used to

(1) Test the independence of attributes
(2) Test the goodness of fit
(3) Test the homogeneity of variances
(4) Test the homogeneity of correlation coefficients
(5) Test the equaslity of several proportions.

In genetics it is applied to detect linkage.

Applications

– test for goodness of fit

A very powerful test for testing the significance of the discrepancy between theory
and experiment was given by Prof. Karl Pearson in 1900 and is known as “chi-square test
of goodness of fit “.

If 0i, (i=1,2,…..,n) is a set of observed (experimental frequencies) and Ei

(i=1,2,…..,n) is the corresponding set of expected (theoretical or hypothetical)
frequencies, then,

It follows a distribution with n-1 d.f. In case of only one tailed test is used.

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Example

In plant genetics, our interest may be to test whether the observed segregation
ratios deviate significantly from the mendelian ratios. In such situations we want to test
the agreement between the observed and theoretical frequency, such test is called as test
of goodness of fit.

Conditions for the validity of -test:

-test is an approximate test for large values of ‘n’ for the validity of -test of
goodness of fit between theory and experiment, the following conditions must be
satisfied.

1. The sample observations should be independent.

2. Constraints on the cell freqrequency, if any, should be linear.

Example: = .

3. N, the total frequency should be reasonably large, say greater then (>) 50.

4. No theoretical cell frequency should be less than (<)5. If any theoretical cell frequency
is <5, then for the application of - test, it is pooled with the preceding or scecceeding
frequency so that the pooled frequency is more than 5 and finally adjust for degree’s of
freedom lost in pooling.

Example1
The number of yiest cells counted in a haemocytometer is compared to the theoretical
value is given below. Does the experimental result support the theory?
No. of Yeast cells Obseved Frequency Expected Frequency
in the square
0 103 106
1 143 141
2 98 93
3 42 41
4 8 14
5 6 5

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Solution
H0: the experimental results support the theory
H1: the esperimental results does not support the theory.
Level of significance=5%
Test Statistic:

Oi Ei Oi-Ei (Oi-Ei)2 (Oi-Ei)2/Ei

103 106 -3 9 0.0849
143 141 2 4 0.0284
98 93 5 25 0.2688
42 41 1 1 0.0244
8 14 -6 36 2.5714
6 5 1 1 0.2000
400 400 3.1779
∴ =3.1779

Table value
(6-1=5 at 5 % l.os)= 11.070
Inference
< tab
We accept the null hypothesis.
(i.e) there is a good correspondence between theory and experiment.

test for independence of attributes

At times we may consider two charactertistics on attributes simultaneously. Our

interest will be to test the association between these two attributes
Example:- An entomologist may be interested to know the effectiveness of different
concentrations of the chemical in killing the insects. The concentrations of chemical form
one attribute. The state of insects ‘killed & not killed’ forms another attribute. The result
of this experiment can be arranged in the form of a contingency table. In general one
attribute may be divided into m classes as A 1,A 2, …….A m and the other attribute may
be divided into n classes as B 1,B 2, ……B n . Then the contingency table will have m x n
cells. It is termed as m x n contingency table
A A1 A2 … Aj … Am Row Total
B
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 B1 O11 O12 … O1j O1m r1
B2 O21 O22 … O2j O2m r2
.
.
.
Bi Oij Oi2 … Oij Oim ri
.
.
.
Bn On1 On2 … Onj Onm rk
Column c1 c2 … cj … cm n=
Total

where Oij’s are observed frequencies.

The expected frequencies corresponding to Oij is calculated as . The is

computed as

where
Oij – observed frequencies
Eij – Expected frequencies
n= number of rows
m= number of columns
It can be verified that
This is distributed as with (n-1) (m-1) d.f.

2x2 – contingency table

When the number of rows and numberof columns are equal to 2 it is termed as 2 x
2 contingency table .It will be in the following form

B1 B2 Row Total
A1 a b a+b r1

A2 c d c+d r2
Column a+c b+d a+b+c+d
Total =n
c1 c2

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Where a, b, c and d are cell frequancies c1 and c2 are column totals, r1 and r2 are row
totals and n is the total number of observations.
In case of 2 x 2 contigency table can be directly found using the short cut formula,

The d.f associated with is (2-1) (2-1) =1

Yates correction for continuity

If anyone of the cell frequency is < 5, we use Yates correction to make as
continuous. The yares correction is made by adding 0.5 to the least cell frequency and
adjusting the other cell frequencies so that the column and row totals remain same .
suppose, the firat cell frequency is to be corrected then the consigency table will be as
follows:

