LECTURE NOTES ON

GAS DYNAMICS

Joseph M. Powers

Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering

University of Notre Dame
Notre Dame, Indiana 46556-5637
USA

updated
28 March 2011, 11:56am
2

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

Contents

1 Introduction 9
1.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2 Motivating examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.1 Re-entry flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.1.1 Bow shock wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.1.2 Rarefaction (expansion) wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.1.3 Momentum boundary layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.1.4 Thermal boundary layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.1.5 Vibrational relaxation effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.1.6 Dissociation effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.2 Rocket nozzle flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.3 Jet engine inlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 Governing equations 15
2.1 Mathematical preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.1 Vectors and tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.2 Gradient, divergence, and material derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1.3 Conservative and non-conservative forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.3.1 Conservative form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.3.2 Non-conservative form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Summary of full set of compressible viscous equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Conservation axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.1 Conservation of mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.1.1 Nonconservative form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.1.2 Conservative form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.1.3 Incompressible form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.2 Conservation of linear momenta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.2.1 Nonconservative form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.2.2 Conservative form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.3 Conservation of energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.3.1 Nonconservative form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.3.2 Mechanical energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3
4 CONTENTS

2.3.3.3 Conservative form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.3.3.4 Energy equation in terms of entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.4 Entropy inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4 Constitutive relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4.1 Stress-strain rate relationship for Newtonian fluids . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4.2 Fourier’s law for heat conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.4.3 Variable first coefficient of viscosity, µ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4.3.1 Typical values of µ for air and water . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4.3.2 Common models for µ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4.4 Variable second coefficient of viscosity, λ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4.5 Variable thermal conductivity, k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4.5.1 Typical values of k for air and water . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4.5.2 Common models for k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4.6 Thermal equation of state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4.6.1 description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4.6.2 Typical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4.7 Caloric equation of state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4.7.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4.7.2 Typical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5 Special cases of governing equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5.1 One-dimensional equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5.2 Euler equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.5.3 Incompressible Navier-Stokes equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3 Thermodynamics review 39
3.1 Preliminary mathematical concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2 Summary of thermodynamic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3 Maxwell relations and secondary properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.3.1 Internal energy from thermal equation of state . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3.2 Sound speed from thermal equation of state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4 Canonical equations of state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.5 Isentropic relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

4 One-dimensional compressible flow 61

4.1 Generalized one-dimensional equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.1.1 Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.1.2 Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.1.3 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.1.4 Influence coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.2 Flow with area change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.2.1 Isentropic Mach number relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.2.2 Sonic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

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CONTENTS 5

4.2.3 Effect of area change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

4.2.4 Choking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.3 Normal shock waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.3.1 Governing equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.3.2 Rayleigh line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.3.3 Hugoniot curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.3.4 Solution procedure for general equations of state . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.3.5 Calorically perfect ideal gas solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.3.6 Acoustic limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.3.7 Non-ideal gas solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.4 Flow with area change and normal shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.4.1 Converging nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.4.2 Converging-diverging nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.5 Flow with friction–Fanno flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.6 Flow with heat transfer–Rayleigh flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.7 Numerical solution of the shock tube problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.7.1 One-step techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.7.2 Lax-Friedrichs technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.7.3 Lax-Wendroff technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

5 Steady supersonic two-dimensional flow 125

5.1 Two-dimensional equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.1.1 Conservative form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.1.2 Non-conservative form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.2 Mach waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.3 Oblique shock waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.4 Small disturbance theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.5 Centered Prandtl-Meyer rarefaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.6 Wave interactions and reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.6.1 Oblique shock reflected from a wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.6.2 Oblique shock intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.6.3 Shock strengthening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.6.4 Shock weakening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.7 Supersonic flow over airfoils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.7.1 Flat plate at angle of attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.7.2 Diamond-shaped airfoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.7.3 General curved airfoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.7.4 Transonic transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

6 Linear flow analysis 155

6.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.2 Subsonic flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

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6 CONTENTS

6.2.1 Prandtl-Glauret rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

6.2.2 Flow over wavy wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.3 Supersonic flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.3.1 D’Alembert’s solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.3.2 Flow over wavy wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

7 Viscous flow 157

7.1 Governing equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.2 Couette flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.3 Suddenly accelerated flat plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
7.3.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
7.3.2 Velocity profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7.4 Starting transient for plane Couette flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7.5 Blasius boundary layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.5.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.5.2 Wall shear stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

8 Acoustics 165
8.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
8.2 Planar waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8.3 Spherical waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

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Preface

These are a set of class notes for a gas dynamics/viscous flow course taught to juniors in
Aerospace Engineering at the University of Notre Dame during the mid 1990s. The course
builds upon foundations laid in an earlier course where the emphasis was on subsonic ideal
flows. Consequently, it is expected that the student has some familiarity with many concepts
such as material derivatives, control volume analysis, derivation of governing equations,
etc. Additionally, first courses in thermodynamics and differential equations are probably
necessary. Even a casual reader will find gaps, errors, and inconsistencies. The author
welcomes comments and corrections. It is also noted that these notes have been influenced
by a variety of standard references, which are sporadically and incompletely noted in the
text. Some of the key references which were important in the development of these notes
are the texts of Shapiro, Liepmann and Roshko, Anderson, Courant and Friedrichs, Hughes
and Brighton, White, Sonntag and Van Wylen, and Zucrow and Hoffman.

At this stage, if anyone outside Notre Dame finds these useful, they are free to make
copies. Full information on the course is found at http://www.nd.edu/∼powers/ae.360.

Joseph M. Powers
[email protected]
http://www.nd.edu/∼powers
Notre Dame, Indiana; USA

CC BY:
$
= 28 March 2011
\

The content of this book is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0.

7
8 CONTENTS

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

Chapter 1

Introduction

Suggested Reading:

Anderson, Chapter 1: pp. 1-31

1.1 Definitions
The topic of this course is the aerodynamics of compressible and viscous flow.

Where does aerodynamics rest in the taxonomy of mechanics?

Aerodynamics–a branch of dynamics that deals with the motion of air and other
gaseous fluids and with the forces acting on bodies in motion relative to such fluids (e.g.
airplanes)

We can say that aerodynamics is a subset of (⊂)

• fluid dynamics since air is but one type of fluid, ⊂

• fluid mechanics since dynamics is part of mechanics, ⊂

• mechanics since fluid mechanics is one class of mechanics.

Mechanics–a branch of physical science that deals with forces and the motion of bodies
traditionally broken into:

• kinematics–study of motion without regard to causality

• dynamics (kinetics)–study of forces which give rise to motion

Examples of other subsets of mechanics:

9
10 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

• solid mechanics

• quantum mechanics

• celestial mechanics

• relativistic mechanics

• quantum-electrodynamics (QED)

• magneto-hydrodynamics (MHD)

Recall the definition of a fluid:

Fluid–a material which moves when a shear force is applied.

Recall that solids can, after a small displacement, relax to an equilibrium configuration
when a shear force is applied.

Recall also that both liquids and gases are fluids

The motion of both liquids and gases can be affected by compressibility and shear forces.
While shear forces are important for both types of fluids, the influence of compressibility in
gases is generally more significant.

The thrust of this class will be to understand how to model the effects of compressibility
and shear forces and how this impacts the design of aerospace vehicles.

1.2 Motivating examples

The following two examples serve to illustrate why knowledge of compressibility and shear
effects is critical.

1.2.1 Re-entry flows

A range of phenomena are present in the re-entry of a vehicle into the atmosphere. This is
an example of an external flow. See Figure 1.1.

1.2.1.1 Bow shock wave

• suddenly raises density, temperature and pressure of shocked air; consider normal shock
in ideal air

– ρo = 1.16 kg/m3 → ρs = 6.64 kg/m3 (over five times as dense!!)

– To = 300 K → Ts = 6, 100 K (hot as the sun’s surface !!)

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1.2. MOTIVATING EXAMPLES 11

far-field
acoustic
wave

rarefaction
waves

viscous
and thermal
boundary
layers

Oblique
Shock
Wave
Ambient Air

Normal Shock Wave

Figure 1.1: Fluid mechanics phenomena in re-entry

– Po = 1.0 atm → Ps = 116.5 atm (tremendous force change!!)

– sudden transfer of energy from kinetic (ordered) to thermal (random)

• introduces inviscid entropy/vorticity layer into post-shocked flow

• normal shock standing off leading edge

• conical oblique shock away from leading edge

• acoustic wave in far field

1.2.1.2 Rarefaction (expansion) wave

• lowers density, temperature, and pressure of air continuously and significantly

• interactions with bow shock weaken bow shock

1.2.1.3 Momentum boundary layer

• occurs in thin layer near surface where velocity relaxes from freestream to zero to
satisfy the no-slip condition

• necessary to predict viscous drag forces on body

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12 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.2.1.4 Thermal boundary layer

• as fluid decelerates in momentum boundary layer kinetic energy is converted to thermal
energy
• temperature rises can be significant (> 1, 000 K)

1.2.1.5 Vibrational relaxation effects

• energy partitioned into vibrational modes in addition to translational
• lowers temperature that would otherwise be realized
• important for air above 800 K
• unimportant for monatomic gases

1.2.1.6 Dissociation effects

• effect which happens when multi-atomic molecules split into constituent atoms
• O2 totally dissociated into O near 4, 000 K
• N2 totally dissociated into N near 9, 000 K
• For T > 9, 000 K, ionized plasmas begin to form
Vibrational relaxation, dissociation, and ionization can be accounted for to some extent by
introducing a temperature-dependent specific heat cv (T )

1.2.2 Rocket nozzle flows

The same essential ingredients are present in flows through rocket nozzles. This is an example
of an internal flow, see Figure 1.2

viscous and thermal

boundary layers

burning solid rocket fuel

burning solid rocket fuel

possible
normal
shock

Figure 1.2: Fluid mechanics phenomena in rocket nozzles

Some features:

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1.2. MOTIVATING EXAMPLES 13

• well-modelled as one-dimensional flow

• large thrust relies on subsonic to supersonic transition in a converging-diverging nozzle

• away from design conditions normal shocks can exist in nozzle

• viscous and thermal boundary layers must be accounted for in design

1.2.3 Jet engine inlets

The same applies for the internal flow inside a jet engine, see Figure 1.3

viscous
and thermal
boundary layers
oblique
shock

compressor turbine exhaust

combustor
inlet

Figure 1.3: Fluid mechanics phenomena in jet engine inlet

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14 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

Chapter 2

Governing equations

Suggested Reading:

Hughes and Brighton, Chapter 3: pp. 44-64

Liepmann and Roshko, Chapter 7: pp. 178-190, Chapter 13: pp. 305-313, 332-338
Anderson, Chapter 2: pp. 32-44; Chapter 6: pp. 186-205

The equations which govern a wide variety of these flows are the compressible Navier-
Stokes equations. In general they are quite complicated and require numerical solution. We
will only consider small subsets of these equations in practice, but it is instructive to see
them in full glory at the outset.

2.1 Mathematical preliminaries

A few concepts which may be new or need re-emphasis are introduced here.

2.1.1 Vectors and tensors

One way to think of vectors and tensors is as follows:

• first order tensor: vector, associates a scalar with any direction in space, column
matrix

• second order tensor: tensor-associates a vector with any direction in space, two-
dimensional matrix

• third order tensor-associates a second order tensor with any direction in space, three-
dimensional matrix

• fourth order tensor-...

15
16 CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

Here a vector, denoted by boldface, denotes a quantity which can be decomposed as a

sum of scalars multiplying orthogonal basis vectors, i.e.:

v = ui + vj + wk (2.1)

2.1.2 Gradient, divergence, and material derivatives

The “del” operator, ∇, is as follows:

∂ ∂ ∂
∇≡i +j +k (2.2)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Recall the definition of the material derivative also known as the substantial or total
derivative:

d ∂
≡ +v·∇ (2.3)
dt ∂t
where

Example 2.1
Does v · ∇ = ∇ · v = ∇v?
∂ ∂ ∂
v·∇=u +v +w (2.4)
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂u ∂v ∂w
∇·v= + + (2.5)
∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∂u ∂v ∂w 
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v ∂w
∇v =  ∂y ∂y ∂y
 (2.6)
∂u ∂v ∂w
∂z ∂z ∂z

So, no.

Here the quantity ∇v is an example of a second order tensor. Also

v · ∇ ≡ v div (2.7)
∇ · v ≡ div v (2.8)
∇v ≡ grad v (2.9)
∇φ ≡ grad φ (2.10)

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2.1. MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES 17

2.1.3 Conservative and non-conservative forms

If hi is a column vector of N variables, e.g. hi = [h1 , h2 , h3 , ...hN ]T , and fi (hi ) gi (hi ) are a
column vectors of N functions of the variables hi , and all variables are functions of x and
t, hi = hi (x, t), fi (hi (x, t)), gi (hi (x, t)) then a system of partial differential equations is in
conservative form iff the system can be written as follows:

∂ ∂
hi + (fi (hi )) = gi (hi ) (2.11)
∂x ∂x
A system not in this form is in non-conservative form

2.1.3.1 Conservative form

Advantages

• naturally arises from control volume derivation of governing equations

• clearly exposes groups of terms which are conserved

• easily integrated in certain special cases

• most natural form for deriving normal shock jump equations

• the method of choice for numerical simulations

Disadvantages

• lengthy

• not commonly used

• difficult to see how individual variables change

2.1.3.2 Non-conservative form

Advantages

• compact

• commonly used

• can see how individual variables change

Disadvantages

• often difficult to use to get solutions to problems

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18 CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

• gives rise to artificial instabilities if used in numerical simulation

Example 2.2
Kinematic wave equation

The kinematic wave equation in non-conservative form is

∂u ∂u
+u =0 (2.12)
∂t ∂x
This equation has the same mathematical form as inviscid equations of gas dynamics which give rise to
discontinuous shock waves. Thus understanding the solution of this simple equation is very useful
in understanding equations with more physical significance.
 2
Since u ∂u
∂x = ∂
∂x
u
2 the kinematic wave equation in conservative form is as follows:

u2
 
∂u ∂
+ =0 (2.13)
∂t ∂x 2
u2
Here hi = u, fi = 2 , gi = 0.

∂
Consider the special case of a steady state ∂t ≡ 0. Then the conservative form of the equation can
be integrated!

d u2
 
=0 (2.14)
dx 2
u2 u2
= o (2.15)
2 2
u = ±uo (2.16)

Now u = uo satisfies the equation and so does u = −uo . These are both smooth solutions. In
addition, combinations also satisfy, e.g. u = uo , x < 0; u = −uo , x ≥ 0. This is a discontinuous solution.
Also note the solution is not unique. This is a consequence of the u ∂u∂x non-linearity. This is an example
of a type of shock wave. Which solution is achieved generally depends on terms we have neglected,
especially unsteady terms.

Example 2.3
Burger’s equation

Burger’s equation in non-conservative form is

∂u ∂u ∂2u
+u =ν 2 (2.17)
∂t ∂x ∂x

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2.1. MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES 19

This equation has the same mathematical form as viscous equations of gas dynamics which give rise
to spatially smeared shock waves.

Place this in conservative form:

∂u ∂u ∂ ∂u
+u −ν =0 (2.18)
∂t  ∂x ∂x ∂x
∂ u2
 
∂u ∂ ∂u
+ − ν =0 (2.19)
∂t ∂x 2 ∂x ∂x
∂ u2
 
∂u ∂u
+ −ν =0 (2.20)
∂t ∂x 2 ∂x
∂
Here, this equation is not strictly in conservative form as it still involves derivatives inside the ∂x
operator.
∂
Consider the special case of a steady state ∂t ≡ 0. Then the conservative form of the equation can
be integrated!
d u2
 
du
−ν =0 (2.21)
dx 2 dx
∂u
Let u → uo as x → −∞ (consequently ∂x → 0 as x → −∞) and u(0) = 0 so
u2 du u2
−ν = o (2.22)
2 dx 2
du 1 2 2


ν = u − uo (2.23)
dx 2
du dx
= (2.24)
u2 − u2o 2ν
du dx
Z Z
=− (2.25)
u2o − u2 2ν
1 −1 u x
tanh =− +C (2.26)
uo u 2ν
 ou 
o
u(x) = uo tanh − x + Cuo (2.27)
2ν
u(0) = 0 = uo tanh (Cuo ) C=0 (2.28)
 u 
o
u(x) = uo tanh − x (2.29)
2ν
lim u(x) = uo (2.30)
x→−∞
lim u(x) = −uo (2.31)
x→∞

Note
• same behavior in far field as kinematic wave equation
2ν
• continuous adjustment from uo to −uo in a zone of thickness uo
• zone thickness → 0 as ν → 0
• inviscid shock is limiting case of viscously resolved shock
Figure 2.1 gives a plot of the solution to both the kinematic wave equation and Burger’s equation.

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

20 CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

u u

uo uo

x x

-uo -uo

Kinematic Wave Equation Solution Burger’s Equation Solution

Discontinuous Shock Wave Smeared Shock Wave
Shock Thickness ~ 2 ν / uo

Figure 2.1: Solutions to the kinematic wave equation and Burger’s equation

2.2 Summary of full set of compressible viscous equa-

tions
A complete set of equations is given below. These are the compressible Navier-Stokes equa-
tions for an isotropic Newtonian fluid with variable properties
dρ
+ ρ∇ · v = 0 [1] (2.32)
dt
dv
ρ = −∇P + ∇ · τ + ρg [3] (2.33)
dt
de
ρ = −∇ · q − P ∇ · v + τ :∇v [1] (2.34)
dt
τ = µ ∇v + ∇vT + λ (∇ · v) I


[6] (2.35)
q = −k∇T [3] (2.36)
µ = µ (ρ, T ) [1] (2.37)
λ = λ (ρ, T ) [1] (2.38)
k = k (ρ, T ) [1] (2.39)
P = P (ρ, T ) [1] (2.40)
e = e (ρ, T ) [1] (2.41)

The numbers in brackets indicate the number of equations. Here the unknowns are
• ρ–density kg/m3 (scalar-1 variable)

• v–velocity m/s (vector- 3 variables)

• P –pressure N/m2 (scalar- 1 variable)

• e–internal energy J/kg (scalar- 1 variable)

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2.3. CONSERVATION AXIOMS 21

• T –temperature K (scalar - 1 variable)

• τ –viscous stress N/m2 (symmetric tensor - 6 variables)
• q–heat flux vector–W/m2 (vector - 3 variables)
• µ–first coefficient of viscosity Ns/m2 (scalar - 1 variable)
• λ–second coefficient of viscosity Ns/m2 (scalar - 1 variable)
• k–thermal conductivity W/(m2 K) (scalar - 1 variable)
Here g is the constant gravitational acceleration and I is the identity matrix. Total–19
variables
Points of the exercise
• 19 equations; 19 unknowns
• conservation axioms–postulates (first three equations)
• constitutive relations–material dependent (remaining equations)
• review of vector notation and operations

Exercise: Determine the three Cartesian components of ∇· τ for a) a compressible

Newtonian fluid, and b) an incompressible Newtonian fluid, in which ∇ · v = 0.

This system of equations must be consistent with the second law of thermodynamics.
Defining the entropy s by the Gibbs relation:
 
1
T ds = de + P d (2.42)
ρ
 
ds de d 1
T = +P (2.43)
dt dt dt ρ
the second law states:
ds q
ρ ≥ −∇ · (2.44)
dt T
In practice, this places some simple restrictions on the constitutive relations. It will be
sometimes useful to write this in terms of the specific volume, v ≡ 1/ρ. This can be
confused with the y component of velocity but should be clear in context.

2.3 Conservation axioms

Conservation principles are axioms of mechanics and represent statements that cannot be
proved. In that they provide predictions which are consistent with empirical observations,
they are useful.

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22 CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

2.3.1 Conservation of mass

This principle states that in a material volume (a volume which always encompasses the
same fluid particles), the mass is constant.

2.3.1.1 Nonconservative form

dρ
+ ρ∇ · v = 0 (2.45)
dt
This can be expanded using the definition of the material derivative to form
 
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂u ∂v ∂w
+u +v +w +ρ + + =0 (2.46)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z

2.3.1.2 Conservative form

Using the product rule gives

∂ρ ∂(ρu) ∂(ρv) ∂(ρw)

+ + + =0 (2.47)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
The equation essentially says that the net accumulation of mass within a control volume is
attributable to the net flux of mass in and out of the control volume. In Gibbs notation this
is
∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρv) = 0 (2.48)
∂t

2.3.1.3 Incompressible form

Iff the fluid is defined to be incompressible, dρ/dt ≡ 0, the consequence is

∇ · v = 0, or (2.49)
∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + =0 (2.50)
∂x ∂y ∂z
As this course is mainly concerned with compressible flow, this will not be often used.

2.3.2 Conservation of linear momenta

P
This is really Newton’s Second Law of Motion ma = F

2.3.2.1 Nonconservative form

dv
ρ = −∇P + ∇ · τ + ρg (2.51)
dt
• ρ: mass/volume

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2.3. CONSERVATION AXIOMS 23

dv
• dt
: acceleration

• −∇P, ∇ · τ : surface forces/volume

• ρg: body force/volume

Example 2.4
Expand the term ∇ · τ
  ∂τ + ∂ ∂
T
∂y τyx + ∂z τzx

τxx τxy τxz ∂x xx
∂ ∂ ∂
 ∂τ + ∂ ∂
∇·τ = ∂y τyy + ∂z τzy
∂x ∂y ∂z
 τyx τyy τyz  =  ∂x xy

 (2.52)
τzx τzy τzz ∂
τxz + ∂ ∂
∂x ∂y τyz + ∂z τzz

This is a vector equation as there are three components of momenta. Let’s consider the
x momentum equation for example.
du ∂P ∂τxx ∂τyx ∂τzx
ρ =− + + + + ρgx (2.53)
dt ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z

Now expand the material derivative:

∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂P ∂τxx ∂τyx ∂τzx
ρ + ρu + ρv + ρw =− + + + + ρgx (2.54)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z

Equivalent equations exist for y and z linear momentum:

∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂P ∂τxy ∂τyy ∂τzy
ρ + ρu + ρv + ρw =− + + + + ρgy (2.55)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z

∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂P ∂τxz ∂τyz ∂τzz

ρ + ρu + ρv + ρw =− + + + + ρgz (2.56)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z

2.3.2.2 Conservative form

Multiply the mass conservation principle by u so that it has the same units as the momentum
equation and add to the x momentum equation:

∂ρ ∂(ρu) ∂(ρv) ∂(ρw)

u +u +u +u =0 (2.57)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z

∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂P ∂τxx ∂τyx ∂τzx

+ρ + ρu + ρv + ρw =− + + + + ρgx (2.58)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

24 CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

Using the product rule, this yields:

∂ (ρu) ∂ (ρuu) ∂ (ρvu) ∂ (ρwu) ∂P ∂τxx ∂τyx ∂τzx
+ + + =− + + + + ρgx (2.59)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
The extension to y and z momenta is straightforward:
∂ (ρv) ∂ (ρuv) ∂ (ρvv) ∂ (ρwv) ∂P ∂τxy ∂τyy ∂τzy
+ + + =− + + + + ρgy (2.60)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ (ρw) ∂ (ρuw) ∂ (ρvw) ∂ (ρww) ∂P ∂τxz ∂τyz ∂τzz
+ + + =− + + + + ρgz (2.61)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
In vector form this is written as follows:
∂ (ρv)
+ ∇ · (ρvv) = −∇P + ∇ · τ + ρg (2.62)
∂t
As with the mass equation, the time derivative can be interpreted as the accumulation of
linear momenta within a control volume and the divergence term can be interpreted as
the flux of linear momenta into the control volume. The accumulation and flux terms are
balanced by forces, both surface and body.