B1 B2 Row Total
A1 a b a+b=r1
c d c+d =r2
A2
Column a+c=c1 b+d=c2 n = a+b+c+d
Total

Then use the - statistic as

The d.f associated with is (2-1) (2-1) =1

Exapmle 2
The severity of a disease and blood group were studied in a research projest. The
findings sre given in the following table, knowmn as the m xn contingency table. Can this
severity of the condition and blood group are associated.
Severity of a disease classified by blood group in 1500 patients.
Blood Groups
Condition Total
O A B AB

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 Severe 51 40 10 9 110
Moderate 105 103 25 17 250
Mild 384 527 125 104 1140
Total 540 670 160 130 1500

Solution
H0: The severity of the disease is not associated with blood group.
H1: The severity of the disease is associated with blood group.
Calculation of Expected frequencies
Blood Groups
Condition Total
O A B AB
Severe 39.6 49.1 11.7 9.5 110
Moderate 90.0 111.7 26.7 21.7 250
Mild 410.4 509.2 121.6 98.8 1140
Total 540 670 160 130 1500

Test statistic:

The d.f. associated with the is (3-1)(4-1) = 6

Calculations

Oi Ei Oi-Ei (Oi-Ei)2 (Oi-Ei)2/Ei

51 39.6 11.4 129.96 3.2818
40 49.1 -9.1 82.81 1.6866
10 11.7 -1.7 2.89 0.2470
9 9.5 -0.5 0.25 0.0263
105 90.0 15 225.00 2.5000
103 111.7 -8.7 75.69 0.6776
25 26.7 -1.7 2.89 0.1082
17 21.7 -4.7 22.09 1.0180
384 410.4 -26.4 696.96 1.6982
527 509.2 17.8 316.84 0.6222
125 121.6 3.4 11.56 0.0951

6
 104 98.8 5.2 27.04 0.2737
Total 12.2347

∴ =12.2347

Table value of for 6 d.f. at 5% level of significance is 12.59

Inference
< tab

We accept the null hypothesis.

The severity of the disease has no association with blood group.

Example 3
In order to determine the possible effect of a chemical treatment on the rate of
germination of cotton seeds a pot culture experiment was conducted. The results are
given below
Chemical treatment and germination of cotton seeds
Germinated Not germinated Total
Chemically Treated 118 22 140
Untreated 120 40 160
Total 238 62 300

Does the chemical treatrment improve the germination rate of cotton seeds?

Solution
H0:The chemical treatment does not improve the germination rate of cotton seeds.
H1: The chemical treatment improves the germination rate of cotton seeds.

Level of significance = 1%

Test statistic

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Table value

(1) d.f. at 1 % L.O.S = 6.635

Inference
< tab

We accept the null hypothesis.

The chemical treatmentwill not improve the germination rate of cotton seeds
significantly.

Example 4
In an experiment on the effect of a growth regulator on fruit setting in muskmelon
the following results were obtained. Test whether the fruit setting in muskmelon and the
application of growth regulator are independent at 1% level.
Fruit set Fruit not set Total
Treated 16 9 25
Control 4 21 25
Total 20 30 50

Solution
H0:Fruit setting in muskmelon does not depend on the application of growth regulator.
H1: Fruit setting in muskmelon depend on the application of growth regulator.

Level of significance = 1%

After Yates correction we have

Fruit set Fruit not set Total

Treated 15.5 9.5 25
Control 4.5 20.5 25
Total 20 30 50

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Tet statistic

Table value

(1) d.f. at 1 % level of significance is 6.635

Inference
> tab

We reject the null hypothesis.

Fruit setting in muskmelon is influenced by the growth regulator. Application of
growth regulator will increase fruit setting in musk melon.

Questions

1. The calculated value of χ is 2

(a) always positive (b) always negative

(c ) can be either positive or negative (d) none of these
Ans: always positive
2. Degrees of freedom for Chi-square in case of contingency table of order (4 ×3) are
(a) 12 (b) 9 (c) 8 (d) 6
Ans: 6
3.One condition for application of χ test is that no cell frequency should be less than five.
2

Ans: True
4. The distribution of the χ depends on the degrees of freedom.
2

Ans: True
5. The greater the discrepancy between the observed and expected Frequency lesser the
value of χ .2

Ans: False

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6. When observed and expected frequencies completely coincide χ will be zero.
2

Ans: True
7. What is a contignecy table?
8. When and how to apply Yates correction?
9. Explain the χ test of goodness of fit?
2

10. Explain how to test the indepence of attributes?

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