2.3.3 Conservation of energy

This principle really is the first law of thermodynamics, which states the change in internal
energy of a body is equal to the heat added to the body minus the work done by the body;
Ê2 − Ê1 = Q12 − W12 (2.63)
The Ê here includes both internal energy and kinetic energy and is written for an extensive
system:  
1
Ê = ρV e + v · v (2.64)
2

2.3.3.1 Nonconservative form

The equation we started with (which is in non-conservative form)
de
ρ = −∇ · q − P ∇ · v + τ :∇v (2.65)
dt
is simply a careful expression of the simple idea de = dq − dw with attention paid to sign
conventions, etc.
• ρ de
dt
: change in internal energy /volume
• −∇ · q: net heat transfer into fluid/volume
• P ∇ · v: net work done by fluid due to pressure force/volume (force × deformation)
• −τ : ∇v: net work done by fluid due to viscous force/volume (force × deformation)

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

2.3. CONSERVATION AXIOMS 25

2.3.3.2 Mechanical energy

Taking the dot product of the velocity v with the linear momentum principle yields the
mechanical energy equation (here expressed in conservative form):
   
∂ 1 1
ρ (v · v) + ∇ · ρv (v · v) = −v · ∇P + v · (∇ · τ ) + ρv · g (2.66)
∂t 2 2
This can be interpreted as saying the kinetic energy (or mechanical energy) changes due to
• motion in the direction of a force imbalance
– −v · ∇P
– v · (∇ · τ )
• motion in the direction of a body force
Exercise: Add the product of the mass equation and u2 /2 to the product of u and the one
dimensional linear momentum equation:
   
∂u ∂u ∂P ∂τxx
u ρ + ρu =u − + + ρgx (2.67)
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂x
to form the conservative form of the one-dimensional mechanical energy equation:
   
∂ 1 2 ∂ 1 3 ∂P ∂τxx
ρu + ρu = −u +u + ρugx (2.68)
∂t 2 ∂x 2 ∂x ∂x

2.3.3.3 Conservative form

When we multiply the mass equation by e, we get
∂ρ ∂(ρu) ∂(ρv) ∂(ρw)
e +e +e +e =0 (2.69)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
Adding this to the nonconservative energy equation gives
∂
(ρe) + ∇ · (ρve) = −∇ · q − P ∇ · v + τ :∇v (2.70)
∂t
Adding to this the mechanical energy equation gives the conservative form of the energy
equation:
     
∂ 1 1
ρ e+ v·v + ∇ · ρv e + v · v = −∇ · q − ∇ · (P v) + ∇ · (τ · v) (2.71)
∂t 2 2
which is often written as
     
∂ 1 1 P
ρ e+ v·v + ∇ · ρv e + v · v + = −∇ · q + ∇ · (τ · v) (2.72)
∂t 2 2 ρ

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26 CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

2.3.3.4 Energy equation in terms of entropy

Recall the Gibbs relation which defines entropy s:
 
ds de d 1 de P dρ
T = +P = − (2.73)
dt dt dt ρ dt ρ2 dt
so
de ds P dρ
ρ = ρT + (2.74)
dt dt ρ dt
also from the conservation of mass
1 dρ
∇·v =− (2.75)
ρ dt
Substitute into nonconservative energy equation:
ds P dρ P dρ
ρT + = −∇ · q + + τ : ∇v (2.76)
dt ρ dt ρ dt
Solve for entropy change:
ds 1 1
ρ = − ∇ · q + τ : ∇v (2.77)
dt T T
Two effects change entropy:

• heat transfer

• viscous work

Note the work of the pressure force does not change entropy; it is reversible work.

If there are no viscous and heat transfer effects, there is no mechanism for entropy change;
ds/dt = 0; the flow is isentropic.

2.3.4 Entropy inequality

The first law can be used to reduce the second law to a very simple form. Starting with
q 1 q
∇· = ∇ · q − 2 · ∇T (2.78)
T T T
so
1 q q
− ∇ · q = −∇ · − 2 · ∇T (2.79)
T T T
Substitute into the first law:
ds q q 1
ρ = −∇ · − 2 · ∇T + τ : ∇v (2.80)
dt T T T
CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.
2.3. CONSERVATION AXIOMS 27

Recall the second law of thermodynamics:

ds q
ρ ≥ −∇ · (2.81)
dt T
Substituting the first law into the second law thus yields:
q 1
− 2
· ∇T + τ : ∇v ≥ 0 (2.82)
T T
Our constitutive theory for q and τ must be constructed to be constructed so as not to
violate the second law.

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

28 CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

Exercise: Beginning with the unsteady, two-dimensional, compressible Navier-Stokes

equations with no body force in conservative form (below), show all steps necessary to
reduce these to the following non-conservative form.

Conservative form
∂ρ ∂ ∂
+ (ρu) + (ρv) = 0
∂t ∂x ∂y
∂ ∂ ∂
(ρu) + (ρuu + P − τxx ) + (ρuv − τyx ) = 0
∂t ∂x ∂y
∂ ∂ ∂
(ρv) + (ρvu − τxy ) + (ρvv + P − τyy ) = 0
∂t ∂x ∂y
  
∂ 1 2 2


ρ e+ u +v
∂t 2
   
∂ 1 2 2

P
+ ρu e + u +v + − (uτxx + vτxy ) + qx
∂x 2 ρ
   
∂ 1 2 2

P
+ ρv e + u +v + − (uτyx + vτyy ) + qy = 0
∂y 2 ρ

Non-conservative form
   
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂u ∂v
+u +v +ρ + =0
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
 
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂P ∂τxx ∂τyx
ρ +u +v =− + +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
 
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂P ∂τxy ∂τyy
ρ +u +v =− + +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y
 
∂e ∂e ∂e
ρ +u +v
∂t ∂x ∂y
 
∂qx ∂qy
=− +
∂x ∂y
 
∂u ∂v
−P +
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
+τxx + τxy + τyx + τyy
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

2.4. CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS 29

2.4 Constitutive relations

These are determined from experiments and provide sometimes good and sometimes crude
models for microstructurally based phenomena.

2.4.1 Stress-strain rate relationship for Newtonian fluids

Perform the experiment described in Figure 2.2.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456
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123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456
Force=F
Velocity=U
h

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Figure 2.2: Schematic of experiment to determine stress-strain-rate relationship

The following results are obtained, Figure 2.3:

h1 A4
F F
h2 A3

h3 A2

h4
A1

U U
h4>h3>h2>h1 A4>A3>A2>A1

Figure 2.3: Force (N) vs. velocity (m/s)

Note for constant plate velocity U

• small gap width h gives large force F

• large cross-sectional area A gives large force F

When scaled by h and A, for a single fluid, the curve collapses to a single curve, Figure
2.4:

The viscosity is defined as the ratio of the applied stress τyx = F/A to the strain rate
∂u
∂y
.

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

30 CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

F/A

µ
1

U/h
Figure 2.4: Stress (N/m2 ) vs. strain rate (1/s)

τyx
µ≡ ∂u
(2.83)
∂y

Here the first subscript indicates the face on which the force is acting, here the y face.
The second subscript indicates the direction in which the force takes, here the x direction.
In general viscous stress is a tensor quantity. In full detail it is as follows:

∂u
+ ∂u ∂u ∂v
+ ∂x ∂u
+ ∂w
 
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x
∂v
τ = µ ∂x
+ ∂u
∂y
∂v
∂y
+ ∂v
∂y
∂v
∂z
+ ∂w
∂y

∂w
∂x
+ ∂u
∂z
∂w
∂y
+ ∂v
∂z
∂w
∂z
∂w
+ ∂z
 ∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + 0 0

∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u ∂v ∂w
+λ 0 ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
0  (2.84)
∂u ∂v ∂w
0 0 ∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z

This is simply an expanded form of that written originally:

τ = µ ∇v + ∇vT + λ (∇ · v) I


(2.85)

Here λ is the second coefficient of viscosity. It is irrelevant in incompressible flows and

notoriously difficult to measure in compressible flows. It has been the source of controversy
for over 150 years. Commonly, and only for convenience, people take Stokes’ Assumption:
2
λ≡− µ (2.86)
3
It can be shown that this results in the mean mechanical stress being equivalent to the
thermodynamic pressure.

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

2.4. CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS 31

It can also be shown that the second law is satisfied if

2
µ≥0 and λ≥− µ (2.87)
3

Example 2.5
Couette Flow

Use the linear momentum principle and the constitutive theory to show the velocity profile between
two plates is linear. The lower plate at y = 0 is stationary; the upper plate at y = h is moving at
velocity U . Assume v = u(y)i + 0j + 0k. Assume there is no imposed pressure gradient or body force.
Assume constant viscosity µ. Since u = u(y), v = 0, w = 0, there is no fluid acceleration.
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
+u +v +w =0+0+0+0=0 (2.88)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
Since no pressure gradient or body force the linear momentum principle is simply
∂τyx
0= (2.89)
∂y
With the Newtonian fluid  
∂ ∂u
0= µ (2.90)
∂y ∂y
With constant µ and u = u(y) we have:

d2 u
µ =0 (2.91)
dx2
Integrating we find
u = Ay + B (2.92)
Use the boundary conditions at y = 0 and y = h to give A and B:
U
A = 0, B= (2.93)
h
so
U
u(y) = y (2.94)
h

Example 2.6
Poiseuille Flow

Consider flow between a slot separated by two plates, the lower at y = 0, the upper at y = h, both
plates stationary. The flow is driven by a pressure difference. At x = 0, P = Po ; at x = L, P = P1 .
The fluid has constant viscosity µ. Assuming the flow is steady, there is no body force, pressure varies
only with x, and that the velocity is only in the x direction and only a function of y; i.e. v = u(y) i,
find the velocity profile u(y) parameterized by Po , P1 , h, and µ.

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

32 CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

As before there is no acceleration and the x momentum equation reduces to:

∂P ∂2u
0=− +µ 2 (2.95)
∂x ∂y

First let’s find the pressure field; take ∂/∂x:

∂ 2P ∂ ∂2u
 
0=− + µ (2.96)
∂x2 ∂x ∂y 2
∂2P ∂ 2 ∂u
 
changing order of differentiation: 0=− 2 +µ 2 (2.97)
∂x ∂y ∂x
2
∂ P d2 P
0=− 2 =− 2 (2.98)
∂x dx
dP
=A (2.99)
dx
P = Ax + B (2.100)
apply boundary conditions : P (0) = Po P (L) = P1 (2.101)
x
P (x) = Po + (P1 − Po ) (2.102)
L
dP (P1 − Po )
so = (2.103)
dx L
(P1 − Po ) d2 u
substitute into momentum: 0=− +µ 2 (2.104)
L dy
2
d u (P1 − Po )
= (2.105)
dy 2 µL
du (P1 − Po )
= y + C1 (2.106)
dy µL
(P1 − Po ) 2
u(y) = y + C1 y + C2 (2.107)
2µL
boundary conditions: u(0) = 0 = C2 (2.108)
(P1 − Po ) 2
u(h) = 0 = h + C1 h + 0 (2.109)
2µL
(P1 − Po )
C1 = − h (2.110)
2µL
(P1 − Po ) 2

u(y) = y − yh (2.111)
2µL
du (P1 − Po )
wall shear: = (2y − h) (2.112)
dy 2µL

du  (P1 − Po )
τwall = µ = −h (2.113)
dy y=0 2L

Exercise: Consider flow between a slot separated by two plates, the lower at y = 0, the
upper at y = h, with the bottom plate stationary and the upper plate moving at velocity

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

2.4. CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS 33

U. The flow is driven by a pressure difference and the motion of the upper plate. At x = 0,
P = Po ; at x = L, P = P1 . The fluid has constant viscosity µ. Assuming the flow is
steady, there is no body force, pressure varies only with x, and that the velocity is only in
the x direction and only a function of y; i.e. v = u(y) i, a) find the velocity profile u(y)
parameterized by Po , P1 , h, U and µ; b) Find U such that there is no net mass flux between
the plates.

2.4.2 Fourier’s law for heat conduction

It is observed in experiment that heat moves from regions of high temperature to low tem-
perature Perform the experiment described in Figure 2.5.

x
T A q To

T > To

Figure 2.5: Schematic of experiment to determine thermal conductivity

The following results are obtained, Figure 2.6:

Q Q Q
A3 L1
t3

t2 A2 L2

t1 A1 L3

T T T
A3 > A2 > A1 L3 > L2 > L1
t3 > t2 > t1

Figure 2.6: Heat transferred (J) vs. temperature (K)

Note for constant temperature of the high temperature reservoir T

• large time of heat transfer t gives large heat transfer Q

• large cross-sectional area A gives large heat transfer Q

• small length L gives large heat transfer Q

When scaled by L, t, and A, for a single fluid, the curve collapses to a single curve, Figure
2.7:

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

34 CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

Q/(A t)

k
1

T/L

Figure 2.7: heat flux vs. temperature gradient

The thermal conductivity is defined as the ratio of the flux of heat transfer qx ∼ Q/(At)
to the temperature gradient − ∂T
∂x
∼ T /L.
qx
k≡ (2.114)
− ∂T
∂x
so
∂T
qx = −k (2.115)
∂x
or in vector notation:
q = −k∇T (2.116)
Note with this form, the contribution from heat transfer to the entropy production is
guaranteed positive if k ≥ 0.

∇T · ∇T 1
k 2
+ τ : ∇v ≥ 0 (2.117)
T T

2.4.3 Variable first coefficient of viscosity, µ

In general the first coefficient of viscosity µ is a thermodynamic property which is a strong
function of temperature and a weak function of pressure.

2.4.3.1 Typical values of µ for air and water

• air at 300 K, 1 atm : 18.46 × 10−6 (Ns)/m2

• air at 400 K, 1 atm : 23.01 × 10−6 (Ns)/m2

• liquid water at 300 K, 1 atm : 855 × 10−6 (Ns)/m2

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

2.4. CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS 35

• liquid water at 400 K, 1 atm : 217 × 10−6 (Ns)/m2

Note
• viscosity of air an order of magnitude less than water
∂µ
• ∂T
> 0 for air, and gases in general
∂µ
• ∂T
< 0 for water, and liquids in general

2.4.3.2 Common models for µ

• constant property: µ = µo
q
T
• kinetic theory estimate for high temperature gas: µ (T ) = µo To

• empirical data

2.4.4 Variable second coefficient of viscosity, λ

Very little data for any material exists for the second coefficient of viscosity. It only plays a
role in compressible viscous flows, which are typically very high speed. Some estimates:
• Stokes’ hypothesis: λ = − 32 µ, may be correct for monatomic gases
• may be inferred from attenuation rates of sound waves
• perhaps may be inferred from shock wave thicknesses

2.4.5 Variable thermal conductivity, k

In general thermal conductivity k is a thermodynamic property which is a strong function
of temperature and a weak function of pressure.

2.4.5.1 Typical values of k for air and water

• air at 300 K, 1 atm : 26.3 × 10−3 W/(mK)
• air at 400 K, 1 atm : 33.8 × 10−3 W/(mK)
• liquid water at 300 K, 1 atm : 613 × 10−3 W/(mK)
• liquid water at 400 K, 1 atm : 688 × 10−3 W/(mK) (the liquid here is supersaturated)
Note
• conductivity of air is one order of magnitude less than water
∂k
• ∂T
> 0 for air, and gases in general
∂k
• ∂T
> 0 for water in this range, generalization difficult

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

36 CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

2.4.5.2 Common models for k

• constant property: k = ko
q
T
• kinetic theory estimate for high temperature gas: k (T ) = ko To

• empirical data

Exercise: Consider one-dimensional steady heat conduction in a fluid at rest. At x =

0 m at constant heat flux is applied qx = 10 W/m2 . At x = 1 m, the temperature is held
constant at 300 K. Find T (y), T (0) and qx (1) for
• liquid water with k = 613 × 10−3 W/(mK)

• air with k = 26.3 × 10−3 W/(mK)

 q 
T
• air with k = 26.3 × 10−3 300 W/(mK)

2.4.6 Thermal equation of state

2.4.6.1 description
• determined in static experiments

• gives P as a function of ρ and T

2.4.6.2 Typical models

• ideal gas: P = ρRT

• first virial: P = ρRT (1 + b1 ρ)

• general virial: P = ρRT (1 + b1 ρ + b2 ρ2 + ...)

• van der Waals: P = RT (1/ρ − b)−1 − aρ2

2.4.7 Caloric equation of state

2.4.7.1 Description
• determined in experiments

• gives e as function of ρ and T in general

• arbitrary constant appears

• must also be thermodynamically consistent via relation to be discussed later:

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

2.5. SPECIAL CASES OF GOVERNING EQUATIONS 37

   !
1 ∂P 
de = cv (T ) dT − T − P dρ (2.118)
ρ2 ∂T ρ

With knowledge of cv (T ) and P (ρ, T ), the above can be integrated to find e.

2.4.7.2 Typical models

• consistent with ideal gas:

– constant specific heat: e(T ) = cvo (T − To ) + eo

RT
– temperature dependent specific heat: e(T ) = To cv (T̂ )dT̂ + eo
RT
• consistent with first virial: e(T ) = To
cv (T̂ )dT̂ + eo
RT
• consistent with van der Waals: e(ρ, T ) = To
cv (T̂ )dT̂ + −a (ρ − ρo ) + eo

2.5 Special cases of governing equations

The governing equations are often expressed in more simple forms in common limits. Some
are listed here.

2.5.1 One-dimensional equations

Most of the mystery of vector notation is removed in the one-dimensional limit where v =
∂ ∂
w = 0, ∂y = ∂z = 0; additionally we adopt Stokes assumption λ = −(2/3)µ:
 
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂u
+u +ρ =0 (2.119)
∂t ∂x ∂x
   
∂u ∂u ∂P ∂ 4 ∂u
ρ +u =− + µ + ρgx (2.120)
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂x 3 ∂x
     2
∂e ∂e ∂ ∂T ∂u 4 ∂u
ρ +u = k −P + µ (2.121)
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x 3 ∂x
µ = µ (ρ, T ) (2.122)
k = k (ρ, T ) (2.123)
P = P (ρ, T ) (2.124)
e = e (ρ, T ) (2.125)

note: 7 equations, 7 unknowns: (ρ, u, P, e, T, µ, k)

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38 CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

2.5.2 Euler equations

When viscous stresses and heat conduction neglected, the Euler equations are obtained.
dρ
+ ρ∇ · v = 0 (2.126)
dt
dv
ρ = −∇P (2.127)
dt  
de d 1
= −P (2.128)
dt dt ρ
e = e (P, ρ) (2.129)

Note:

• 6 equations, 6 unknowns (ρ, u, v, w, P, e)

• body force neglected-usually unimportant in this limit

• easy to show this is isentropic flow; energy change is all due to reversible P dv work

Exercise: Write the one-dimensional Euler equations in a) non-conservative form, b)

conservative form. Show all steps which lead from one form to the other.

2.5.3 Incompressible Navier-Stokes equations

If we take, ρ, k, µ, cp to be constant for an ideal gas and neglect viscous dissipation which is
usually small in such cases:

∇·v =0 (2.130)
dv
ρ = −∇P + µ∇2 v (2.131)
dt
dT
ρcp = k∇2 T (2.132)
dt
Note:

• 5 equations, 5 unknowns: (u, v, w, P, T )

• mass and momentum uncoupled from energy

• energy coupled to mass and momentum

• detailed explanation required for use of cp

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

Chapter 3

Thermodynamics review

Suggested Reading:

Liepmann and Roshko, Chapter 1: pp. 1-24, 34-38

Shapiro, Chapter 2: pp. 23-44
Anderson, Chapter 1: pp. 12-25

As we have seen from the previous chapter, the subject of thermodynamics is a subset of
the topic of viscous compressible flows. It is almost always necessary to consider the thermo-
dynamics as part of a larger coupled system in design. This is in contrast to incompressible
aerodynamics which can determine forces independent of the thermodynamics.

3.1 Preliminary mathematical concepts

If
z = z(x, y) (3.1)
then  
∂z  ∂z 
dz = dx + dy (3.2)
∂x y ∂y x
which is of the form
dz = Mdx + Ndy (3.3)
Now
∂M ∂ ∂z
= (3.4)
∂y ∂y ∂x
∂N ∂ ∂z
= (3.5)
∂x ∂x ∂y
∂M ∂N
thus = (3.6)
∂y ∂x
so the implication is that if we are given dz, M, N, we can form z only if the above holds.

39
40 CHAPTER 3. THERMODYNAMICS REVIEW

3.2 Summary of thermodynamic concepts

• property: characterizes the thermodynamics state of the system

– extensive: proportional to system’s mass, upper case variable E, S, H

– intensive: independent of system’s mass, lower case variable e, s, h, (exceptions
T, P )

• equations of state: relate properties

• Any intensive thermodynamic property can be expressed as a function of at most two

other intensive thermodynamic properties (for simple systems)

– P = ρRT : thermal equation of state for ideal gas

q
– c = γ Pρ : sound speed for calorically perfect ideal gas

• first law: dÊ = δQ − δW

• second law: dS ≥ δQ/T

• process: moving from one state to another, in general with accompanying heat transfer
and work

• cycle: process which returns to initial state

R2
• reversible work: w12 = 1 P dv
R2
• reversible heat transfer: q12 = 1 T ds

Figure 3.1 gives a sketch of an isothermal thermodynamic process going from state 1 to
state 2. The figure shows a variety of planes, P − v, T − s, P − T , and v − T . For ideal
gases, 1) isotherms are hyperbolas in the P − v plane: P = (RT )/v, 2) isochores are straight
lines in the P − T plane: P = (R/v)T , with large v giving a small slope, and 3) isobars
are straight lines in the v − T plane: v = (RT )/P , with large P giving a small slope. The
area under the curve in the P − v plane gives the work. The area under the curve in the
T − s plane gives the heat transfer. The energy change is given by the difference in the heat
transfer and the work. The isochores in the T − s plane are non-trivial. For a calorically
perfect ideal gas, they are given by exponential curves.
Figure 3.2 gives a sketch of a thermodynamic cycle. Here we only sketch the P − v and
T − s planes, though others could be included. Since it is a cyclic process, there is no net
energy change for the cycle and the cyclic work equals the cyclic heat transfer. The enclosed
area in the P − v plane, i.e. the net work, equals the enclosed area in the T − s plane, i.e.
the net heat transfer. The sketch has the cycle working in the direction which corresponds
to an engine. A reversal of the direction would correspond to a refrigerator.

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

3.2. SUMMARY OF THERMODYNAMIC CONCEPTS 41

P T
v1

v2
P1

T1 = T2
P2 T1 = T2

v1 v2 s1 s2 s
v
2 2
w12= ∫1 P dv e 2- e 1= q 12- w12 q12= ∫1 T ds
P v
v1
P2
P1 v2

v2

P1

P2 v1

T1 = T 2 T1 = T 2 T
T

Figure 3.1: Sketch of isothermal thermodynamic process

Example 3.1
Consider the following isobaric process for air, modelled as a calorically perfect ideal gas, from state
1 to state 2. P1 = 100 kP a, T1 = 300 K, T2 = 400 K.

Since the process is isobaric P = 100 kP a describes a straight line in P − v and P − T planes and
P2 = P1 = 100 kP a. Since ideal gas, v − T plane:
 
R
v= T straight lines! (3.7)
P

(287 J/kg/K) (300 K)

v1 = RT1 /P1 = = 0.861 m3 /kg (3.8)
100, 000 P a
(287 J/kg/K) (400 K)
v2 = RT2 /P2 = = 1.148 m3 /kg (3.9)
100, 000 P a
Since calorically perfect:

de = cv dT (3.10)
Z e1 Z T1
de = cv dT (3.11)
e2 T2
e2 − e1 = cv (T2 − T1 ) (3.12)
= (716.5 J/kg/K) (400 K − 300 K) (3.13)
= 71, 650 J/kg (3.14)

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

42 CHAPTER 3. THERMODYNAMICS REVIEW

P T

s
v
q cycle = wcycle

Figure 3.2: Sketch of thermodynamic cycle

also

T ds = de + P dv (3.15)
T ds = cv dT + P dv (3.16)
RT R RT
from ideal gas : v= : dv = dT − 2 dP (3.17)
P P P
RT
T ds = cv dT + RdT − dP (3.18)
P
dT dP
ds = (cv + R) −R (3.19)
T P
dT dP
ds = (cv + cp − cv ) −R (3.20)
T P
dT dP
ds = cp −R (3.21)
T P
Z s2 Z T2 Z P2
dT dP
ds = cp −R (3.22)
s1 T T P1 P
1   
T2 P2
s2 − s1 = cp ln − R ln (3.23)
T1 P1
   
T P
s − so = cp ln − R ln (3.24)
To Po

since P = constant: (3.25)

 
T2
s2 − s1 = cp ln (3.26)
T1
 
400 K
= (1003.5 J/kg/K) ln (3.27)
300 K
= 288.7 J/kg/K (3.28)

Z v2 Z v2
w12 = P dv = P dv (3.29)
v1 v1
= P (v2 − v1 ) (3.30)

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

3.2. SUMMARY OF THERMODYNAMIC CONCEPTS 43

= (100, 000 P a)(1.148 m3 /kg − 0.861 m3 /kg) (3.31)

= 29, 600 J/kg (3.32)

Now

de = δq − δw (3.33)
δq = de + δw (3.34)
q12 = (e2 − e1 ) + w12 (3.35)
q12 = 71, 650 J/kg + 29, 600 J/kg (3.36)
q12 = 101, 250 J/kg (3.37)

Now in this process the gas is heated from 300 K to 400 K. We would expect at a minimum that the
surroundings were at 400 K. Let’s check for second law satisfaction.
q12
?s2 − s1 ≥ (3.38)
Tsurr
101, 250 J/kg
288.7 J/kg/K ≥ ? (3.39)
400 K
288.7 J/kg/K ≥ 253.1 J/kg/K yes (3.40)

P T
v1

v2
P1= P2 = 100 kPa
T2
T2

T1 = 300 K T1

v1 v2 s1 s2 s
v
2 2
w12= ∫1 P dv e 2- e 1= q 12- w12 q12= ∫1 T ds
P v
v1

v2 P1= P2 = 100 kPa

P1= P2 = 100 kPa v2

v1

T1 T2 T1 T2 T
T

Figure 3.3: Sketch for isobaric example problem

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

44 CHAPTER 3. THERMODYNAMICS REVIEW

3.3 Maxwell relations and secondary properties

Recall  
1
de = T ds − P d (3.41)
ρ
Since v ≡ 1/ρ we get
de = T ds − P dv (3.42)
Now we assume e = e(s, v),
 
∂e  ∂e 
de = ds + dv (3.43)
∂s v ∂v s
Thus  
∂e  ∂e 
T = P =− (3.44)
∂s v ∂v s
and

∂2e ∂2e
 
∂T  ∂P 
= = − (3.45)
∂v s ∂v∂s ∂s v ∂s∂v
Thus we get a Maxwell relation:
 
∂T  ∂P 
=− (3.46)
∂v s ∂s v

Define the following properties:

• enthalpy: h ≡ e + pv

• Helmholtz free energy: a ≡ e − T s

• Gibbs free energy: g ≡ h − T s

Now with these definitions it is easy to form differential relations using the Gibbs relation
as a root.

h = e + Pv (3.47)
dh = de + P dv + vdP (3.48)
de = dh − P dv − vdP (3.49)
substitute into Gibbs: de = T ds − P dv (3.50)
dh − P dv − vdP = T ds − P dv (3.51)
dh = T ds + vdP (3.52)

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

3.3. MAXWELL RELATIONS AND SECONDARY PROPERTIES 45

So s and P are natural variables for h. Through a very similar process we get the following
relationships:
 
∂h  ∂h 
=T =v (3.53)
∂s P ∂P s
 
∂a  ∂a 
= −P = −s (3.54)
∂v T ∂T v
 
∂g  ∂g 
=v = −s (3.55)
∂P T ∂T P
     
∂T  ∂v  ∂P  ∂s  ∂v  ∂s 
= = =− (3.56)
∂P s ∂s P ∂T v ∂v T ∂T P ∂P T
The following thermodynamic properties are also useful and have formal definitions:

∂e 
• specific heat at constant volume: cv ≡ ∂T v

∂h 
• specific heat at constant pressure: cp ≡ ∂T P
• ratio of specific heats: γ ≡ cp /cv
r 
• sound speed: c ≡ ∂P

∂ρ 
s

• adiabatic compressibility: βs ≡ − v1 ∂v 
∂P s

∂P 
• adiabatic bulk modulus: Bs ≡ −v ∂v s

Generic problem: given P = P (T, v), find other properties

3.3.1 Internal energy from thermal equation of state

Find the internal energy e(T, v) for a general material.
e = e(T, v) (3.57)
 
∂e  ∂e 
de = dT + dv (3.58)
∂T v ∂v T

∂e 
de = cv dT + dv (3.59)
∂v T
Now from Gibbs,
de = T ds − P dv (3.60)
de ds
=T −P (3.61)
 dv dv
∂e  ∂s 
= T −P (3.62)
∂v T ∂v T

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

46 CHAPTER 3. THERMODYNAMICS REVIEW

Substitute from Maxwell relation,

 
∂e  ∂P 
=T −P (3.63)
∂v T ∂T v
so
  
∂P 
de = cv dT + T − P dv (3.64)
∂T v
 !
e T Z v
∂ P̂ 
Z Z
dê = cv (T̂ )dT̂ + T̂  − P̂ dv̂ (3.65)
eo To vo ∂ T̂ v̂
 !
T Z v
∂ P̂ 
Z
e(T, v) = eo + cv (T̂ )dT̂ + T̂  − P̂ dv̂ (3.66)
To vo ∂ T̂ v̂

Example 3.2
Ideal gas

Find a general expression for e(T, v) if

RT
P (T, v) = (3.67)
v
Proceed as follows:

∂P 
= R/v (3.68)
∂T v

∂P  RT
T −P = −P (3.69)
∂T v v
RT RT
= − =0 (3.70)
v v
Thus e is
Z T
e(T ) = eo + cv (T̂ )dT̂ (3.71)
To

We also find
Z T
h = e + P v = eo + cv (T̂ )dT̂ + P v (3.72)
To
Z T
h(T, v) = eo + cv (T̂ )dT̂ + RT (3.73)
To

∂h 
cp (T, v) =≡ = cv (T ) + R = cp (T ) (3.74)
∂T P
R = cp (T ) − cv (T ) (3.75)
Iff cv is a constant then
e(T ) = eo + cv (T − To ) (3.76)
h(T ) = (eo + Po vo ) + cp (T − To ) (3.77)
R = cp − cv (3.78)

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

3.3. MAXWELL RELATIONS AND SECONDARY PROPERTIES 47

Example 3.3
van der Waals gas

Find a general expression for e(T, v) if

RT a
P (T, v) = − (3.79)
v − b v2
Proceed as before:

∂P  R
= (3.80)
∂T v v−b

∂P  RT
T −P = −P (3.81)
∂T v v−b
 
RT RT a a
= − − 2 = 2 (3.82)
v−b v−b v v
Thus e is
T v
a
Z Z
e(T, v) = eo + cv (T̂ )dT̂ + dv̂ (3.83)
To v̂ 2
vo
T  
1 1
Z
= eo + cv (T̂ )dT̂ + a − (3.84)
To vo v

We also find
T 
1 1
Z
h = e + P v = eo + cv (T̂ )dT̂ + a
− + Pv (3.85)
To vo v
T  
1 1 RT v a
Z
h(T, v) = eo + cv (T̂ )dT̂ + a − + − (3.86)
To vo v v−b v
(3.87)

3.3.2 Sound speed from thermal equation of state

Find the sound speed c(T, v) for a general material.
s 
∂P 
c= (3.88)
∂ρ s

2 ∂P 
c = (3.89)
∂ρ  s

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

48 CHAPTER 3. THERMODYNAMICS REVIEW

Use Gibbs relation

T ds = de + P dv (3.90)
(3.91)
Substitute earlier relation for de
    
∂P 
T ds = cv dT + T − P dv + P dv (3.92)
∂T v

∂P 
T ds = cv dT + T dv (3.93)
∂T v

T ∂P 
T ds = cv dT − 2 dρ (3.94)
ρ ∂T ρ
Since P = P (T, v), P = P (T, ρ)
 
∂P  ∂P 
dP = dT + dρ (3.95)
∂T ρ ∂ρ T

∂P 
dP − ∂ρ  dρ
dT =  T
∂P 
(3.96)
∂T ρ

Thus substituting for dT

  
∂P 
dP − ∂ρ 
dρ T ∂P


T ds = cv   T
∂P 
−  dρ (3.97)
∂T ρ
ρ2 ∂T ρ

so grouping terms in dP and dρ we get

  
! ∂P  
cv ∂ρ  T ∂P  
T ds = ∂P  dP − cv T
∂P 
+ 2 dρ (3.98)
∂T ρ ∂T ρ
ρ ∂T ρ

SO if ds ≡ 0 we obtain
  
  ∂P  
∂P 
 1 ∂P  
 T ∂P  
∂ρ  
= cv + 2T
∂P 
(3.99)
∂ρ s cv ∂T ρ
 ρ ∂T ρ
∂T ρ
  !2
∂P  T ∂P 
= + (3.100)
∂ρ T cv ρ2 ∂T ρ
So
v
u
u ∂P   !2
c(T, ρ) = t  + T ∂P 
(3.101)
∂ρ T cv ρ2 ∂T ρ

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

3.3. MAXWELL RELATIONS AND SECONDARY PROPERTIES 49

Exercises: Liepmann and Roshko, 1.3 and 1.4, p. 383.

Example 3.4
Ideal gas

Find the sound speed if

P (T, ρ) = ρRT (3.102)

The necessary partials are

 
∂P  ∂P 
= RT = ρR (3.103)
∂ρ T ∂T ρ

so
s
T 2
c(T, ρ) = RT + (ρR) (3.104)
cv ρ 2
s
R2 T
= RT + (3.105)
cv
s  
R
= RT 1 + (3.106)
cv
s  
cP − cv
= RT 1 + (3.107)
cv
s  
cv + cP − cv
= RT (3.108)
cv
p
= γRT (3.109)

Sound speed depends on temperature alone for the calorically perfect ideal gas.

Example 3.5
Virial gas

Find the sound speed if

P (T, ρ) = ρRT (1 + b1 ρ) (3.110)

The necessary partials are

 
∂P  ∂P 
= RT + 2b1 ρRT = ρR (1 + b1 ρ) (3.111)
∂ρ  T ∂T ρ

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50 CHAPTER 3. THERMODYNAMICS REVIEW

so
s
T
c(T, ρ) = RT + 2b1 ρRT + (ρR (1 + b1 ρ))2 (3.112)
cv ρ 2
s  
R 2
= RT 1 + 2b1 ρ + (1 + b1 ρ) (3.113)
cv

Sound speed depends on both temperature and density.

Example 3.6
Thermodynamic process with a van der Waals Gas

A van der Waals gas with

R = 200 J/kg/K (3.114)

a = 150 P a m6 /kg 2 (3.115)
b = 0.001 m3 /kg (3.116)
cv = [350 + 0.2(T − 300K)] J/kg/K (3.117)

begins at T1 = 300 K, P1 = 1 × 105 P a. It is isothermally compressed to state 2 where P2 = 1 × 106 P a.

It is then isochorically heated to state 3 where T3 = 1, 000 K. Find w13 , q13 , and s3 − s1 . Assume the
surroundings are at 1, 000 K. Recall
RT a
P = − (3.118)
v − b v2
so at state 1
200 × 300 150
100, 000 = − 2 (3.119)
v1 − 0.001 v1
or expanding

− 0.15 + 150v − 60, 100v 2 + 100, 000v 3 = 0 (3.120)

Cubic equation–three solutions:

v1 = 0.598 m3 /kg (3.121)

v1 = 0.00125 − 0.0097i m3 /kg not physical (3.122)
v1 = 0.00125 + 0.0097i m3 /kg not physical (3.123)

Now at state 2 we know P2 and T2 so we can determine v2

200 × 300 150
1, 000, 000 = − 2 (3.124)
v2 − 0.001 v2

The physical solution is v2 = 0.0585 m3 /kg. Now at state 3 we know v3 = v2 and T3 . Determine P3 :
200 × 1, 000 150
P3 = − = 3, 478, 261 − 43, 831 = 3, 434, 430 P a (3.125)
0.0585 − 0.001 0.05852

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3.3. MAXWELL RELATIONS AND SECONDARY PROPERTIES 51

R2 R3 R2
Now w13 = w12 + w23 = 1
P dv + 2
P dv = 1
P dv since 2 − 3 is at constant volume. So
v2 

RT a
Z
w13 = − 2 dv (3.126)
v v−b v
Z v12 Z v2
dv dv
= RT1 −a 2
(3.127)
v1 v − b v1 v
   
v2 − b 1 1
= RT1 ln +a − (3.128)
v1 − b v2 v1
   
0.0585 − 0.001 1 1
= 200 × 300 ln + 150 − (3.129)
0.598 − 0.001 0.0585 0.598
= −140, 408 + 2, 313 (3.130)
= −138, 095 J/kg = −138 kJ/kg (3.131)

The gas is compressed, so the work is negative. Since e is a state property:

T3  
1 1
Z
e3 − e1 = cv (T )dT + a − (3.132)
T1 v1 v3

Now
1
cv = 350 + 0.2(T − 300) = 290 + T (3.133)
5
so
 T3   
1 1 1
Z
e3 − e1 = 290 + T dT + a − (3.134)
T1 5 v1 v3
 
1 1 1
T32 − T12 + a


= 290 (T3 − T1 ) + − (3.135)
10 v1 v3
 
1 1 1
1, 0002 − 3002 + 150


290 (1, 000 − 300) + − (3.136)
10 0.598 0.0585
= 203, 000 + 91, 000 − 2, 313 (3.137)
= 291, 687 J/kg = 292 kJ/kg (3.138)

Now from the first law

e3 − e1 = q13 − w13 (3.139)

q13 = e3 − e1 + w13 (3.140)
q13 = 292 − 138 (3.141)
q13 = 154 kJ/kg (3.142)

The heat transfer is positive as heat was added to the system.

Now find the entropy change. Manipulate the Gibbs equation:

T ds = de + P dv (3.143)
1 P
ds = de + dv (3.144)
T T
1  a  P
ds = cv (T )dT + 2 dv + dv (3.145)
T v T

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52 CHAPTER 3. THERMODYNAMICS REVIEW

 
1  a  1 RT a
ds = cv (T )dT + 2 dv + − dv (3.146)
T v T v − b v2
cv (T ) R
ds = dT + dv (3.147)
T v−b
Z T3
cv (T ) v3 − b
s3 − s1 = dT + R ln (3.148)
T1 T v1 − b
Z 1,000  
290 1 v3 − b
= + dT + R ln (3.149)
300 T 5 v1 − b
1, 000 1 0.0585 − 0.001
= 290 ln + (1, 000 − 300) + 200 ln (3.150)
300 5 0.598 − 0.001
= 349 + 140 − 468 (3.151)
J kJ
= 21 = 0.021 (3.152)
kg K kg K
Is the second law satisfied for each portion of the process?

First look at 1 → 2

e2 − e1 = q12 − w12 (3.153)

q12 = e2 − e1 + w12 (3.154)
T2  !     
1 1 v2 − b 1 1
Z
q12 = cv (T )dT + a − + RT1 ln +a − (3.155)
T1 v1 v2 v1 − b v2 v1
(3.156)

Since T1 = T2 and canceling the terms in a we get

   
v2 − b 0.0585 − 0.001 J
q12 = RT1 ln = 200 × 300 ln = −140, 408 (3.157)
v1 − b 0.598 − 0.001 kg

Since isothermal
 
v2 − b
s2 − s1 = R ln (3.158)
v1 − b
 
0.0585 − 0.001
= 200 ln (3.159)
0.598 − 0.001
J
= −468.0 (3.160)
kg K
Entropy drops because heat was transferred out of the system.

Check the second law. Note that in this portion of the process in which the heat is transferred out
of the system, that the surroundings must have Tsurr ≤ 300 K. For this portion of the process let us
take Tsurr = 300 K.
q12
s2 − s1 ≥ ? (3.161)
T
J
J −140, 408 kg
−468.0 ≥ (3.162)
kg K
300 K
J J
−468.0 ≥ −468.0 ok (3.163)
kg K kg K

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3.4. CANONICAL EQUATIONS OF STATE 53

Next look at 2 → 3

q23 = e3 − e2 + w23 (3.164)

T3  ! Z v3 
1 1
Z
q23 = cv (T )dT + a − + P dv (3.165)
T2 v2 v3 v2
Z T3
since isochoric q23 = cv (T )dT (3.166)
T2
1000  
T J
Z
= 290 + dT = 294, 000 (3.167)
300 5 K
Now look at the entropy change for the isochoric process:
Z T3
cv (T )
s3 − s2 = dT (3.168)
T2 T
Z T3  
290 1
= + dT (3.169)
T2 T 5
1, 000 1 J
= 290 ln + (1, 000 − 300) = 489 (3.170)
300 5 kg K
Entropy rises because heat transferred into system.

In order to transfer heat into the system we must have a different thermal reservoir. This one must
have Tsurr ≥ 1000 K. Assume here that the heat transfer was from a reservoir held at 1, 000 K to
assess the influence of the second law.
q23
s3 − s2 ≥ ? (3.171)
T
J
J 294, 000 kg
489 ≥ (3.172)
kg K 1, 000 K
J J
489 ≥ 294 ok (3.173)
kg K kg K

3.4 Canonical equations of state

If we have a single equation of state in a special canonical form, we can form both thermal
and caloric equations. Since
de = T ds − P dv (3.174)
dh = T ds + vdP (3.175)
it is suggested that the form
e = e(s, v) (3.176)
h = h(s, P ) (3.177)

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54 CHAPTER 3. THERMODYNAMICS REVIEW

is useful.

Example 3.7
Canonical Form

If  
s
h(s, P ) = Kcp P R/cp exp + (ho − cp To ) (3.178)
cp
derive both thermal and caloric state equations P (v, T ) and e(v, T ).

Now for our material

  
∂h  R/cp s
= KP exp (3.179)
∂s P cp
  
∂h  R/cp −1 s
= KRP exp (3.180)
∂P s cp

Now since

∂h 
=T (3.181)
∂s P

∂h 
=v (3.182)
∂P  s

we have

s
T = KP R/cp exp (3.183)
cp
 
s
v = KRP R/cp −1 exp (3.184)
cp

Dividing one by the other gives

T P
= (3.185)
v R
RT
P = (3.186)
v
Substituting our expression for T into our canonical equation for h we also get

h = cp T + (ho − cp To ) (3.187)
h = cp (T − To ) + ho (3.188)

which is useful in itself. Substituting in for T and To

 
P v Po vo
h = cp − + ho (3.189)
R R

Using h ≡ e + P v we get
 
Pv Po vo
e + P v = cp − + eo + Po vo (3.190)
R R

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3.5. ISENTROPIC RELATIONS 55

so
c  c 
p p
e= − 1 Pv − − 1 Po vo + eo (3.191)
R c R
p
e= − 1 (P v − Po vo ) + eo (3.192)
 cR 
p
e= − 1 (RT − RTo ) + eo (3.193)
R
e = (cp − R) (T − To ) + eo (3.194)
e = [cp − (cp − cv )] (T − To ) + eo (3.195)
e = cv (T − To ) + eo (3.196)
So one canonical equation gives us all the information we need! Oftentimes, it is difficult to do a
single experiment to get the canonical form.

Exercise: For a calorically perfect ideal gas, write the Helmholtz free energy and Gibbs
free energy in canonical form, i.e. what is a(T, v), g(P, T )?

3.5 Isentropic relations

Of particular importance in thermodynamics in general and compressible flow in particular
are relations that describe an isentropic process, s = constant. Recall the second law.
δq
ds ≥ (3.197)
T
If the process is reversible,
δq
ds = (3.198)
T
If the process is adiabatic
δq ≡ 0 so ds = 0 (3.199)
So an isentropic process is both adiabatic and reversible. We know from the first law written
in terms of entropy that this implies that
q≡0 (3.200)
τ ≡0 (3.201)
In this case the Gibbs relation and the first law reduce to the same expression:
de = −P dv (3.202)
That is the energy change is all due to reversible pressure volume work.

We would like to develop an expression between two variables for an isentropic process.

With knowledge of P (T, v)

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56 CHAPTER 3. THERMODYNAMICS REVIEW

• form e(T, v)

• eliminate T to form e(P, v)

• take derivative and substitute into Gibbs/First Law

 
∂e  ∂e 
dP + dv = −P dv (3.203)
∂P v ∂v P
   
∂e  ∂e 
dP + + P dv = 0 (3.204)
∂P  v ∂v  P

Integration of this equation gives a relationship between P and v.

Example 3.8
Calorically Perfect Ideal Gas

Find the relationship for a calorically perfect ideal gas which undergoes an isentropic process.

Ideal Gas:
P v = RT (3.205)
Calorically Perfect:
e = cv T + e o (3.206)
Thus
Pv cv 1
e = cv + eo = P v + eo = P v + eo (3.207)
R cP − cv γ−1
Thus the necessary derivatives are

∂e  1
= v (3.208)
∂P v γ−1

∂e  1
= P (3.209)
∂v P γ−1

so substituting into our developed relationship gives

 
1 1
vdP + P + P dv = 0 (3.210)
γ−1 γ−1
vdP + γP dv = 0 (3.211)
dP dv
= −γ (3.212)
P v
P v
ln = −γ ln (3.213)
Po vo
P  v γ
o
ln = ln (3.214)
Po v
P  v γ
o
= (3.215)
Po v
P v γ = Po voγ = constant (3.216)

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3.5. ISENTROPIC RELATIONS 57

also using the thermal state equation

RT
P v T vo  vo γ
= RTo
= = (3.217)
Po vo
To v v
  γ−1
T  v γ−1 P γ
o
= = (3.218)
To v Po

Find the work in a process from v1 to v2

Z 1
w12 = P dv (3.219)
2
v2
dv
Z
= Po voγ (3.220)
v1 vγ
 1−γ
v2
v
= Po voγ (3.221)
1−γ v1
Po voγ  1−γ 
= v2 − v11−γ (3.222)
1−γ
P2 v2 − P1 v1
= (3.223)
1−γ

Also

de = δq − δw = 0 − δw so (3.224)
P2 v2 − P1 v1
e2 − e1 = (3.225)
γ−1

Figure 3.4 gives a sketch for the calorically perfect ideal gas undergoing an isentropic
expansion in various planes.

Example 3.9
Virial Gas

Find the relationship between P and v for a virial gas with constant cv which undergoes an isentropic
process.

Virial Gas:
RT
P = (3.226)
v−b
This is van der Waals with a = 0 and cv constant so:

e = cv T + e o (3.227)

Thus
P (v − b)
e = cv + eo (3.228)
R

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58 CHAPTER 3. THERMODYNAMICS REVIEW

P T
v1

P1
v2
T1
T1 T2
P2 T2

v1 v2 s1 = s2 s
v
2 2
w12= ∫1 P dv e 2- e 1= q 12- w12 q12= ∫1 T ds
P v
P2
v1

v2
P1

v1 P1
v2
P2

T2 T1 T2 T1 T
T

Figure 3.4: Sketch of isentropic expansion process

Thus the necessary derivatives are


∂e  cv
= (v − b) (3.229)
∂P v R

∂e  cv
= P (3.230)
∂v P R

so substituting into our developed relationship gives

cv c
v

(v − b) dP + P + P dv = 0 (3.231)
R R 
R
(v − b) dP + 1 + P dv = 0 (3.232)
cv
R
with γ̂ ≡ 1 + (3.233)
cv
dP γ̂
+ P =0 (3.234)
dv v−b
   
γ̂ dP γ̂ γ̂
Z Z
exp dv + exp dv P =0 (3.235)
v−b dv v−b v−b
   dP    γ̂
exp ln (v − b)γ̂ + exp ln (v − b)γ̂ P =0 (3.236)
dv v−b
dP γ̂
(v − b)γ̂ + (v − b)γ̂ P =0 (3.237)
dv v−b
d  
(v − b)γ̂ P = 0 (3.238)
dv

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3.5. ISENTROPIC RELATIONS 59

γ̂ γ̂
(v − b) P = (vo − b) Po (3.239)
 γ̂
P vo − b
= (3.240)
Po v−b

Exercise: Find the relationship between T and v for a virial gas in an isentropic process.

Exercise: Find an expression for the work done by a van der Waals gas in an isentropic
process.
J 3
Exercise: A virial gas, m = 3 kg with R = 290 kgK , b = 0.002 m
kg
with constant specific
kJ
heat cv = 0.700 kg K is initially at P = 1.2 bar and T = 320 K. It undergoes a two step
process: 1 → 2 is an isochoric compression to 500 kP a; 2 → 3 is an isentropic expansion to
300 kP a. Find the total work W13 in units of J, the total heat transfer Q13 in units of J,
and the change in entropy S3 − S1 in units of J/K. Include a sketch, roughly to scale, of the
total process in the P − v and T − s planes.

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60 CHAPTER 3. THERMODYNAMICS REVIEW

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

Chapter 4

One-dimensional compressible flow

White, Chapter 9: pp. 511-559,

Liepmann and Roshko, Chapter 2: pp. 39-65,
Hughes and Brighton, Chapter 7: pp. 178-185,
Shapiro, Vol. 1, Chapters 4-8: pp. 73-262,

This chapter will discuss one-dimensional flow of a compressible fluid. Notation can pose
problems, and many common ones are in use. Here a new convention will be adopted. In
this chapter

• velocity in the x-direction will be denoted as u,

• specific internal energy, denoted in previous chapters by u, will here be e,

• total internal energy, denoted in previous chapters by U, will here be E.

The following topics will be covered:

• development of generalized one-dimensional flow equations,

• isentropic flow with area change,

• flow with normal shock waves,

• flow with friction (Fanno flow),

• flow with heat transfer (Rayleigh flow),

• flow in a shock tube.

Assume for this chapter:

• The flow is uni-directional in the x− direction with u 6= 0 and with the y− and z−
components of the velocity vector both zero: v ≡ 0, w ≡ 0

61
62 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

∂ ∂ ∂
• Spatial gradients are admitted in x, but not in y or z: ∂x
6= 0, ∂y
≡ 0, ∂z
≡ 0.

Friction and heat transfer will not be modelled rigorously. Instead, they will be modelled
in a fashion which captures the relevant physics and retains analytic tractability.

4.1 Generalized one-dimensional equations

Flow with area change is illustrated by the following sketch of a control volume:. See Figure
4.1.

ρ ρ
1
u1 2
u2
A1 A2
P1 P2
e1 e2
x1 τw

q x2
x 2 - x1 = ∆ x Perimeter = L

Figure 4.1: Control volume sketch

For this problem adopt the following conventions

• surface 1 and 2 are open and allow fluxes of mass, momentum, and energy

• surface w is a closed wall; no mass flux through the wall

W
• external heat flux qw (Energy/Area/Time: m2
) through the wall allowed-qw known fixed
parameter

• diffusive, longitudinal heat transfer ignored, qx = 0

N
• wall shear τw (Force/Area: m2
) allowed–τw known, fixed parameter

• diffusive viscous stress not allowed τxx = 0

• cross-sectional area a known fixed function: A(x)

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4.1. GENERALIZED ONE-DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS 63

4.1.1 Mass
Take the overbar notation to indicate a volume averaged quantity.

The amount of mass in a control volume after a time increment ∆t is equal to the original
amount of mass plus that which came in minus that which left:
 
ρ̄Ā∆xt+∆t = ρ̄Ā∆xt + ρ1 A1 (u1 ∆t) − ρ2 A2 (u2 ∆t) (4.1)

Rearrange and divide by ∆x∆t:

 
ρ̄Āt+∆t − ρ̄Āt ρ2 A2 u2 − ρ1 A1 u1
+ =0 (4.2)
∆t ∆x
(4.3)

Taking the limit as ∆t → 0, ∆x → 0:

∂ ∂
(ρA) + (ρAu) = 0 (4.4)
∂t ∂x
If steady

d
(ρAu) = 0 (4.5)
dx
dρ dA du
Au + ρu + ρA = 0 (4.6)
dx dx dx
1 dρ 1 dA 1 du
+ + = 0 (4.7)
ρ dx A dx u dx

Integrate from x1 to x2 :
x2 Z x2
d
Z
(ρAu)dx = 0dx (4.8)
x1 dx x1
Z 2
d (ρAu) = 0 (4.9)
1
ρ2 u2 A2 − ρ1 u1 A1 = 0 (4.10)
ρ2 u2 A2 = ρ1 u1 A1 ≡ ṁ = C1 (4.11)

4.1.2 Momentum
Newton’s Second Law says the time rate of change of linear momentum of a body equals the
sum of the forces acting on the body. In the x direction this is roughly as follows:

d
(mu) = Fx (4.12)
dt
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64 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

In discrete form this would be

mu|t+∆t − mu|t
= Fx (4.13)
∆t
mu|t+∆t = mu|t + Fx ∆t (4.14)

For a control volume containing fluid, one must also account for the momentum which
enters and leaves the control volume. The amount of momentum in a control volume after
a time increment ∆t is equal to the original amount of momentum plus that which came in
minus that which left plus that introduced by the forces acting on the control volume.

• pressure force at surface 1 pushes fluid

• pressure force at surface 2 restrains fluid

• force due to the reaction of the wall to the pressure force pushes fluid if area change
positive

• force due to the reaction of the wall to the shear force restrains fluid



ρ̄Ā∆x ūt+∆t = ρ̄Ā∆x ūt
+ (ρ1 A1 (u1 ∆t)) u1
− (ρ2 A2 (u2 ∆t)) u2
+ (P1 A1 ) ∆t − (P2 A2 ) ∆t


+ P̄ (A2 − A1 ) ∆t


− τw L̄∆x ∆t

Rearrange and divide by ∆x∆t:

 
ρ̄Āūt+∆t − ρ̄Āūt ρ2 A2 u22 − ρ1 A1 u21
+
∆t ∆x
P2 A2 − P1 A1 A2 − A1
=− + P̄ − τw L̄
∆x ∆x
In the limit ∆x → 0, ∆t → 0 one gets
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂A
ρAu2 = − (P A) + P


(ρAu) + − τw L (4.15)
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂x
In steady state:
d d dA
ρAu2 = − (P A) + P


− τw L (4.16)
dx dx dx
CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.
4.1. GENERALIZED ONE-DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS 65

du d dA dP dA
ρAu + u (ρAu) = −P −A +P − τw L (4.17)
dx dx dx dx dx
du dP L
ρu = − − τw (4.18)
dx dx A
L
ρudu + dP = −τw dx (4.19)
A
1 L
du + dP = −τw dx (4.20)
ρu ṁ
 2
u L
ρd + dP = −τw dx (4.21)
2 A
Wall shear lowers the combination of pressure and dynamic head.
If no wall shear:
u2
 
dP = −ρd (4.22)
2
Increase in velocity magnitude decreases the pressure.
If no area change dA = 0 and no friction τw ≡ 0:
du dP
ρu + = 0 (4.23)
dx dx
d
add u mass u (ρu) = 0 (4.24)
dx
d
ρu2 + P = 0


(4.25)
dx
ρu2 + P = ρo u2o + Po = C2 (4.26)

4.1.3 Energy
The first law of thermodynamics states that the change of total energy of a body equals the
heat transferred to the body minus the work done by the body:

E2 − E1 = Q − W (4.27)
E2 = E1 + Q − W (4.28)
So for the control volume this becomes the following when one also accounts for the energy
flux in and out of the control volume in addition to the work and heat transfer:
ū2  ū2 
   



ρ̄Ā∆x ē + = ρ̄Ā∆x ē +
2 t+∆t 2 t
u21 u22
   
+ρ1 A1 (u1 ∆t) e1 + − ρ2 A2 (u2 ∆t) e2 +
2 2


+qw L̄∆x ∆t + (P1 A1 ) (u1 ∆t) − (P2 A2 ) (u2 ∆t)

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

66 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Note:
• mean pressure times area difference does no work because acting on stationary bound-
ary
• work done by shear force not included1
Rearrange and divide by ∆t∆x:
 
2 
 
ū2
ρ̄Ā ē + ū2  − ρ̄Ā ē +

2 
t+∆t t
∆t    
u22 P2 u21 P1
ρ2 A2 u2 e2 + 2
+ ρ2
− ρ1 A1 u1 e1 + 2
+ ρ1
+ = qw L̄
∆x
In differential form as ∆x → 0, ∆t → 0
u2 u2 P
     
∂ ∂
ρA e + + ρAu e + + = qw L
∂t 2 ∂x 2 ρ
In steady state:
u2 P
  
d
ρAu e + + = qw L (4.29)
dx 2 ρ
2 2
   
d u P u P d
ρAu e+ + + e+ + (ρAu) = qw L (4.30)
dx 2 ρ 2 ρ dx
u2 P
 
d qw L
ρu e+ + = (4.31)
dx 2 ρ A
 
de du 1 dP P dρ qw L
ρu +u + − 2 = (4.32)
dx dx ρ dx ρ dx A
subtract product of momentum and velocity (4.33)
du dP τw Lu
ρu2 +u = − (4.34)
dx dx A
de P u dρ qw L τw Lu
ρu − = + (4.35)
dx ρ dx A A
de P dρ (qw + τw u) L
− 2 = (4.36)
dx ρ dx ṁ
1
In neglecting work done by the wall shear force, I have taken an approach which is nearly universal, but
fundamentally difficult to defend. At this stage of the development of these notes, I am not ready to enter
into a grand battle with all established authors and probably confuse the student; consequently, results for
flow with friction will be consistent with those of other sources. The argument typically used to justify this
is that the real fluid satisfies no-slip at the boundary; thus, the wall shear actually does no work. However,
one can easily argue that within the context of the one-dimensional model which has been posed that the
shear force behaves as an external force which reduces the fluid’s mechanical energy. Moreover, it is possible
to show that neglect of this term results in the loss of frame invariance,


a serious defect indeed. To model
the work of the wall shear, one would include the term τw L̄∆x (ū∆t) in the energy equation.

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.1. GENERALIZED ONE-DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS 67

Since e = e(P, ρ)
 
∂e  ∂e 
de = dρ + dP (4.37)
∂ρ P ∂P ρ
 
de ∂e  dρ ∂e  dP
= + (4.38)
dx ∂ρ P dx ∂P ρ dx
so
 
∂e  dρ ∂e  dP P dρ (qw + τw u) L
+ − 2 = (4.39)
∂ρ P dx
 ∂P ρ dx
 ρ dx ṁ
  
∂e P
dP  ∂ρ P − ρ2  dρ (qw + τw u) L
+ ∂e
 = 
∂e 
(4.40)
dx 
∂P ρ
dx ṁ ∂P ρ

Now it can be shown that

  
∂e P

∂P  ∂ρ  − ρ2
c2 = = −  ∂e P   (4.41)
∂ρ s 
∂P ρ

so
dP dρ (qw + τw u) L
− c2 = 
∂e 
(4.42)
dx dx ṁ ∂P ρ
dP dρ (qw + τw u) L
− c2 = 
∂e 
(4.43)
dx dx ρuA ∂P ρ

Special case of flow with no heat transfer qw ≡ 0. Area change allowed!, wall friction
allowed! (see earlier footnote):

u2 P
 
d
ρu e+ + = 0 (4.44)
dx 2 ρ
u2 P u2o Po
e+ + = eo + + = C3 (4.45)
2 ρ 2 ρo
u2 u2o
h+ = ho + = C3 (4.46)
2 2

Example 4.1
Adiabatic Flow of Argon2
2
adopted from White’s 9.1, p. 583

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

68 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Given: Argon, γ = 53 , flows adiabatically through a duct. At section 1, P1 = 200 psia, T1 =

500◦ F, u1 = 250 fst . At section 2 P2 = 40 psia, u2 = 1, 100 fst .

Btu
Find: T2 in ◦ F and s2 − s1 in lbm◦ R

f t lbf Btu
Assume: Ar is a calorically perfect ideal gas, tables give R = 38.68 lbmR , cp = 0.1253 lbmR

Analysis: First get the units into shape:

T1 = 500 + 460 = 960 R (4.47)

2
   
Btu f t lbf lbm f t ft
cp = 0.1253 779 32.17 = 3, 140 (4.48)
lbm R Btu lbf s2 s2 R
f t2
  
f t lbf lbm f t
R = 38.68 32.17 = 1, 244 2 (4.49)
lbm R lbf s2 s R
  
f t lbf 1 Btu Btu
R = 38.68 = 0.04965 (4.50)
lbm R 779 f t lbf lbm R
Now consider an energy balance:
u22 u21
h2 + = h1 + (4.51)
2 2
u22 u21
cp T 2 + h o + = cp T 1 + h o + (4.52)
2 2
1
u21 − u22


T2 = T1 + (4.53)
2cp
 2   !2
1 1 ft ft
T2 = 960 R + f t2
250 − 1, 100 = 777 R (4.54)
2 3, 140 s s
s2 R
T2 = 777 − 460 = 317◦ F (4.55)

The flow sped up; temperature went down. Thermal energy was converted into kinetic energy

Calculate the entropy change. For the calorically perfect ideal gas:
   
T2 P2
s2 − s1 = cp ln − R ln (4.56)
T1 P1
   
Btu 777 R Btu 40 psia
= 0.1253 ln − 0.04965 ln (4.57)
lbm R 960 R lbm R 200 psia
Btu
= −0.0265 − (−.0799) = 0.0534 (4.58)
lbm R
Entropy change positive. Since adiabatic, there must have been irreversible friction which gave rise to
this.

Example 4.2
Adiabatic Flow of Steam3
3
adopted from White’s 9.2, p. 583

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.1. GENERALIZED ONE-DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS 69

Same problem now with steam Given: Steam flows adiabatically through a duct. At section 1,
P1 = 200 psia, T1 = 500◦F, u1 = 250 fst . At section 2 P2 = 40 psia, u2 = 1, 100 fst .

Btu
Find: T2 in ◦ F and s2 − s1 in lbm◦ R

Analysis:
Use steam tables for property values.
Energy balance:

u22 u21
h2 + = h1 + (4.59)
2 2
1 2
u1 − u22


h2 = h1 + (4.60)
2
2  2 !
1 lbf s2
   
Btu 1 1 Btu ft ft
h2 = 1269 + 250 − 1, 100 (4.61)
lbm 2 779 f t lbf 32.17 lbm f t s s
Btu
h2 = 1, 246 (4.62)
lbm
Btu
Interpolate steam tables at P2 = 40 psia, h2 = h2 = 1, 246 lbm and find

T2 = 420◦ F (4.63)
Btu
s2 = 1.7720 (4.64)
lbm R
Btu
Tables give s1 = 1.6239 lbm R so the entropy change is

Btu
s2 − s1 = 1.7720 − 1.6239 = 0.148 (4.65)
lbm R

Example 4.3
Flow of Air with Heat Addition

Given: Air initially at P1 = 100 kP a, T1 = 300 K, u1 = 10 m s flows in a duct of length 100 m.

The duct has a constant circular cross sectional area of A = 0.02 m2 and is isobarically heated with
a constant heat flux qw along the entire surface of the duct. At the end of the duct the flow has
P2 = 100 kP a, T2 = 500 K

Find: the mass flow rate ṁ, the wall heat flux qw and the entropy change s2 − s1 ; check for
satisfaction of the second law.

kJ kJ
Assume: Calorically perfect ideal gas, R = 0.287 kg K , cp = 1.0035 kg K

Analysis:

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

70 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Geometry:

A = πr2 (4.66)
r
A
r = (4.67)
π
√ p
L = 2πr = 2 πA = 2 π (0.02 m2 ) = 0.501 m (4.68)

Get the mass flux.

P1 = ρ1 RT1 (4.69)
P1 100 kP a
ρ1 = =   (4.70)
RT1 0.287 kJ
kg K (300 K)
kg
= 1.161 (4.71)
m3
So
 
kg  m  kg
0.02 m2 = 0.2322


ṁ = ρ1 u1 A1 = 1.161 3 10 (4.72)
m s s

Get the flow variables at state 2:

P2 100 kP a
ρ2 = =   (4.73)
RT2 0.287 kJ
kg K (500 K)
kg
= 0.6969 (4.74)
m3
ρ2 u2 A2 = ρ1 u1 A1 (4.75)
ρ1 u1 A1 ρ1 u 1
u2 = = (4.76)
ρ A ρ2
  2 2

kg
1.161 m3 10 m s m
= kg
= 16.67 (4.77)
0.6969 m3
s

Now consider the energy equation:

u2
 
d P qw L
ρu e+ + = (4.78)
dx 2 ρ A
u2
 
d qw L
h+ = (4.79)
dx 2 ṁ
Z L  2
 Z L
d u qw L
h+ dx = dx (4.80)
0 dx 2 0 ṁ
u2 u2 qw LL
h2 + 2 − h1 − 1 = (4.81)
2 2 ṁ
u22 u21 qw LL
cp (T2 − T1 ) + − = (4.82)
2 2  ṁ  
u22 u21

ṁ
qw = cp (T2 − T1 ) + − (4.83)
LL 2 2
(4.84)

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.1. GENERALIZED ONE-DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS 71

Substituting the numbers, one finds,

m 2 m 2
! !
0.2322 kg



s J 16.67 s 10 s
qw = 1, 003.5 (500 K − 300 K) + − (4.85)
(100 m) (0.501 m) kg K 2 2
2
 
kg J m
qw = 0.004635 2 200, 700 − 88.9 2 (4.86)
m s kg s
 
kg J J
qw = 0.004635 2 200, 700 − 88.9 (4.87)
m s kg kg
W
qw = 930 2 (4.88)
m
Heat flux positive, denoting heat into the air.

Now find the entropy change.

   
T2 P2
s2 − s1 = cp ln − R ln (4.89)
T1 P1
       
J 500 K J 100 kP a
s2 − s1 = 1, 003.5 ln − 287 ln (4.90)
kg K 300 K kg K 100 kP a
J
s2 − s1 = 512.6 − 0 = 512.6 (4.91)
kg K

Is the second law satisfied? Assume the heat transfer takes place from a reservoir held at 500 K. The
reservoir would have to be at least at 500 K in order to bring the fluid to its final state of 500 K. It
could be greater than 500 K and still satisfy the second law.

Q12
S2 − S1 ≥ (4.92)
T
Q̇12
Ṡ2 − Ṡ1 ≥ (4.93)
T
Q̇12
ṁ (s2 − s1 ) ≥ (4.94)
T
qw Atot
ṁ (s2 − s1 ) ≥ (4.95)
T
qw LL
ṁ (s2 − s1 ) ≥ (4.96)
T
qw LL
s2 − s1 ≥ (4.97)
ṁT
930 s Jm2 (100 m) (0.501 m)


J
512.6 ≥   (4.98)
kg K 0.2322 kg (500 K)
s
J J
512.6 ≥ 401.3 (4.99)
kg K kg K

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

72 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

4.1.4 Influence coefficients

Now, uncouple these equations. First, summarize:
dρ du ρu dA
u +ρ = − (4.100)
dx dx A dx
du dP τw L
ρu + = − (4.101)
dx dx A
dP dρ (qw + τw u) L
− c2 = 
∂e 
(4.102)
dx dx ρuA ∂P ρ

In matrix form this is

   dρ   − ρu dA 
u ρ 0 dx
A dx
τw L
 0 ρu 1   du = − 
 (q +τAu)L  (4.103)
dx w w
dP
−c2 0 1 dx ρuA ∂e | ∂P ρ

Use Cramer’s Rule to solve for the derivatives. First calculate the determinant of the coef-
ficient matrix:
u ((ρu)(1) − (1)(0)) − ρ (0)(1) − (−c2 )(1) = ρ u2 − c2



(4.104)
Implementing Cramer’s Rule:
 
(qw +τw u)L
− ρu dA
− τwAL



ρu −ρ +ρ
dρ A dx ∂e
ρuA ∂P |ρ
= (4.105)
dx ρ (u2 − c2 )
 
2 ρu dA

τw L

(qw +τw u)L
−c − A dx + u − A − u ρuA ∂e
du ∂P |ρ
= (4.106)
dx ρ (u2 − c2 )
 
ρu dA

τ

(q +τ u)L
ρuc2 − A dx − ρc2 − wA + ρu2 ρuA ∂e
L w w

dP ∂P |ρ
= (4.107)
dx ρ (u2 − c2 )
Simplify
(qw +τw u)L
−ρu2 dA + τw L +
dρ 1 dx ∂e
ρu ∂P |ρ
= (4.108)
dx A (u2 − c2 )
(qw +τw u)L
c2 ρu dA − uτw L −
du 1 dx ∂e
ρ ∂P |ρ
= (4.109)
dx A ρ (u2 − c2 )
(qw +τw u)Lu
−c2 ρu2 dA + c2 τw L +
dP 1 dx ∂e
ρ ∂P | ρ
= (4.110)
dx A (u2 − c2 )
Note:

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.2. FLOW WITH AREA CHANGE 73

• a system of coupled non-linear ordinary differential equations

du
• in standard form for dynamic system analysis: dx
= f(u)

• valid for general equations of state

• singular when velocity sonic u = c

4.2 Flow with area change

This section will consider flow with area change with an emphasis on isentropic flow. Some
problems will involve non-isentropic flow but a detailed discussion of such flows will be
delayed.

4.2.1 Isentropic Mach number relations

Take special case of

• τw = 0

• qw = 0

• calorically perfect ideal gas (CPIG)

Then
d
(ρuA) = 0 (4.111)
dx
d
ρu2 + P = 0


(4.112)
 dx 2 
d u P
e+ + = 0 (4.113)
dx 2 ρ

Integrate the energy equation with h = e + P/ρ

u2 u2
h+ = ho + o (4.114)
2 2
If one defines the “o” condition to be a condition of rest, then uo ≡ 0. This is a stagnation
condition. So
u2
h+ = ho (4.115)
2
u2
(h − ho ) + = 0 (4.116)
2
CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.
74 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Since CPIG,

u2
cp (T − To ) + = 0 (4.117)
2
u2
T − To + = 0 (4.118)
2cp
To u2
1− + = 0 (4.119)
T 2cp T

Now note that

cp − cv cp cp − cv γR
cp = cp = cp = (4.120)
cp − cv cv c v − 1 γ−1
so
To γ − 1 u2
1− + = 0 (4.121)
T 2 γRT
To γ − 1 u2
= 1+ (4.122)
T 2 γRT
Recall the sound speed and Mach number for a CPIG:

c2 = γRT if P = ρRT, e = cv T + eo (4.123)

 u 2
M2 ≡ (4.124)
c
thus,
To γ−1 2
= 1+ M (4.125)
T 2
 −1
T γ−1 2
= 1+ M (4.126)
To 2

Now if the flow is isentropic one has

 γ−1   γ−1
T ρ P γ
= = (4.127)
To ρo Po

Thus
 1
− γ−1
ρ γ−1 2
= 1+ M (4.128)
ρo 2
 γ
− γ−1
P γ−1 2
= 1+ M (4.129)
Po 2

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.2. FLOW WITH AREA CHANGE 75

For air γ = 7/5 so

 −1
T 1
= 1 + M2 (4.130)
To 5
 − 25
ρ 1
= 1 + M2 (4.131)
ρo 5
 − 27
P 1
= 1 + M2 (4.132)
Po 5

Figures 4.2, 4.3 4.4 show the variation of T , ρ and P with M 2 for isentropic flow.

Other thermodynamic properties can be determined from these, e.g. sound speed:

s r  −1/2
c γRT T γ −1 2
= = = 1+ M (4.133)
co γRTo To 2

T(K)
300
Calorically Perfect
250
Ideal Gas
200 R = 0.287 kJ/(kg K)
γ = 7/5
150
Stagnation Temp = 300 K
100

50

M2
0 2 4 6 8 10

Figure 4.2: Static temperature versus Mach number squared

P(bar)
1

0.8 Calorically Perfect

Ideal Gas
0.6 R = 0.287 kJ/(kg K)
γ = 7/5
0.4
Stagnation Pressure = 1 bar
0.2

M2
0 2 4 6 8 10

Figure 4.3: Static pressure versus Mach number squared

Example 4.4
Airplane problem

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

76 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

rho(m3/kg)

1.2 Calorically Perfect

1 Ideal Gas
0.8 R = 0.287 kJ/(kg K)
γ = 7/5
0.6
Stagnation Density = 1.16 kg/m3
0.4

0.2

M2
0 2 4 6 8 10

Figure 4.4: Static density versus Mach number squared

Given: An airplane is flying into still air at u = 200 m/s. The ambient air is at 288 K and
101.3 kP a.
Find: Temperature, pressure, and density at nose of airplane
Assume: Steady isentropic flow of CPIG
Analysis: In the steady wave frame, the ambient conditions are static while the nose conditions are
stagnation.

u u 200 m/s
M= =√ =r  = 0.588 (4.134)
c γRT 7 J

5 287 kgK 288 K

so
 
1
To = T 1 + M2 , (4.135)
5
 
1
= (288 K) 1 + 0.5882 , (4.136)
5
= 307.9 K (4.137)
 5
1 2 2
ρo = ρ 1+ M (4.138)
5
  52
101.3 kP a 1 2
= kJ
1 + 0.588 , (4.139)
0.287 kgK 288 K 5
= 1.45 kg/m3 (4.140)
 7
1 2 2
Po = P 1+ M , (4.141)
5
  27
1
= (101.3 kP a) 1 + 0.5882 (4.142)
5
= 128 kP a (4.143)

Note the temperature, pressure, and density all rise in the isentropic process. In this wave frame, the
kinetic energy of the flow is being converted isentropically to thermal energy.

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.2. FLOW WITH AREA CHANGE 77

Example 4.5
Pressure measurement in compressible flows4

See Figure 4.5.

Air at
100 F
z g
Static
State "1"
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Figure 4.5: Compressible pitot tube sketch

ft
Given: Air at u = 750 s , Mercury manometer which reads a change in height of 8 inches.

Find: Static pressure of air in psia

Assume: Ideal gas behavior for air

Analysis:
First consider the manometer which is governed by fluid statics. In fluid statics, there is no motion,
thus there are no viscous forces or fluid inertia; one thus has a balance between surface and body forces.
Consider the linear momentum equation:

dv
ρ = −∇P + ρHg g + ∇ · τ (4.144)
dt
0 = −∇P + ρHg g (4.145)
dP
= ρHg gz (4.146)
dz
P1 − Po = ρHg gz (z1 − zo ) (4.147)
1 lbf s2
     
lbm ft 1 ft
P1 − Po = 845.9 −32.2 (0 in − (−8 in)) (4.148)
f t3 32.2 f t lbm s2 12 in
lbf
P1 − Po = −563.9 2 (4.149)
ft
lbf
Po − P1 = 563.9 2 (4.150)
ft
lbf
Po = P1 + 563.9 2 (4.151)
ft

4
adopted from White, 9.26, p. 584

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

78 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Now calculate the local Mach number

T1 = 100 + 460 = 560 R (4.152)

u1
M1 = √ (4.153)
γRT1
750 fst
M1 = r   (4.154)
2
(1.4) 1, 717 sf2 t R (560 R)

M1 = 0.646 (4.155)

Isentropic flow relations relate stagnation to static properties, so for air

 3.5
1
Po = P1 1 + M12 (4.156)
5
 3.5
1 2
Po = P1 1 + (0.646) (4.157)
5
Po = 1.324P1 (4.158)

Substituting from the measured pressure difference

lbf
P1 + 563.9 = 1.324P1 (4.159)
f t2
lbf
−0.324P1 = −563.9 (4.160)
f t2
lbf
−563.9 f t2
P1 = (4.161)
−0.324
lbf
P1 = 1, 740 2 (4.162)
ft
 
lbf lbf
Po = (1.324) 1, 740 2 = 2, 304 2 (4.163)
ft ft
  2
lbf 1 ft
P1 = 1, 740 2 = 12.1 psia (4.164)
ft 12 in
  2
lbf 1 ft
Po = 2, 304 2 = 16.0 psia (4.165)
ft 12 in

What might one estimate if one did not account for compressibility effects? Assume one had the
same static pressure and calculate what velocity one would predict.

First calculate the static density.

P1
ρ1 = (4.166)
RT1
lbf
1, 740
 
f t2 f t lbm
ρ1 = 32.2 (4.167)
lbf s2
 
f t2
1, 717 s2 R (560 R)
lbm
ρ1 = 0.05827 (4.168)
f t3

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.2. FLOW WITH AREA CHANGE 79

One would then use an incompressible Bernoulli equation:

2
ρ (0) ρ1 u21
Po + = P1 + (4.169)
2 s 2
2 (Po − P1 )
u1 = (4.170)
ρ1
v  
u
u 2 563.9 lbf  
u ft2 f t lbm
u1 = t 32.2 (4.171)
0.05827 lbm
f t3
lbf s2
ft
u1 = 789.4 (4.172)
s
So the relative error in using the incompressible approximation would be
789.4 − 750
Error = = 5.3% (4.173)
750

Example 4.6
Adiabatic Duct Flow5
ft
Given: Air flowing adiabatically through a duct. At section 1, u1 = 400 s , T1 = 200◦ F, P1 =
35 psia. Downstream u2 = 1, 100 fst , P2 = 18 psia.

Find: M2 , umax , Po2

Po1

Assume: Calorically perfect ideal gas, steady, one-dimensional flow

Analysis:

Some preliminaries:

T1 = 200 + 460 = 660 R (4.174)

2
   
Btu f t lbf lbm f t ft
cp = 0.240 779 32.17 = 6, 015 (4.175)
lbm R Btu lbf s2 s2 R
f t2
  
f t lbf lbm f t
R = 53.34 32.17 = 1, 716 2 (4.176)
lbm R lbf s2 s R
(4.177)

Energy conservation gives stagnation conditions at state 1

u21
h1 + = ho1 (4.178)
2
5
adopted from White’s 9.30, p. 585

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

80 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

u21
cp T 1 + = cp To1 (4.179)
2
u21
To1 = T1 + (4.180)
2cp
 2
400 fst
To1 = 660 R +  2
 (4.181)
2 6, 015 sf2 t R
To1 = 673 R (4.182)

Note since in adiabatic flow ho is a constant, ho2 = ho1 and since ideal gas To2 = To1 So

To2 = 673 R (4.183)

u22
T2 = To2 − (4.184)
2cp
 2
ft
1, 100 s
T2 = 673 R −   (4.185)
f t2
2 6, 015 s2 R

T2 = 572 R (4.186)

Calculate the Mach numbers:

p
c1 = γRT1 (4.187)
s
f t2
 
ft
c1 = 1.4 1, 716 2 (660 R) = 1, 259 (4.188)
s R s
u1 400 fst
M1 = = = 0.318 (4.189)
c1 1, 259 fst
p
c2 = γRT2 (4.190)
s
f t2
 
ft
c2 = 1.4 1, 716 2 (572 R) = 1, 173 (4.191)
s R s
ft
u2 1, 100 s
M2 = = ft
= 0.938 (4.192)
c2 1, 173 s

Since for CPIG air one has

 − 72
P 1 2
= 1+ M (4.193)
Po 5
 7
1 2 2
Po = P 1+ M (4.194)
5
  27
1 2
Po1 = (35 psia) 1 + 0.318 = 37.54 psia (4.195)
5
  27
1 2
Po2 = (18 psia) 1 + 0.938 = 31.74 psia (4.196)
5
Po2 31.74 psia
= = 0.845 (4.197)
Po1 37.54 psia

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.2. FLOW WITH AREA CHANGE 81

Stagnation pressure drop indicates that friction was present. If one computed an entropy change one
would see an increase in entropy.

The maximum velocity is found by converting all the thermal energy to kinetic energy. Taking
zero thermal energy to correspond to absolute zero (despite the fact that air would not be a gas at this
point) one could estimate
u2max
ho = (4.198)
2
u2max
cp T o = (4.199)
p2
umax = 2cp To (4.200)
s 
f t2

ft
umax = 2 6, 015 2 (673 R) = 2, 845 (4.201)
s R s

4.2.2 Sonic properties

Let “*” denote a property at the sonic state M 2 ≡ 1

 −1
T∗ γ−1 2 2
= 1+ 1 = (4.202)
To 2 γ+1
 − 1  1
 γ−1
ρ∗ γ − 1 2 γ−1 2
= 1+ 1 = (4.203)
ρo 2 γ+1
 − γ  γ
 γ−1
P∗ γ − 1 2 γ−1 2
= 1+ 1 = (4.204)
Po 2 γ+1
 −1/2 r
c∗ γ−1 2 2
= 1+ 1 = (4.205)
co 2 γ+1
r
p 2γ
u∗ = c∗ = γRT∗ = RTo (4.206)
γ+1
If air γ = 7/5 and
T∗
= 0.8333 (4.207)
To
ρ∗
= 0.6339 (4.208)
ρo
P∗
= 0.5283 (4.209)
Po
c∗
= 0.9123 (4.210)
co

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

82 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

4.2.3 Effect of area change

Influence of mass equation must be considered. So far only looked at energy has been
examined. In the isentropic limit the mass, momentum, and energy equation for a CPIG
reduce to
dρ du dA
+ + = 0 (4.211)
ρ u A
ρudu + dP = 0 (4.212)
dP dρ
= γ (4.213)
P ρ
Substitute energy then mass into momentum:
P
ρudu + γ dρ = 0 (4.214)
ρ
P  ρ ρ 
ρudu + γ − du − dA = 0 (4.215)
ρ u A
 
P 1 1
du + γ − 2 du − dA = 0 (4.216)
ρ u uA
 
γP/ρ P dA
du 1 − = γ (4.217)
u2 ρ uA
 
du γP/ρ γP/ρ dA
1− = (4.218)
u u2 u2 A
 
du 1 1 dA
1− 2 = (4.219)
u M M2 A
du dA
M2 − 1


= (4.220)
u A
du 1 dA
= (4.221)
u M2 − 1 A
Figure 4.6 gives show the performance of a fluid in a variable area duct.
It is noted that
• equation singular when M 2 = 1

• if M 2 = 1, one needs dA = 0

• area minimum necessary to transition from subsonic to supersonic flow!!

• can be shown area maximum not relevant

Consider A at a sonic state. From the mass equation:

ρuA = ρ∗ u∗ A∗ (4.222)

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.2. FLOW WITH AREA CHANGE 83

Consider u > 0

Subsonic Subsonic
Diffuser Nozzle

2
dA >0, M <1 so
du < 0, flow slows down 2
dA <0, M <1 so
dp >0 du > 0, flow speeds up
dp < 0

Supersonic Supersonic
Nozzle Diffuser

2 2
dA >0, M >1 so dA < 0, M > 1 so
du > 0, flow speeds up du < 0, flow slows down
dp < 0 dp >0

Figure 4.6: Behavior of fluid in sub- and supersonic nozzles and diffusers

ρuA = ρ∗ c∗ A∗ (4.223)
A ρ∗ 1
= c∗ , (4.224)
A∗ ρ u
ρ∗ p 1
= γRT∗ , (4.225)
ρ u
√ √
ρ∗ γRT∗ γRT
= √ (4.226)
ρ γRT u
r
ρ∗ T∗ 1
= , (4.227)
ρ T M
r
ρ∗ ρo T∗ To 1
= (4.228)
ρo ρ To T M

Substitute from earlier-developed relations and get:

  γ+1
 12 γ−1
A 1 2 γ−1 2
= 1+ M (4.229)
A∗ M γ+1 2

Figure 4.7 shows the performance of a fluid in a variable area duct.

Note:

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

84 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

A/A*
6

4
Calorically Perfect
Ideal Gas
3 R = 0.287 kJ/(kg K)
2 γ = 7/5

M
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Figure 4.7: Area versus Mach number for a calorically perfect ideal gas

A
• A∗
has a minimum value of 1 at M = 1
A
• For each A∗
> 1, there exist two values of M
A
• A∗
→ ∞ as M → 0 or M → ∞

4.2.4 Choking
Consider mass flow rate variation with pressure difference

• small pressure difference gives small velocity, small mass flow

• as pressure difference grows, velocity and mass flow rate grow

• velocity is limited to sonic at a particular duct location

• this provides fundamental restriction on mass flow rate

• can be proven rigorously that sonic condition gives maximum mass flow rate

ṁmax = ρ∗ u∗ A∗ (4.230)
  γ−11 r 
2 2γ
if ideal gas: = ρo RTo A∗ (4.231)
γ+1 γ+1
  γ−11  1/2
2 2 p
= ρo γRTo A∗ (4.232)
γ+1 γ+1
  21 γ+1
2 γ−1 p
= ρo γRTo A∗ (4.233)
γ+1

A flow which has a maximum mass flow rate is known as choked flow. Flows will choke
at area minima in a duct.

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.2. FLOW WITH AREA CHANGE 85

Example 4.7
Isentropic area change problem with choking6

Given: Air with stagnation conditions Po = 200 kP a To = 500 K flows through a throat to an exit
Mach number of 2.5. The desired mass flow is 3.0 kg/s,

Find: a) throat area, b) exit pressure, c) exit temperature, d) exit velocity, and e) exit area.

Assume: CPIG, isentropic flow, γ = 7/5

Analysis:
Po 200 kP a
ρo = = = 1.394 kg/m3 (4.234)
RTo (0.287 kJ/kg) (500 K)
Since it necessarily flows through a sonic throat:

  21 γ−1
γ+1
2 p
ṁmax = ρo γRTo A∗ (4.235)
γ+1
ṁmax
A∗ =  12 γ−1 (4.236)

2
γ+1
√
ρo γ+1 γRTo
3 kg/s
=   r   , (4.237)
kg J
1.394 m3 (0.5787) 1.4 287 kg K (500 K)

= 0.008297 m2 (4.238)
Since Me is known, use the isentropic relations to find other exit conditions.
 γ
− γ−1
γ−1 2
Pe = Po 1 + Me , (4.239)
2
 −3.5
1
= (200 kP a) 1 + 2.52 , (4.240)
5
= 11.71 kP a (4.241)
 −1
γ−1 2
Te = To 1 + Me , (4.242)
2
 −1
1
= (500 K) 1 + 2.52 , (4.243)
5
= 222.2 K (4.244)
Note
Pe
ρe = , (4.245)
RTe
11.71 kP a
=   , (4.246)
kJ
0.287 kgK (222.2 K)
kg
= 0.1834 (4.247)
m3
6
adopted from White, Fluid Mechanics McGraw-Hill: New York, 1986, p. 529, Ex. 9.5

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

86 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Now the exit velocity is simply

s  
p J m
ue = Me ce = Me γRTe = 2.5 1.4 287 (222.2 K) = 747.0 (4.248)
kg K s
Now determine the exit area:
   12 γ−1
γ+1
A∗ 2 γ−1 2
A = 1+ Me (4.249)
Me γ+1 2
3
0.008297 m2 5
 
1
= 1 + 2.52 , (4.250)
2.5 6 5
= 70.0219 m2 (4.251)

Example 4.8
Discharge Problem7

Given: Air in tank, Po = 700 kP a, To = 20◦ C, V = 1.5 m3 . Throat area in converging nozzle of
0.65 cm2 , exhausting to 1 atm environment

Find: Time for pressure in tank to decrease to 500 kP a.

Assume: CPIG, stagnation temperature constant (so small heat transfer to tank in time of opera-
tion)

Analysis:
First, To = 20 + 273 = 293 K

Now check for choked flow! At the initial state

Patm 101.3 kP a
= = 0.145 (4.252)
Po 700 kP a
But for air PP∗o = 0.5283, so the flow must be choked at the exit and the mass flow is restricted.
(Further expansion takes place outside the nozzle)

For choked flow one has

  21 γ−1
γ+1
2 p
ṁe = ρo γRToA∗ (4.253)
γ+1
   12 γ−1
γ+1
Po 2 p
= γRTo A∗ (4.254)
RTo γ+1
  s    2
P o J 2

1 m
=     0.5787 1.4 287 (293 K) 0.65 cm (4.255)
287 kgJ K (293 K) kg K 100 cm

= 1.5348 × 10−7 Po (4.256)

7
from White, 9.33,35

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.3. NORMAL SHOCK WAVES 87

Now mass conservation gives

d
mcv = −ṁe (4.257)
dt
d
(ρo V ) = −ṁe (4.258)
dt 
d Po
V = −ṁe (4.259)
dt RTo
dPo RTo
= − ṁe (4.260)
dt V 
J
dPo 287 kg K (293 K)
= − 1.5348 × 10−7 Po (4.261)
dt 1.5 m3
dPo
= −0.008604Po (4.262)
dt
Po = A exp (−0.008604t) (4.263)

Use initial value of Po to fix the constant A so

Po = 700 exp (−0.008604t) (4.264)

When does Po = 500 kP a?

500
500 = 700 exp (−0.008604t) ln = −0.008604t (4.265)
700
1 500
t=− ln = 39.1 s (4.266)
0.008604 700

4.3 Normal shock waves

This section will develop relations for normal shock waves in fluids with general equations of
state. It will be specialized to calorically perfect ideal gases to illustrate the general features
of the waves.

Assumptions for this section

• one-dimensional flow

• steady flow

• no area change

• viscous effects and wall friction do not have time to influence flow

• heat conduction and wall heat transfer do not have time to influence flow

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

88 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

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Laboratory Frame Steady Frame

x* x
u = v - D; v=u+D
x = x* - D t; x* = x + D t

Figure 4.8: Normal shock sketch

The piston problem as sketched in Figure 4.8 will be considered.

Physical problem:
• Drive piston with known velocity vp into fluid at rest (v1 = 0) with known properties,
P1 , ρ1 in the x∗ laboratory frame

• Determine disturbance speed D

• Determine disturbance properties v2 , P2 , ρ2

• in this frame of reference unsteady problem

Transformed Problem:
• use Galilean transformation x = x∗ − Dt, u = v − D to transform to the frame in which
the wave is at rest, therefore rending the problem steady in this frame

• solve as though D is known to get downstream “2” conditions: u2 (D), P2(D), ...

• invert to solve for D as function of u2 , the transformed piston velocity: D(u2)

• back transform to get all variables as function of v2 , the laboratory piston velocity:
D(v2 ), P2 (v2 ), ρ2 (v2 ), ...

4.3.1 Governing equations

Under these assumptions the conservation principles in conservative form and equation of
state are in the steady frame as follows:

d
(ρu) = 0 (4.267)
dx
d
ρu2 + P = 0


(4.268)
dx
CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.
4.3. NORMAL SHOCK WAVES 89

u2
  
d
ρu h + = 0 (4.269)
dx 2
h = h(P, ρ) (4.270)

Upstream conditions are ρ = ρ1 , P = P1 , u = −D. With knowledge of the equation of

state, one gets h = h1 . Integrating the equations from upstream to state “2” gives:

ρ2 u2 = −ρ1 D (4.271)
ρ2 u22
+ P2 = ρ1 D 2 + P1 (4.272)
u2 D2
h2 + 2 = h1 + (4.273)
2 2
h2 = h(P2 , ρ2 ) (4.274)

4.3.2 Rayleigh line

Work on the momentum equation:

P2 = P1 + ρ1 D 2 − ρ2 u22 (4.275)
ρ21 D 2 ρ22 u22
P2 = P1 + − (4.276)
ρ1 ρ2

Since mass gives ρ22 u22 = ρ21 D 2 one gets an equation for the Rayleigh Line, a line in (P, ρ1 )
space:

 
1 1
P2 = P1 + ρ21 D 2 − (4.277)
ρ1 ρ2

Note:

• Rayleigh line passes through ambient state

• Rayleigh line has negative slope

• magnitude of slope proportional to square of wave speed

• independent of state and energy equations

4.3.3 Hugoniot curve

Operate on the energy equation, using both mass and momentum to eliminate velocity. First
eliminate u2 via the mass equation:

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

90 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

u2 D2
h2 + 2 = h1 + (4.278)
2 2
2
D2

1 ρ1 D
h2 + = h1 + (4.279)
2 ρ2 2
!
2
D2
 
ρ1
h2 − h1 + −1 = 0 (4.280)
2 ρ2
D 2 ρ21 − ρ22
 
h2 − h1 + = 0 (4.281)
2 ρ22
D 2 (ρ1 − ρ2 ) (ρ1 + ρ2 )
 
h2 − h1 + = 0 (4.282)
2 ρ22
Now use the Rayleigh line to eliminate D 2 :
  −1
2 1 1 1
D = (P2 − P1 ) 2 − (4.283)
ρ1 ρ1 ρ2
  −1
2 1 ρ2 − ρ1
D = (P2 − P1 ) 2 (4.284)
ρ ρρ
 1 1 2 
1 ρ1 ρ2
D 2 = (P2 − P1 ) 2 (4.285)
ρ1 ρ2 − ρ1
so the energy equation becomes
   
1 1 ρ1 ρ2 (ρ1 − ρ2 ) (ρ1 + ρ2 )
h2 − h1 + (P2 − P1 ) = 0 (4.286)
2 ρ21 ρ2 − ρ1 ρ22
  
1 1 ρ1 + ρ2
h2 − h1 − (P2 − P1 ) = 0 (4.287)
2 ρ1 ρ2
 
1 1 1
h2 − h1 − (P2 − P1 ) + = 0 (4.288)
2 ρ2 ρ1
(4.289)
Solving finally for the enthalpy difference, one finds
  
1 1 1
h2 − h1 = (P2 − P1 ) + (4.290)
2 ρ2 ρ1
This equation is the Hugoniot equation.
• enthalpy change equals pressure difference times mean volume
• independent of wave speed D and velocity u2
• independent of equation of state

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.3. NORMAL SHOCK WAVES 91

4.3.4 Solution procedure for general equations of state

The shocked state can be determined by the following procedure:

• specify and equation of state h(P, ρ)

• substitute the equation of state into the Hugoniot to get a second relation between P2
and ρ2 .

• use the Rayleigh line to eliminate P2 in the Hugoniot so that the Hugoniot is a single
equation in ρ2

• solve for ρ2 as functions of “1” and D

• back substitute to solve for P2 , u2 , h2 , T2 as functions of “1” and D

• invert to find D as function of “1” state and u2

• back transform to laboratory frame to get D as function of “1” state and piston velocity
v2 = vp

4.3.5 Calorically perfect ideal gas solutions

Follow this procedure for the special case of a calorically perfect ideal gas.

h = cp (T − To ) + ho (4.291)
P = ρRT (4.292)

so
 
P Po
h = cp − + ho (4.293)
Rρ Rρo
 
cp P Po
h = − + ho (4.294)
R ρ ρo
 
cp P Po
h = − + ho (4.295)
cp − cv ρ ρo
 
γ P Po
h = − + ho (4.296)
γ −1 ρ ρo
Evaluate at states 1 and 2 and substitute into Hugoniot:
       
γ P2 Po γ P1 Po
− + ho − − + ho
γ − 1 ρ2 ρo γ − 1 ρ1 ρo
  
1 1 1
= (P2 − P1 ) +
2 ρ2 ρ1

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

92 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

    
γ P2 P1 1 1 1
− − (P2 − P1 ) + = 0
γ − 1 ρ2 ρ1 2 ρ2 ρ1
   
γ 1 1 1 γ 1 1 1
P2 − − − P1 − − = 0
γ − 1 ρ2 2ρ2 2ρ1 γ − 1 ρ1 2ρ2 2ρ1
   
γ+1 1 1 γ+1 1 1
P2 − − P1 − = 0
2 (γ − 1) ρ2 2ρ1 2 (γ − 1) ρ1 2ρ2
   
γ+1 1 1 γ+1 1 1
P2 − − P1 − = 0
γ − 1 ρ2 ρ1 γ − 1 ρ1 ρ2
γ+1 1 1
γ−1 ρ1
− ρ2
P2 = P1 γ+1 1 1
γ−1 ρ2
− ρ1

• a hyperbola in (P, ρ1 ) space

1 γ−1 1
• ρ2
→ γ+1 ρ1
causes P2 → ∞, note = γ = 1.4, ρ2 → 6 for infinite pressure

• as 1
ρ2
→ ∞, P2 → −P1 γ−1
γ+1
, note negative pressure, not physical here
The Rayleigh line and Hugoniot curves are sketched in Figure 4.9.
P (kPa)
500
Shocked State
P2

400
Excluded Zone
Slope of Rayleigh Line < 0
Excluded
300 2
Zone, Rayleigh Line, slope ~ D
1/ρ < 1/ρmin from mass and momentum

200
Hugoniot,
initial state from energy
100
P1
Excluded Zone, 2nd Law Violation

1/ρ2 1/ρ1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1/ρ (kg/m3 )

-(γ-1) P1
γ+1 Excluded Zone, negative pressure

1/ρmin = (γ-1) 1
(γ+1) ρ1

Figure 4.9: Rayleigh line and Hugoniot curve

Note:
• intersections of the two curves are solutions to the equations
• the ambient state “1” is one solution

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.3. NORMAL SHOCK WAVES 93

• the other solution “2” is known as the shock solution

• shock solution has higher pressure and higher density

• higher wave speed implies higher pressure and higher density

• a minimum wavespeed exists

– occurs when Rayleigh line tangent to Hugoniot

– occurs for very small pressure changes
– corresponds to a sonic wave speed
– disturbances are acoustic

• if pressure increases, can be shown entropy increases

• if pressure decreases (wave speed less than sonic), entropy decreases; this is non-
physical
Substitute Rayleigh line into Hugoniot to get single equation for ρ2
γ+1 1 1
−
 
1 1 γ−1 ρ ρ2
P1 + ρ21 D 2 − = P1 γ+1 11 1
(4.297)
ρ1 ρ2 γ−1 ρ2
− ρ1

This equation is quadratic in ρ12 and factorizable. Use computer algebra to solve and get
two solutions, one ambient ρ12 = ρ11 and one shocked solution:

 
1 1 γ−1 2γ P1
= 1+ 2
(4.298)
ρ2 ρ1 γ + 1 (γ − 1) D ρ1
The shocked density ρ2 is plotted against wave speed D for CPIG air in Figure 4.10.

Note
• density solution allows allows all wave speeds 0 < D < ∞

• plot range, however, is c1 < D < ∞

• Rayleigh line and Hugoniot show D ≥ c1

• solution for D = D(vp ), to be shown, rigorously shows D ≥ c1

γ+1
• strong shock limit: D 2 → ∞, ρ2 → γ−1

• acoustic limit: D 2 → γ Pρ11 , ρ2 → ρ1

• non-physical limit: D 2 → 0, ρ2 → 0

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

94 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Strong
Shock
rho2 (kg/m^3) Limit
7
6 Calorically perfect
5 ideal air
4 Exact γ = 7/5
3 Solution R = 287 kJ/(kg K)
2
1
D (m/s)
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

D = Dmin = c1

Figure 4.10: Shock density vs. shock wave speed for calorically perfect ideal air

Back substitute into Rayleigh line and mass conservation to solve for the shocked pressure
and the fluid velocity in the shocked wave frame:
2 γ −1
P2 = ρ1 D 2 − P1 (4.299)
γ+1 γ+1
 
γ−1 2γ P1
u2 = −D 1+ (4.300)
γ+1 (γ − 1) D 2 ρ1

The shocked pressure P2 is plotted against wave speed D for CPIG air in Figure 4.11
including both the exact solution and the solution in the strong shock limit. Note for these
parameters, the results are indistinguishable.

P2 (Pa)

6
8. 10
Calorically perfect
6 ideal air
6. 10
Ambient = γ = 7/5
6
4. 10 100,000 Pa R = 287 kJ/(kg K)
Exact
6 Solution and
2. 10
Strong Shock Limit
D (m/s)
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

D = Dmin = c1

Figure 4.11: Shock pressure vs. shock wave speed for calorically perfect ideal air

The shocked wave frame fluid particle velocity u2 is plotted against wave speed D for
CPIG air in Figure 4.12.

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.3. NORMAL SHOCK WAVES 95

u2 (m/s)
D (m/s)
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
-100
Calorically perfect
-200 Strong
ideal air
Shock
-300 Limit γ = 7/5
R = 287 kJ/(kg K)
-400
Exact
-500 Solution

u1 = - co
D = Dmin = c1

Figure 4.12: Shock wave frame fluid particle velocity vs. shock wave speed for calorically
perfect ideal air

ρ2 u22
The shocked wave frame fluid particle velocity M22 = γP2
is plotted against wave speed
D for CPIG air in Figure 4.13.

M2^2
Calorically perfect
1 ideal air
γ = 7/5
0.8 Exact
R = 287 kJ/(kg K)
Solution
0.6
Strong
Shock 0.4
Limit
0.2

D (m/s)
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

D = Dmin = c1
M2^2 = 1

Figure 4.13: Mach number squared of shocked fluid particle vs. shock wave speed for calor-
ically perfect ideal air

Exercise: For the conditions shown in the plot of M22 vs. D do the detailed calculations
to demonstrate the plot is correct.

Note in the steady frame that

• The Mach number of the undisturbed flow is (and must be) > 1: supersonic

• The Mach number of the shocked flow is (and must be) < 1: subsonic

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

96 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Transform back to the laboratory frame u = v − D:

 
γ−1 2γ P1
v2 − D = −D 1+ (4.301)
γ+1 (γ − 1) D 2 ρ1
 
γ−1 2γ P1
v2 = D − D 1+ (4.302)
γ+1 (γ − 1) D 2 ρ1

Manipulate the above equation and solve the resulting quadratic equation for D and get

s  2
γ+1 γP1 2 γ +1
D= v2 ± + v2 (4.303)
4 ρ1 4

Now if v2 > 0, one expects D > 0 so take positive root, also set velocity equal piston
velocity v2 = vp
s  2
γ+1 γP1 2
γ+1
D= vp + + vp (4.304)
4 ρ1 4

Note:

• acoustic limit: as vp → 0, D → c1 ; the shock speed approaches the sound speed

γ+1
• strong shock limit: as vp → ∞, D → 2
vp

The shock speed D is plotted against piston velocity vp for CPIG air in Figure 4.14. Both
the exact solution and strong shock limit are shown.

Calorically perfect
D (m/s)
ideal air
Exact
γ = 7/5
1200 Solution
R = 287 kJ/(kg K)
1000
800
Strong
600 Shock
Acoustic
400 Limit
Limit,
D -> c1 200
vp (m/s)
200 400 600 800 1000

Figure 4.14: Shock speed vs. piston velocity for calorically perfect ideal air

If the Mach number of the shock is defined as

D
Ms ≡ (4.305)
c1

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.3. NORMAL SHOCK WAVES 97

one gets
s 2
vp2

γ + 1 vp γ+1
Ms = √ + 1+ (4.306)
4 γRT1 γRT1 4
The shock Mach number Ms is plotted against piston velocity vp for CPIG air in Figure
4.15. Both the exact solution and strong shock limit are shown.

Ms
Exact Calorically perfect
3.5 Solution ideal air
3 γ = 7/5
2.5 R = 287 kJ/(kg K)
2 Strong
Shock
1.5
Acoustic Limit
Limit, 1
Ms -> 1 0.5
vp (m/s)
200 400 600 800 1000

Figure 4.15: Shock Mach number vs. piston velocity for calorically perfect ideal air

Example 4.9
Normal shock problem8
m
Given: Air flowing through normal shock. Upstream u1 = 600 s , To1 = 500 K, Po1 = 700 kP a.

Find: Downstream conditions M2 , u2 , T2 , P2 , Po2 and s2 − s1 .

Assume: calorically perfect ideal gas

Analysis:
First get all local unshocked conditions.
u21
To1 = T1 + (4.307)
2cp
u21
T1 = To1 − (4.308)
2cp

2
600 ms
T1 = 500 K −  , (4.309)
2 1004.5 kgJ K
= 320.81 K (4.310)
p
c1 = γRT1 , (4.311)
s  
J
= 1.4 287 (320.81 K), (4.312)
kg K
m
= 359.0 (4.313)
s
8
adopted from White’s 9.46, p. 586

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

98 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

u1
M1 = , (4.314)
c1
600 m s
= , (4.315)
359.0 m s
= 1.671 (4.316)
 −3.5
1 2
P1 = Po1 1 + M1 , (4.317)
5
 −3.5
1 2
= (700 kP a) 1 + (1.671) , (4.318)
5
= 148.1 kP a (4.319)
P1
ρ1 = , (4.320)
RT1
148.1 kP a
=   , (4.321)
0.287 kgkJK (320.81 K)
kg
= 1.609 (4.322)
m3
   21 γ−1
γ+1
A1 1 2 γ−1 2
= 1+ M1 (4.323)
A1∗ M1 γ + 1 2
  1.4+1
 21 1.4−1
1 2 1.4 − 1 2
= 1+ 1.671 , (4.324)
1.671 1.4 + 1 2
= 1.311 (4.325)

Now in this case it is fortunate because the incoming velocity D = 600 ms is known. Note that the
shock density only depends on D2 , so one can be a little sloppy here with sign. Solve for the shocked
state:

 
1 1 γ−1 2γ P1
= 1+ (4.326)
ρ2 ρ1 γ + 1 (γ − 1) D2 ρ1
!
1 1 1.4 − 1 2 (1.4) 148, 100 P a
= 1+ (4.327)
ρ2 1.609 kg 1.4 + 1 m 2 1.609 kg


m3 (1.4 − 1) 600 s m3
m3
= 0.2890 (4.328)
kg
1
ρ2 = m3
, (4.329)
0.2890 kg
kg
= 3.461 (4.330)
m3
Now a variety of equations can be used to determine the remaining state variables. Mass gives u2 :

ρ2 u 2 = ρ1 u 1 (4.331)
ρ1 u 1
u2 = , (4.332)
ρ
 2 
kg m


1.609 m 3 600 s
= kg
, (4.333)
3.461 m 3

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.3. NORMAL SHOCK WAVES 99

m
= 278.9 . (4.334)
s
Momentum gives P2
P2 + ρ2 u22 = P1 + ρ1 u21 (4.335)
P2 = P1 + ρ1 u21 − ρ2 u22 (4.336)
   
kg  m 2 kg  m 2
P2 = 148, 100 P a + 1.609 3 600 − 3.461 3 278.9 (4.337)
m s m s
P2 = 458, 125 P a = 458 kP a (4.338)
Remaining assorted variables are straightforward:
P2
T2 = (4.339)
ρ2 R
458, 125 P a
=   , (4.340)
kg
3.461 m 3 287 kgJ K
= 461.2 K (4.341)
p
c2 = γRT2 , (4.342)
s  
J
= 1.4 287 (461.2 K), (4.343)
kg K
m
= 430.5 (4.344)
s
u2
M2 = , (4.345)
c2
278.9 m s
= , (4.346)
430.5 m s
= 0.648 (4.347)
 
1
To2 = T2 1 + M22 , (4.348)
5
 
1
= 461.2 K 1 + 0.6482 (4.349)
5
= 500 K unchanged as required (4.350)
 3.5
1
Po2 = P2 1 + M22 , (4.351)
5
 3.5
1 2
= 458 kP a 1 + 0.648 (4.352)
5
= 607.4 kP a dropped from unshocked state (4.353)
   
T2 P2
s2 − s1 = cp ln − R ln (4.354)
T1 P1
   
J 461.2 K J 458 kP a
= 1004.5 ln − 287 ln (4.355)
kg K 320.81 K kg K 148.1 kP a
= 364.6 − 324.0, (4.356)
J
= 40.6 (4.357)
kg K
   12 γ−1
γ+1
A2 1 2 γ−1 2
= 1+ M2 (4.358)
A2∗ M2 γ + 1 2

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

100 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

  1.4+1
 21 1.4−1
1 2 1.4 − 1 2
= 1+ 0.648 , (4.359)
0.648 1.4 + 1 2
= 1.966. (4.360)

Since A2 = A1 = A,
A
A2 A1∗ 1.311
= A
= = 0.667 (4.361)
A2∗ A2∗
1.966

Note the entropy increased despite not including any entropy-generating mechanisms in this model.
Why? First, the differential equations themselves required the assumption of continuous differentiable
functions. Our shock violates this. When one returns to the more fundamental control volume forms,
it can be shown that the entropy-generating mechanism returns. From a continuum point of view, one
can also show that the neglected terms, that momentum and energy diffusion, actually give rise to a
smeared shock. These mechanisms generate just enough entropy to satisfy the entropy jump which was
just calculated. Just as with Burger’s equation and the kinematic wave equation, the jumps are the
same, diffusion simply gives a wave thickness.

Example 4.10
Piston Problem

Given: A piston moving at vp = 1, 000 m s is driven into Helium which is at rest in the ambient
state at a pressure of P1 = 10 kP a, T1 = 50 K.

Find: The shock speed and post shock state.

Assume: Helium is calorically perfect and ideal

Analysis: For Helium,

γ = 1.667 (4.362)
J
R = 2077 (4.363)
kg K
γR
cp = , (4.364)
γ−1
 
1.667 2, 077 kgJ K
= , (4.365)
1.667 − 1
J
= 5, 192.5 . (4.366)
kg K
Ambient density
P1
ρ1 = , (4.367)
RT1
10, 000 P a
=   , (4.368)
2, 077 kgJ K (50 K)

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.3. NORMAL SHOCK WAVES 101

kg
= 0.0963 3 (4.369)
p m
c1 = γRT1 , (4.370)
s  
J
= 1.667 2, 077 (50 K), (4.371)
kg K
m
= 416.0 (4.372)
s
Now the wave speed D one gets from
s
 2
γ+1 γP1 γ+1
D = vp + + vp2 (4.373)
4 ρ1 4
v
u  2
1.667 + 1  m u 1.667 (10, 000 P a)  m 2 1.667 + 1
= 1, 000 +t kg
+ 1, 000 (4.374)
4 s 0.0963 m 3
s 4
= 666.7 + 785.8, (4.375)
m
= 1, 452.5 (4.376)
s
Strong shock limit is appropriate here as a quick check:
γ+1 1.667 + 1  m m
D∼ vp = 1, 000 = 1, 333.3 (4.377)
2 2 s s

2 γ−1
P2 = ρ1 D 2 − P1 (4.378)
γ +1 γ+1
 
2 kg  m 2 1.667 − 1
= 0.0963 3 1, 452.5 − (10, 000 P a) (4.379)
1.667 + 1 m s 1.667 + 1
= 152, 377 − 2, 500, (4.380)
= 149, 877 P a = 150 kP a (4.381)
ρ2 u 2 = ρ1 u 1 (4.382)
ρ2 (v2 − D) = ρ1 (v1 − D) (4.383)
ρ2 (vp − D) = ρ1 (0 − D) (4.384)
−ρ1 D
ρ2 = (4.385)
vp − D
 
kg m


− 0.0963 m3 1, 452.5 s
= m , (4.386)
1, 000 s − 1, 452.5 ms
kg
= 0.309 3 (4.387)
m
P2
T2 = (4.388)
ρ2 R
149, 877 P a
=   , (4.389)
kg
0.309 m 3 2, 077 kgJ K
= 233.5 K (4.390)

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

102 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

4.3.6 Acoustic limit

Consider that state 2 is a small perturbation of state 1 so that

ρ2 = ρ1 + ∆ρ (4.391)
u2 = u1 + ∆u1 (4.392)
P2 = P1 + ∆P (4.393)

Substituting into the normal shock equations, one gets

(ρ1 + ∆ρ) (u1 + ∆u) = ρ1 u1 (4.394)

(ρ1 + ∆ρ) (u1 + ∆u)2 + (P1 + ∆P ) = ρ1 u1 2 + P1 (4.395)
γ P1 + ∆P 1 γ P1 1 2
+ (u1 + ∆u)2 = + u1 (4.396)
γ − 1 ρ1 + ∆ρ 2 γ − 1 ρ1 2
Expanding, one gets

ρ1 u1 + ũ1 (∆ρ) + ρ1 (∆u) + (∆ρ) (∆u) = ρ1 u1

2
+ 2ρ1 u1 (∆u) + u1 (∆ρ) + ρ1 (∆u)2 + 2u1 (∆u) (∆ρ) + (∆ρ) (∆u)2
2


ρ1 u1
+ (P1 + ∆P ) = ρ1 u12 + P1
 
γ P1 1 P1 1
u1 2 + 2u1 (∆u) + (∆u)2


+ ∆P − 2 ∆ρ + ... +
γ − 1 ρ1 ρ1 ρ1 2
γ P1 1 2
= + u1
γ − 1 ρ1 2
Subtracting the base state and eliminating products of small quantities yields

u1 (∆ρ) + ρ1 (∆u) = 0 (4.397)

2ρ u (∆u) + u1 2 (∆ρ) + ∆P = 0 (4.398)
 1 1 
γ 1 P1
∆P − 2 ∆ρ + u1 (∆u) = 0 (4.399)
γ − 1 ρ1 ρ1
In matrix form this is

    
u1 ρ1 0 ∆ρ 0
 u1 2 2ρ1 u1 1   ∆u  =  0  (4.400)
γ P1 γ 1
− γ−1 ρ21
u1 γ−1 ρ1 ∆P 0
As the right hand side is zero, the determinant must be zero and there must be a linear
dependency of the solution. First check the determinant:

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.3. NORMAL SHOCK WAVES 103

γ u1 2
   
2γ γ P1
u1 u1 − u1 − ρ1 + = 0 (4.401)
γ−1 γ − 1 ρ1 γ−1 ρ21
2
 
u1 1 P1
(2γ − (γ − 1)) − γ u1 2 + γ = 0 (4.402)
γ−1 γ−1 ρ1
 
P1
u1 (γ + 1) − γ u1 2 + γ
2
= 0 (4.403)
ρ1
P1
u1 2 =γ = c21 (4.404)
ρ1

So the velocity is necessarily sonic for a small disturbance!

Take ∆u to be known and solve a resulting 2 × 2 system:

    
u1 0 ∆ρ −ρ1 ∆u
γ P1 γ 1 = (4.405)
− γ−1 ρ21 γ−1 ρ1 ∆P −u1 ∆u

Solving yields

ρ1 ∆u
∆ρ = − q (4.406)
γ Pρ11
s
P1
∆P = −ρ1 γ ∆u (4.407)
ρ1

4.3.7 Non-ideal gas solutions

Non-ideal effects are important

• near the critical point

• for strong shocks

Some other points:

• qualitative trends the same as for ideal gases

• analysis is much more algebraically complicated

• extraneous solutions often arise which must be discarded

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

104 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Example 4.11
Shock in van der Waals gas

m
Given: Shock wave D = 500 s propagating into N2 at rest at T1 = 125 K, P1 = 2 M P a.

Find: Shocked state

Assume: van der Waals equation of state accurately models gas behavior, specific heat constant.

Analysis:

First, some data for N2 are needed. At P1 = 2 M P a, N2 has a boiling point of 115.5 K, so
the material is in the gas phase but very near the vapor dome. R = 296.8 kgJ K , cv = 744.8 kgJ K ,
Tc = 126.2 K, Pc = 3, 390, 000 P a.

Since the material is near the vapor dome, the van der Waals equation may give a good first
correction for non-ideal effects.
RT a
P = − (4.408)
v − b v2
RT
P = 1 − aρ2 (4.409)
ρ −b
ρRT
P = − aρ2 (4.410)
1 − bρ

As derived earlier, the corresponding caloric equation of state is

T  
1 1
Z
e(T, v) = eo + cv (T̂ )dT̂ + a − (4.411)
To vo v

Taking cv constant and exchanging v for ρ gives

e(T, ρ) = eo + cv (T − To ) + a (ρo − ρ) (4.412)

Eliminating T in favor of P then gives

!
P + aρ2 (1 − bρ)


e(P, ρ) = eo + cv − To + a (ρo − ρ) (4.413)
ρR

and in terms of h = e + P/ρ:

!
P + aρ2 (1 − bρ)


P
h(P, ρ) = eo + cv − To + a (ρo − ρ) + (4.414)
ρR ρ

and h2 − h1 allows cancellation of the “o” state so that

!
P2 + aρ22 (1 − bρ2 ) P1 + aρ21 (1 − bρ1 )



P2 P1
h 2 − h 1 = cv − − a (ρ2 − ρ1 ) + − (4.415)
ρ2 R ρ1 R ρ2 ρ1

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.3. NORMAL SHOCK WAVES 105

The constants a and b are fixed so that an

 isotherm passing through the critical point, P = Pc , T =
∂P  ∂2P 

Tc , passes through with ∂v T = 0 and ∂v2  = 0 A standard analysis9 yields
T

27 R2 Tc2
a = , (4.416)
64 Pc
 2
J 2
27 296.8 kg K (126.2 K)
= , (4.417)
64 3, 390, 000 P a
P a m6
= 174.6 (4.418)
kg 2
RTc
b = , (4.419)
8Pc
 
296.8 kgJ K (126.2 K)
= , (4.420)
8 (3, 390, 000 P a)
m3
= 0.00138 (4.421)
kg
Find the ambient density.
 
ρ1 296.8 kgJ K (125 K)  P a m6

2, 000, 000 P a =   − 174.6 2
ρ21 (4.422)
m3
1 − 0.00138 kg ρ1 kg

Three solutions (from computer algebra):

kg
ρ1 = 69.0926 physical (4.423)
m3
kg
ρ1 = (327.773 + 112.702 i) non-physical (4.424)
m3
kg
ρ1 = (327.773 + 112.702 i) 3 non-physical (4.425)
m
kg
Tabular data from experiments gives ρ1 = 71.28 m 3 , error = (71.28−69.09)/71.28 = 3%, so it seems the

first root is the physical root. Note that the van der Waals prediction is a significant improvement over
P1 2,000,000 kg
the ideal gas law which gives ρ1 = RT 1
= 296.8×125 = 53.91 m 3 , error = (71.28 − 53.91)/71.28 = 21.4%!

Even with this improvement there are much better (and more complicated!) equations of state for
materials near the vapor dome.

Now use the Rayleigh line and Hugoniot equations to solve for the shocked density:
 
1 1
P2 = P1 + ρ21 D2 −
ρ1 ρ2
! !
2 2



P2 + aρ2 (1 − bρ2 ) P1 + aρ1 (1 − bρ1 ) P2 P1
cv − − a (ρ2 − ρ1 ) + −
ρ2 R ρ1 R ρ2 ρ1
   
1 1 1
− (P2 − P1 ) + = 0
2 ρ2 ρ1
9
Sonntag and Van Wylen, 1991, Introduction to Thermodynamics: Classical and Statistical, John Wiley:
New York, p. 392.

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

106 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Plugging in all the numbers into a computer algebra program yields the following solutions for ρ2 :
kg
ρ2 = 195.309 shocked solution (4.426)
m3
kg
ρ2 = 69.0926 3 inert solution (4.427)
m
kg
ρ2 = (85.74 + 657.9 i) non-physical solution (4.428)
m3
kg
ρ2 = (85.74 − 657.9 i) 3 non-physical solution (4.429)
m
The Rayleigh line then gives the pressure:

 2  !
kg m 2 1 1
P2 = 2, 000, 000 P a + 69.0926 3 500 kg
− kg
(4.430)
m s 69.0926 m3 195.309 m3
P2 = 13, 162, 593 P a = 13.2 M P a (4.431)

The state equation gives the temperature.

P2 + aρ22 (1 − bρ2 )


T2 = (4.432)
ρ2 R
   2     
6
kg m3 kg
13, 162, 593 P a + 174.6 P akgm
2 195.3 m3 1 − 0.00138 kg 195.3 m3
=    (4.433)
kg
195.3 m 3 296.8 kgJ K
= 249.8 K (4.434)

Note the temperature is still quite low relative to standard atmospheric conditions; it is unlikely at
these low temperatures that any effects due to vibrational relaxation or dissociation will be important.
Our assumption of constant specific heat is probably pretty good.

The mass equation gives the shocked particle velocity:

ρ2 u 2 = ρ1 u 1 (4.435)
ρ1 u 1
u2 = (4.436)
ρ
 2 
kg m


69.0926 m 3 500 s
= kg
(4.437)
195.3 m3
m
= 176.89 (4.438)
s
An ideal gas approximation (γN2 = 1.4) would have yielded
 
1 1 γ −1 2γ P1
= 1+ (4.439)
ρ2 ρ1 γ + 1 (γ − 1) D2 ρ1
! !
1 1 1.4 − 1 2 (1.4) 2, 000, 000 P a
= 1+ (4.440)
ρ2 53.91 mkg 1.4 + 1 m 2 53.91 mkg


3 (1.4 − 1) 500 s 3

kg
ρ2 = 158.65 ideal gas approximation (4.441)
m3
195.3 − 158.65
relative error = = 18.8% (4.442)
195.3

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.4. FLOW WITH AREA CHANGE AND NORMAL SHOCKS 107

The Rayleigh line then gives the pressure:

 2  !
kg m 2 1 1
P2 = 2, 000, 000 P a + 53.91 3 500 kg
− kg
(4.443)
m s 53.91 m3 158.65 m3
P2 = 10, 897, 783 P a = 10.90 M P a (4.444)
13.2 − 10.9
relative error = = 17.4% (4.445)
13.2

4.4 Flow with area change and normal shocks

This section will consider flow from a reservoir with the fluid at stagnation conditions to a
constant pressure environment. The pressure of the environment is commonly known as the
back pressure: Pb .

Generic problem: Given A(x), stagnation conditions and Pb , find the pressure, tempera-
ture, density at all points in the duct and the mass flow rate.

4.4.1 Converging nozzle

A converging nozzle operating at several different values of Pb is sketched in Figure 4.16.
The flow through the duct can be solved using the following procedure
• check if Pb ≥ P∗
• if so, set Pe = Pb

• determine Me from isentropic flow relations

A
• determine A∗ from A∗
relation
A A
• at any point in the flow where A is known, compute A∗
and then invert A∗
relation to
find local M
Note:
• These flows are subsonic throughout and correspond to points a and b in Figure 4.16.

• If Pb = P∗ then the flow is sonic at the exit and just choked. This corresponds to point
c in Figure 4.16.

• If Pb < P∗ , then the flow chokes, is sonic at the exit, and continues to expand outside
of the nozzle. This corresponds to points d and e in Figure 4.16.

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

108 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

. .
m/mmax
e d c
Pb
1

b
Po Pe

0 Pb/Po
P*/Po 1
P(x)/Po
1
a--subsonic exit
b--subsonic exit
P*/Po c--sonic exit
d--choked, external expansion
e--choked, external expansion

x
xe

Figure 4.16: Converging nozzle sketch

4.4.2 Converging-diverging nozzle

A converging-diverging nozzle operating at several different values of Pb is sketched in Figure
4.17.
The flow through the duct can be solved using the a very similar following procedure

• set At = A∗
Ae
• with this assumption, calculate A∗

A
• determine Mesub , Mesup , both supersonic and subsonic, from A∗
relation

• determine Pesub , Pesup, from Mesub , Mesup ; these are the supersonic and subsonic design
pressures

• if Pb > Pesub , the flow is subsonic throughout and the throat is not sonic. Use same
procedure as for converging duct: Determine Me by setting Pe = Pb and using isentropic
relations

• if Pesub > Pb > Pesup , the procedure is complicated

– estimate the pressure with a normal shock at the end of the duct, Pesh
– If Pb ≥ Pesh , there is a normal shock inside the duct
– If Pb < Pesh , the duct flow is shockless, and there may be compression outside the
duct

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.4. FLOW WITH AREA CHANGE AND NORMAL SHOCKS 109

Pb

Po Pt Pe

possible
normal
shock

P(x)/Po

1 a--subsonic exit
b--subsonic exit
c--subsonic design
d--shock in duct
P*/Po e-shock at end of duct
Sonic f--external compression
Throat
g--supersonic design
h--external expansion
x
xt xe
. .
m/mmax
hg f e d c
1

0
P*/Po 1 Pb/Po

Figure 4.17: Converging-diverging nozzle sketch

• if Pesup = Pb the flow is at supersonic design conditions and the flow is shockless
• if Pb < Pesup, the flow in the duct is isentropic and there is expansion outside the duct

Example 4.12
Nozzle Problem10

Given: Air at To = 600 K flowing through converging-diverging nozzle. At = 1 cm2 , Ae = 3 cm2 ,

kg
ṁ = 148.5 hr . Pitot tube at exit plane gives Poe = 200 kP a, Pe = 191.5 kP a.

Find: exit velocity, location of possible normal shock in duct, Mach number just upstream of normal
shock
10
adopted from White’s 9.69, p. 588

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

110 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Assume: Air is calorically perfect and ideal

Analysis:

kg hr kg
ṁ = 148.5 = 0.04125 (4.446)
hr 3600 s s
Now if there is no shock, the stagnation pressure would be constant in the duct; one can use the choked
flow formula to compare to the actual mass flow rate:

  12 γ−1
γ+1
Po 2 p
ṁe = γRTo A∗ (4.447)
RTo γ + 1
1.4+1
  21 1.4−1 s    2
200, 000 P a 2 J 2

1m
=  1.4 287 (600 K) 1 cm (4.448)
287 kgJ K (600 K) 1.4 + 1 kg K 100 cm

kg
= 200, 000 × 165 × 10−9 = 0.033 (4.449)
s
Now the actual mass flow is higher than this, so the stagnation pressure upstream must also be higher;
therefore, there must be a shock in the duct which lowers the stagnation pressure. Use this equation
to determine what the upstream stagnation pressure must be.
 
kg kg 1
0.04125 = Po1 × 165 × 10−9 (4.450)
s s Pa
Po1 = 250 kP a (4.451)

So
Po2 200 kP a
= = 0.800 (4.452)
Po1 250 kP a

The flow conditions could be deduced from this; one can also utilize the normal shock tables for
air. These are valid only for a calorically perfect ideal air. Interpolating this table yields

M1 ∼ 1.83 (4.453)
M2 ∼ 0.61 (4.454)

The area ratio is determined from the isentropic flow tables. Recall that A∗ changes through a
shock, so in this case one wants to use conditions upstream of the shock. From the tables at M1 = 1.83
A1
one finds A ∗
= 1.4723 so,

A1 = 1.4723 × 1 cm2 = 1.4723 cm2 (4.455)

Get the exit velocity. Even if there is a shock, the stagnation temperature is constant; thus, one
has from energy conservation:

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.5. FLOW WITH FRICTION–FANNO FLOW 111

u2e
he + = ho (4.456)
2 p
ue = 2 (ho − he ) (4.457)
q
= 2cp (To − Te ) (4.458)
s  
Te
= 2cp To 1 − (4.459)
To
v !
u   γ−1
u Pe
γ
= t2cp To 1 − (4.460)
Poe
v
u     1.4−1 !
u J 191.5 kP a 1.4
= t2 1004.5 (600 K) 1 − (4.461)
kg K 200 kP a
m
= 121.9 (4.462)
s

4.5 Flow with friction–Fanno flow

Wall friction is typically considered by modelling the wall shear as a constant. Wall friction
is usually correlated with what is known as the Darcy friction factor: f , where

8τw
f≡ (4.463)
ρu2
Now in practice f is related to the local flow Reynolds number based on pipe diameter
D: ReD

ρuD
ReD ≡ (4.464)
µ
ǫ
and roughness of the duct D
, where ǫ is the average surface roughness.

 ǫ
f = f ReD , (4.465)
D
For steady laminar duct flow, the friction factor is independent of ǫ. It turns out the
Poiseuille flow solution gives the friction factor, which turns out to be
64
f= (4.466)
ReD

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

112 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

If the flow is steady and turbulent, the friction factor is described by the following em-
pirical formula known as the Colebrook equation:

 
1 ǫ/D 2.51
= −2.0 log10 + (4.467)
f 1/2 3.7 ReD f 1/2
Often one needs to iterate to find f for turbulent flows. Alternatively, one can use the
Moody chart to estimate f . This is simply a graphical representation of the Colebrook
formula. Most fluid texts will contain a Moody chart. While in principle f varies with a
host of variables, in practice in a particular problem, it is often estimated as a constant.
To get a grasp on the effects of wall friction, consider a special case of generalized one-
dimensional flow:
• steady
• one-dimensional
• adiabatic
• constant area duct
• Darcy friction model
• calorically perfect ideal gas
Our equations from the section on influence coefficients
(qw +τw u)L
−ρu2 dA + τw L +
dρ 1 dx ∂e
ρu ∂P | ρ
= (4.468)
dx A (u2 − c2 )
(qw +τw u)L
c2 ρu dA − uτw L −
du 1 dx ∂e
ρ ∂P |ρ
= (4.469)
dx A ρ (u2 − c2 )
(qw +τw u)Lu
−c2 ρu2 dA + c2 τw L +
dP 1 dx ∂e
ρ ∂P | ρ
= (4.470)
dx A (u2 − c2 )
reduce to
1 + ρ ∂e1
dρ τw L ∂P |ρ
= (4.471)
dx A (u − c2 )
2

1 + ρ ∂e1
du uτw L ∂P |ρ
= − (4.472)
dx A ρ (u − c2 )
2

u2
c2 +
dP τw L ρ
∂e
ρ ∂P |
= 2 2
(4.473)
dx A (u − c )

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.5. FLOW WITH FRICTION–FANNO FLOW 113

Now for a circular duct

L = 2πr (4.474)
A = πr 2 (4.475)
L 2πr 2 4
= 2 = = (4.476)
A πr r D
For a calorically perfect ideal gas
1 P
e = (4.477)
γ−1 ρ

∂e  1 1
= (4.478)
∂P ρ γ −1ρ

∂e  1
ρ = (4.479)
∂P ρ γ−1
1
 = γ−1
∂e 
(4.480)
ρ ∂P ρ
1
1+ ∂e 
 = γ (4.481)
ρ ∂P ρ

So making these substitutions yields

dρ 4τw γ
= (4.482)
dx D (u − c2 )
2

du 4uτw γ
= − (4.483)
dx D ρ (u − c2 )
2

dP 4τw c2 + u2 (γ − 1)
= (4.484)
dx D (u2 − c2 )

Substituting for τw gives

dρ f ρu2 γ
= (4.485)
dx 2D (u − c2 )
2

du f ρu2 u γ
= − (4.486)
dx 2D ρ (u − c2 )
2

dP f ρu2 c2 + u2 (γ − 1)
= (4.487)
dx 2D (u2 − c2 )

Rearranging to place in terms of M 2 gives

dρ f ρM 2 γ
= 2
(4.488)
dx 2D (M − 1)

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

114 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

du f M 2u γ
= − (4.489)
dx 2D (M 2 − 1)
dP f ρu2 1 + M 2 (γ − 1)
= (4.490)
dx 2D (M 2 − 1)

Now with the definition of M 2 for the calorically perfect ideal gas, one gets

ρu2
M2 =
γP
dM 2 u2 dρ 2ρu du ρu2 dP
= + −
dx γP dx γP dx γP 2 dx
u2 f ρM 2 f M 2u ρu2 f ρu2 1 + M 2 (γ − 1)
 
γ 2ρu γ
= + − −
γP 2D (M 2 − 1) γP 2D (M 2 − 1) γP 2 2D (M 2 − 1)
fM4 γ 2f M 4 γ γf M 4 1 + M 2 (γ − 1)
= − −
2D (M 2 − 1) 2D (M 2 − 1) 2D (M 2 − 1)
γf M 4
1 − 2 − 1 − M 2 (γ − 1)


= 2
2D (M − 1)
γf M 4
  
2 γ−1
= 1+M
D (1 − M 2 ) 2

So rearranging gives

(1 − M 2 ) dM 2 dx
2 γ−1


= f (4.491)
γ (M 2 ) 1 + M 2 2 D

Integrate this expression from x = 0 to x = L∗ where L∗ is defined as the length at which

the flow becomes sonic, so M 2 = 1 at x = L∗ .
 
Z 1 1 − M̂ 2 dM̂ 2 Z L∗
dx
 2  = f (4.492)
M 2 γ M̂ 2 2 γ−1


0 D
1 + M̂ 2

An analytic solution for this integral is

1 − M2 1 + γ (1 + γ) M 2 f L∗
+ ln = (4.493)
γM 2 2γ 2 + M 2 (γ − 1) D

Example 4.13
Flow in a duct with friction11
11
from White, 9.82, p. 589

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.5. FLOW WITH FRICTION–FANNO FLOW 115

ft
Given: Air flowing in pipe D = 1 in, L = 20 f t, P1 = 40 psia, u1 = 200 s , T1 = 520 R.

Find: Exit pressure P2 , ṁ

Assume: calorically perfect ideal gas, Darcy friction factor models wall shear, constant viscosity

Analysis: First get the mass flow rate.

P1
ρ1 = (4.494)
RT1
  2

lbf
40 in 2 144 in
ft2
ρ1 =   (4.495)
f t lbf
53.34 lbm R (520 R)
lbm
ρ1 = 0.2077 (4.496)
f t3
ṁ = ρ1 u1 A1 , (4.497)
 2 !
D
= ρ1 u 1 π (4.498)
2
   2 !
lbm ft 1 in 1 f t
= 0.2077 200 π (4.499)
f t3 s 2 12 in
lbm
= 0.2266 (4.500)
s
Now compute the friction factor. First for cast iron pipes, one has surface roughness ǫ = 0.00085 f t, so

ǫ 0.00085 f t 12 in
= = 0.0102 (4.501)
D 1 in 1 ft
lbf s
The Reynolds number is needed, which involves the viscosity. For air at 520 R, µ ∼ 4.08×10−7 f t2
so
  
lbm
200 fst 12 1


ρ1 u 1 D 0.2077 f t3 ft
ReD = =    = 263, 739 (4.502)
µ 4.08 × 10−7 lbf s
32.17 lbm f t
ft2 lbf s2

Since ReD >> 2, 300, the flow is turbulent and one needs to use the Colebrook formula to estimate the
Darcy friction factor:

 
1 ǫ/D 2.51
= −2.0 log10 + (4.503)
f 1/2 3.7 ReD f 1/2
 
0.0102 2.51
= −2.0 log10 + (4.504)
3.7 263, 739f 1/2

Now reading the Moody chart gives f = 0.04. A numerical trial and error solution of the Colebrook
equation gives

f = 0.0384 (4.505)

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

116 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Now find M1 .
u1
M1 = √ , (4.506)
γRT1
200 fst
= r    , (4.507)
f t lbf lbm f t
1.4 53.34 lbm R 32.17 lbf s2 (520 R)

= 0.1789 (4.508)

Now
f L1∗ 1 − M12 1+γ (1 + γ) M12
= + ln (4.509)
D γM12 2γ 2 + M12 (γ − 1)
2
1 − 0.1789 1 + 1.4 (1 + 1.4) 0.17892
= + ln (4.510)
1.4 (0.1789)2 2 (1.4) 2 + 0.17892 (1.4 − 1)
= 18.804 (4.511)
1


18.804 12 ft
L1∗ = , (4.512)
0.0384
= 40.81 f t (4.513)

so at a distance 40.81 f t from station 1, the flow will go sonic. It is needed to find M2 at a station
20 f t from station 1. So

L2∗ = 40.81 f t − 20 f t, (4.514)

= 20.81 f t (4.515)
f L2∗ 0.0384 (20.81 f t)
= 1 , (4.516)
D 12 f t
= 9.589 (4.517)
1 − M22 1 + 1.4 (1 + 1.4) M22
9.589 = + ln (4.518)
1.4M22 2 (1.4) 2 + M22 (1.4 − 1)

Iterative solution gives

M2 = 0.237925 (4.519)

Since energy conservation holds in this flow

u22 u21
h2 + = h1 + (4.520)
2 2
u22 u21
T2 + = T1 + (4.521)
2cp 2cp
 2
ft
u2 200 s
T2 + 2 = 520 R +   (4.522)
2cp 2 6, 015 f t2
s2 R

u22
T2 + = 523.33 R (4.523)
2cp
M22 γRT2
T2 + = 523.33 R (4.524)
2cp

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.6. FLOW WITH HEAT TRANSFER–RAYLEIGH FLOW 117

 
(γ − 1) 2
T2 1 + M2 = 523.33 R (4.525)
2
523.33 R
T2 = (γ−1)
(4.526)
1+ 2
2 M2
523.33 R
= (1.4−1)
(4.527)
1+ 2 0.2379252
= 517.47 R (4.528)
p
u2 = M2 γRT2 , (4.529)
s
f t2
 
= 0.237925 1.4 1, 715 2 (517.47 R) (4.530)
s R
ft
= 265.2 (4.531)
s
ρ2 u 2 = ρ1 u 1 (4.532)
u1
ρ2 = ρ1 , (4.533)
u2
!
ft
200
 
lbm s
= 0.2077 3 , (4.534)
ft 265.2 fst
lbm
= 0.1566 (4.535)
f t3
P2 = ρ2 RT2 , (4.536)
f t2
    
lbm f t lbf
= 0.1566 3 53.34 (517.47 R) (4.537)
ft lbm R 144 in2
= 30.02 psia (4.538)
T2 P2
s2 − s1 = cp ln − R ln (4.539)
T1 P
 1
f t2 f t2
  
517.47 R 30.02 psia
= 6, 015 2 ln − 1, 715 2 ln (4.540)
s R 520 R s R 40 psia
f t2
= 462.9 2 (4.541)
s R

4.6 Flow with heat transfer–Rayleigh flow

Flow with heat transfer is commonly known as Rayleigh flow. To isolate the effect of heat
transfer, the following assumptions will be adopted:

• constant area duct

• no wall friction

• calorically perfect ideal gas

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

118 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Consequences of heat addition:

• stagnation temperature changes

• heating drives both subsonic and supersonic flows towards sonic states

• cooling drives both subsonic and supersonic flows away from sonic state

• heating increases To , decreases Po , both subsonic and supersonic

• cooling decreases To , increases Po , both subsonic and supersonic

The governing equations are

ρ2 u2 = ρ1 u1 (4.542)
ρ2 u22
+ P2 = ρ1 D 2 + P1 (4.543)
u22 u21
   
ρ2 u2A h2 + = ρ1 u1 A h1 + + qw LL (4.544)
2 2
 
γ P Po
h = − + ho (4.545)
γ −1 ρ ρo

Note that these are a more general case of the equations for a normal shock. One could
get equivalents of Rayleigh lines and Hugoniots. The Rayleigh line would be the same as the
equations are the same; the Hugoniot would be modified because of the heat transfer term.

If one defines the heat transfer per unit mass of flow q in terms of the wall heat flux qw :

qw LL
q≡ (4.546)
ρ1 u1 A

the energy equation becomes

u22 u21
h2 + = h1 + +q (4.547)
2 2
ho2 = ho1 + q (4.548)
q = ho2 − ho1 (4.549)
q
= To2 − To1 (4.550)
cp

With lots of effort very similar to that used for the normal shock equations, expressions can
be developed relating the “2” state to the “1” state. If one takes the final “2” state to be
sonic 2 → ∗ and the initial “1” state to be unsubscripted, it is found for the calorically
perfect ideal gas that

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.6. FLOW WITH HEAT TRANSFER–RAYLEIGH FLOW 119

To (γ + 1) M 2 (2 + (γ − 1) M 2 )
= (4.551)
To∗ (1 + γM 2 )2

Example 4.14
Heat Addition Problem12
ft
Given: Fuel air mixture enters combustion chamber at u1 = 250 s , P1 = 20 psia, T1 = 70◦ F . The
mixture releases 400 Btu
lbm

Find: Exit properties u2 , P2 , T2 , heat addition to cause flow to go sonic at exit

Assume: Fuel air mixture behaves just like calorically perfect ideal air

Analysis:
Initial state

T1 = 70 + 460, (4.552)
= 530 R (4.553)
p
c1 = γRT1 , (4.554)
s 
f t2

= 1.4 1, 716 2 (530 R), (4.555)
s R
ft
= 1, 128.4 (4.556)
s
u1
M1 = , (4.557)
c1
ft
250 s
= , (4.558)
1, 128.4 fst
= 0.2216 (4.559)
P1
ρ1 = , (4.560)
RT
 1   
lbf f t2 2
20 in 2 32.17 lbm lbf s2 144 in
f t2
=  2
 , (4.561)
1, 716 sf2 t R (530 R)
lbm
= 0.1019 3 (4.562)
ft
 
1
To1 = T1 1 + M12 , (4.563)
5
 
1
= (530 R) 1 + 0.22162 , (4.564)
5
= 535.2 R (4.565)
 3.5
1
Po1 = P1 1 + M12 , (4.566)
5
12
adopted from White, pp. 557-558

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

120 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

 3.5
1
= (20 psia) 1 + 0.22162 , (4.567)
5
= 20.70 psia (4.568)

Now calculate To∗ , the stagnation temperature corresponding to sonic flow

(γ + 1) M12 2 + (γ − 1) M12


To1
= 2 (4.569)
To∗ (1 + γM12 )
(1.4 + 1) 0.22162 2 + (1.4 − 1) 0.22162




To1
= 2 , (4.570)
To∗ (1 + (1.4) (0.22162))
= 0.2084 (4.571)
To1
To∗ = , (4.572)
0.2084
535.2 R
= , (4.573)
0.2084
= 2568.3 R (4.574)

Now calculate the effect of heat addition:

   
Btu f t lbf lbm f t
q = 400 779 32.17 , (4.575)
lbm Btu lbf s2
f t2
= 10.024 × 106 2 (4.576)
s
q
To2 = To1 + , (4.577)
cp
f t2
10.024 × 106 s2
= 535.2 + f t2
, (4.578)
6, 015 s2 R
= 2, 201.7 R (4.579)
To2 2, 201.7 R
= , (4.580)
To∗ 2, 563.3 R
= 0.8573 (4.581)
1) M22 1) M22


To2 (γ + 2 + (γ −
= 2 (4.582)
To∗ (1 + γM22 )
(1.4 + 1) M22 2 + (1.4 − 1) M22


0.8573 = 2 (4.583)
(1 + 1.4M22 )

Computer algebra gives four solutions. For a continuous variation of M , choose the positive subsonic
branch. Other branches do have physical meaning.

relevant branch M2 = 0.6380 (4.584)

M2 = −0.6380 (4.585)
M2 = 1.710 (4.586)
M2 = −1.710 (4.587)

Calculate other variables at state 2:

 −1
1
T2 = To2 1 + M22 , (4.588)
5

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

4.6. FLOW WITH HEAT TRANSFER–RAYLEIGH FLOW 121

−1
 
1
= (2, 201.7 R) 1 + 0.63802 , (4.589)
5
= 2, 036 R (4.590)
p
c2 = γRT2 , (4.591)
s 
f t2

= 1.4 1, 716 2 (2, 036 R), (4.592)
s R
ft
= 2, 211.6 (4.593)
s
u2 = M 2 c2 , (4.594)
 
ft
= (0.6380) 2, 211.6 , (4.595)
s
ft
= 1, 411 (4.596)
s
ρ2 u 2 = ρ1 u 1 (4.597)
u1
ρ2 = ρ1 , (4.598)
u2
!
250 fst
 
lbm
= 0.1019 3 , (4.599)
ft 1, 411 fst
lbm
= 0.01806 (4.600)
f t3
P2 = ρ2 RT2 (4.601)
f t2 1 lbf s2 f t2
   
lbm
= 0.01806 3 1, 716 2 (2, 036 R) , (4.602)
ft s R 32.17 lbm f t 144 in2
= 13.62 psia (4.603)
Is momentum satisfied?

P2 + ρ2 u22 = P1 + ρ1 u21
2 
144 in2 1 lbf s2
      
lbf lbm ft
13.62 2 + 0.01806 3 1, 411
in f t2 ft s 32.17 lbm f t
2
2 
1 lbf s2
     
lbf 144 in lbm ft
= 20 2 + 0.1019 250
in f t2 f t3 s 32.17 lbm f t
lbf lbf
3, 078.97 2 = 3077.97 2 close!
ft ft
Entropy Change
T2 P2
s2 − s1 = cp ln − R ln (4.604)
T1 P
2
 1
f t2
     
ft 2, 036 R 13.62 psia
= 6, 015 2 ln − 1, 716 2 ln (4.605)
s R 530 R s R 20 psia
= 8, 095.38 − (−659.28) , (4.606)
f t2
= 8, 754.66 2 (4.607)
s R 
f t2 1 lbf s2
  
1 Btu
= 8, 754.66 2 (4.608)
s R 779 f t lbf 32.17 lbm f t

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

122 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Btu
= 0.3493 (4.609)
lbm R
Second Law
q
s2 − s1 ≥ (4.610)
T
Btu 400 Btu
lbm
0.3493 ≥ (4.611)
lbm R 2, 036 R
Btu Btu
0.3493 ≥ 0.1965 yes! (4.612)
lbm R lbm R
maximum heat release

qmax = cp (To∗ − To1 ) (4.613)

f t2 1 lbf s2
    
1 Btu
= 6, 015 2 (2, 568.3 R − 535.2 R) (4.614)
s R 779 f t lbf 32.17 lbm f t
Btu
qmax = 488 (4.615)
lbm

4.7 Numerical solution of the shock tube problem

A detailed development is given in lecture for the numerical solution to the Riemann or
shock tube problem. The equations are first posed in the general conservative form:
∂q ∂
+ (f(q)) = 0. (4.616)
∂t ∂x
Here q and f vector functions of length N = 3; further f is itself a function of q. The
equations are discretized so that

q(x, t) → qni , (4.617)

f(q(x, t)) → f(qni ). (4.618)

4.7.1 One-step techniques

A brief discussion of finite difference techniques is given in lecture. The most tempting
technique is a first order forward difference in time, central difference in space technique
which yields the finite difference relation:
∆t
qn+1 = qni −f(qni+1 ) − f(qni−1 ) .


i (4.619)
2∆x
Unfortunately this method is unstable.

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4.7. NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF THE SHOCK TUBE PROBLEM 123

4.7.2 Lax-Friedrichs technique

A robustly stable first order method is found int the Lax-Friedrichs method.
1 n ∆t
qn+1 qi−1 + qni+1 − f(qni+1 ) − f(qni−1 ) .



i = (4.620)
2 2∆x

4.7.3 Lax-Wendroff technique

The two-step Lax-Wendroff discretization is as follows

• at a given time step estimate q at the i + 1/2 cell interface:

1 n
qni+1/2 = qi + qni+1 ,


(4.621)
2

n+1/2
• use central differencing (about i + 1/2) to step forward ∆t/2 so that qi+1/2 can be
estimated:

n+1/2 ∆t/2
qi+1/2 = qni+1/2 − f(qni+1 ) − f(qni ) .


(4.622)
∆x
• use central differencing (about i) to step forward ∆t, evaluating f at the i ± 1/2 and
n + 1/2 steps:

∆t  n+1/2 n+1/2

qn+1
i = qni − f(qi+1/2 ) − f(qi−1/2 ) . (4.623)
∆x

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124 CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

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Chapter 5

Steady supersonic two-dimensional

flow

Suggested Reading:

Liepmann and Roshko, Chapter 4: pp. 84-123

Hughes and Brighton, Chapter 8: pp. 208-230
Shapiro, Chapters 9-16: pp. 265-609
White, Chapter 9: pp. 559-581

This chapter will discuss two-dimensional flow of a compressible fluid. The following
topics will be covered:

• presentation of isentropic two-dimensional flow equations

• oblique shocks

• Prandtl-Meyer rarefactions

• flow over an airfoil

Assume for this chapter:

∂
• ∂t
≡ 0; steady flow
∂
• w ≡ 0, ∂z ≡ 0; two-dimensional flow

• no viscous stress or heat conduction, so isentropic except through shocks

• calorically perfect ideal gas

125
126 CHAPTER 5. STEADY SUPERSONIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

5.1 Two-dimensional equations

With the assumptions of above the following equations govern the flow away from shock
discontinuities:

5.1.1 Conservative form

∂ ∂
(ρu) + (ρv) = 0 (5.1)
∂x ∂y
∂ ∂
ρu2 + P +


(ρuv) = 0 (5.2)
∂x ∂y
∂ ∂
ρv 2 + P = 0


(ρvu) + (5.3)
∂x ∂y
     
∂ 1 2 2

P ∂ 1 2 2

P
ρu e + u +v + + ρv e + u +v + =0 (5.4)
∂x 2 ρ ∂y 2 ρ
1 P
e= + eo (5.5)
γ−1 ρ

5.1.2 Non-conservative form

   
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂u ∂v
u +v +ρ + =0 (5.6)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
 
∂u ∂u ∂P
ρ u +v + =0 (5.7)
∂x ∂y ∂x
 
∂v ∂v ∂P
ρ u +v + =0 (5.8)
∂x ∂y ∂y
   
∂e ∂e ∂u ∂v
ρ u +v +P + =0 (5.9)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
1 P
e= + eo (5.10)
γ−1 ρ

5.2 Mach waves

Mach waves are small acoustic disturbances in a flow field. Recall that small disturbances
propagate at the ambient sound speed. Let’s consider a small sphere moving at u1 through
a fluid with ambient sound speed co .

• u1 < co , subsonic flow, sphere does not catch acoustic waves

• u1 = co , sonic flow, upstream flow always unaware of sphere

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5.3. OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVES 127

• u1 > co , supersonic flow, larger region still unaware of sphere

Consider that in time ∆t, the sphere will move u1 ∆t and the wave will propagate will be
felt by a circle with radius co ∆t, see Figure 5.1

c_o ∆t c_o ∆t

u_1 < c_o 12345 u_1 = c_o 1234

12345
12345 1234
1234
12345 1234
1234

sonic
subsonic
flow
flow

u_1 ∆t

u_1 ∆t Mach wave

β = arcsin (1/M_1)
zone of silence

c_o ∆t

u_1 > c_o 12345

12345
12345
12345

supersonic
flow

u_1 ∆t

Figure 5.1: Acoustic disturbance sketch

From the geometry,

co ∆t co 1
sin β = = = (5.11)
u1 ∆t u1 M1
 
1
β = arcsin (5.12)
M1

5.3 Oblique shock waves

An oblique shock is a shock which is not normal to the incoming flow field. It can be shown
that in the limiting case as the oblique shock strength goes to zero, the oblique shock wave
becomes a Mach wave, as described in the previous section.

Oblique waves can be understood by considering the following problem.

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128 CHAPTER 5. STEADY SUPERSONIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

Given:
• a straight wedge inclined at angle θ to the horizontal
• a freestream flow parallel to the horizontal with known velocity v = u1 i + 0 j
• known freestream pressure and density of P1 and ρ1
• steady flow of a calorically perfect ideal gas (this can be relaxed and one can still find
oblique shocks)
Find:
• angle of shock inclination β
• downstream pressure and density P2 , ρ2
Similar to the piston problem, the oblique shock problem is easiest analyzed if we instead
consider
• β as known
• θ as unknown
They are best modeled in a two-dimensional coordinate system with axes parallel and
perpendicular to the shock, see Figure 5.2, so that
x = x̃ sin β + ỹ cos β (5.13)
y = −x̃ cos β + ỹ sin β (5.14)
u = ũ sin β + ṽ cos β (5.15)
v = −ũ cos β + ṽ sin β (5.16)
Consequently, in this coordinate system, the freestream is two-dimensional.
It is easily shown that the equations of motion are invariant under a rotation of axes, so
that

∂ ∂
(ρũ) + (ρṽ) = 0 (5.17)
∂ x̃ ∂ ỹ
∂ ∂
ρũ2 + P +


(ρũṽ) = 0 (5.18)
∂ x̃ ∂ ỹ
∂ ∂
ρṽ 2 + P = 0


(ρṽũ) + (5.19)
∂ x̃ ∂ ỹ
     
∂ 1 2 2

P ∂ 1 2 2

P
ρũ e + ũ + ṽ + + ρṽ e + ũ + ṽ + =0 (5.20)
∂ x̃ 2 ρ ∂ ỹ 2 ρ
1 P
e= + eo (5.21)
γ−1 ρ

To analyze oblique shocks, we make one additional assumption

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5.3. OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVES 129

oblique shock wave

∼ ∼ ∼ /∼
tan β = u_1 / v_1 tan (β−θ) = u_2 v_2
~
u_2
~ ~
v_2
~ u_1 ~
v_1 v_2
P_1 β−θ
β P_2
ρ_1
u_1 ~
u_2 ρ_2
unshocked shocked
freestream flow
(supersonic) ~
y
y β
θ wedge
x

~
x

Figure 5.2: Oblique Shock Schematic

∂
• ∂ ỹ
=0

Note however that, contrary to one-dimensional flow we will not enforce ṽ = 0, so

• ṽ 6= 0
∂ d
Consequently, all variables are a function of x̃ at most and ∂ x̃
= dx̃
. The governing
equations reduce to

d
(ρũ) = 0 (5.22)
dx̃
d
ρũ2 + P = 0


(5.23)
dx̃
d
(ρṽũ) = 0 (5.24)
  dx̃ 
d 1 2
P
ρũ e + ũ + ṽ 2 + =0 (5.25)
dx̃ 2 ρ
1 P
e= + eo (5.26)
γ−1 ρ
Integrate and apply freestream conditions

ρ2 ũ2 = ρ1 ũ1 (5.27)

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130 CHAPTER 5. STEADY SUPERSONIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

ρ2 ũ22 + P2 = ρ1 ũ21 + P1 (5.28)

ρ2 ṽ2 ũ2 = ρ1 ṽ1 ũ1 (5.29)
   
1 2 2

P2 1 2 2

P1
ρ2 ũ2 e2 + ũ + ṽ2 + = ρ1 ũ1 e1 + ũ + ṽ1 + (5.30)
2 2 ρ2 2 1 ρ1
1 P
e= + eo (5.31)
γ −1 ρ
Now using the mass equation, the ỹ momentum equation reduces to

ṽ2 = ṽ1 (5.32)

Using this result and the mass a state equations gives

ρ2 ũ2 = ρ1 ũ1 (5.33)

+ P2 = ρ1 ũ21 + P1
ρ2 ũ22 (5.34)
1 P2 1 2 P2 1 P1 1 2 P1
+ ũ2 + = + ũ1 + (5.35)
γ − 1 ρ2 2 ρ2 γ − 1 ρ1 2 ρ1
These are exactly the equations which describe a normal shock jump. All our old results
apply in this coordinate system with the additional stipulation that the component of velocity
tangent to the shock is constant.

Recall our solution for one-dimensional shocks in a calorically perfect ideal gas:

 
1 1 γ−1 2γ P1
= 1+ 2
(5.36)
ρ2 ρ1 γ + 1 (γ − 1) D ρ1

For this problem D = ũ1 so

 
1 1 γ−1 2γ P1
= 1+ (5.37)
ρ2 ρ1 γ + 1 (γ − 1) ũ21 ρ1

With the freestream Mach number normal to the wave defined as

2 ũ21
M1n ≡ (5.38)
γ Pρ11

we get
 
ρ1 γ−1 2
= 1+ 2
(5.39)
ρ2 γ+1 (γ − 1) M1n

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

5.3. OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVES 131

ρ1 ũ2
and since from mass ρ2
= ũ1

 
ũ2 γ−1 2
= 1+ 2
(5.40)
ũ1 γ+1 (γ − 1) M1n
Now for our geometry
ũ1
tan β = (5.41)
ṽ1
ũ2 ũ2
tan (β − θ) = = (5.42)
ṽ2 ṽ1
ũ2 tan (β − θ)
so = (5.43)
ũ1 tan β
thus
 
tan (β − θ) γ−1 2
= 1+ 2
(5.44)
tan β γ+1 (γ − 1) M1n
Now note that
2
M1n = M12 sin2 β (5.45)
so
 
tan (β − θ) γ−1 2
= 1+ (5.46)
tan β γ+1 (γ − 1) M12 sin2 β
γ − 1 (γ − 1) M12 sin2 β + 2
 
tan (β − θ)
= (5.47)
tan β γ+1 (γ − 1) M12 sin2 β
(γ − 1) M12 sin2 β + 2
tan (β − θ) = tan β (5.48)
(γ + 1) M12 sin2 β
tan β − tan θ (γ − 1) M12 sin2 β + 2
= tan β ≡χ (5.49)
1 + tan θ tan β (γ + 1) M12 sin2 β
tan β − tan θ = χ + χ tan θ tan β (5.50)
tan β − χ = tan θ (1 + χ tan β) (5.51)
tan β − χ
tan θ = (5.52)
1 + χ tan β
With a little more algebra and trigonometry this reduces to
M12 sin2 β − 1
tan θ = 2cotβ (5.53)
M12 (γ + cos 2β) + 2
Given M1 , γ and β, this equation can be solved to find θ the wedge angle. It can be inverted
to form an equation cubic in sin β to solve explicitly for β. Figure 5.3 gives a plot of oblique
shock angle β versus wedge angle θ.
Note the following features:

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132 CHAPTER 5. STEADY SUPERSONIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

β Expanded View of β−θ plane

strong branch β
90 (post-shock subsonic)

57
08

Μ_1 = 2

05
2nd Law
Violation
60
06

Μ_1= 3

52
Maximum wedge
angle for attached
oblique shock Μ_1 = ∞
θ
Μ_1 = 2
04

04-

02-

02

04
30 Μ_1 = 3

52-
weak branch
(post shock supersonic, primarily)
2nd Law
02

Μ_1 = ∞

05-
Violation

γ = 7/5

57-
0 θ
0

01

02

03

04

05

0 10 20 30 40 50

Figure 5.3: Shock angle β versus wedge angle θ

• for a given θ < θmax , there exist two β’s

– lower β is weak solution

∗ limθ→0 β = arcsin M1 , a Mach wave
∗ relevant branch for most external flows, matches in far-field to acoustic wave,
can exist in internal flows
2 2
∗ total Mach number primarily supersonic, M22 = ũ c+ṽ2 > 1 for nearly all 0 <
2
θ < θmax
2
∗ normal Mach number subsonic, M2n 2
= ũc2 < 1
2

– higher β is the strong solution

∗ limθ→0 β = π2 , a normal shock wave
∗ relevant branch for some internal flows
ũ2 +ṽ2
∗ total Mach number completely subsonic, M22 = c22
< 1 for all 0 < θ < θmax
2 ũ2
∗ normal Mach number subsonic, M2n = c22
<1

• for θ > θmax , no solution exists; shock becomes detached

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

5.3. OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVES 133

• Consider fixed θ, increasing freestream Mach number M1 , see Figure 5.4

– 0 < M1 < 1, subsonic incoming flow, no shocks continuous pressure variation

– 1 < M1 < M1a , supersonic incoming flow, detached curved oblique shock
– M1a < M1 < ∞, supersonic incoming flow, attached straight oblique shock
– as M1 → ∞, β → β∞

• Consider fixed supersonic freestream Mach number M1 , increasing θ, see Figure 5.5

– θ ∼ 0, Mach wave, negligible disturbance

– small θ, small β, small pressure, density rise
– medium θ, medium β, moderate pressure and density rise
– large θ, curved detached shock, large pressure and density rise

continuous pressure shock approaching detached

variation wedge from infinity oblique shock

M_1 < 1 M_1 ~ 1

1 < M_1 < M_1a
subsonic, shockless flow slightly supersonic flow moderately supersonic flow

attached attached
oblique shock oblique shock
at limiting wave
angle
β_ min

M_1 -> ∞
M_1a < M_1 < ∞

Figure 5.4: Shock wave patterns as incoming Mach number varied

Example 5.1
Oblique Shock Example

Given: Air flowing over a wedge, θ = 20◦ , P1 = 100 kP a, T1 = 300 K, M1 = 3.0

Find: Shock angle β and downstream pressure and temperature P2 , T2 .

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134 CHAPTER 5. STEADY SUPERSONIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

M_1 fixed, supersonic, P_1, ρ_1 fixed

M_1 M_1 M_1

M_1

Mach Wave Attached Shocks Detached Shock

Small Disturbance Moderate Disturbances Large Disturbance

Figure 5.5: Shock wave patterns as wedge angle varied

Assume: calorically perfect ideal gas

Analysis:
First some preliminaries:
s  
p J m
c1 = γRT1 = (1.4) 287 (300 K) = 347.2 (5.54)
kg K s
 m  m
u1 = M1 c1 = (3.0) 347.2 = 1, 041.6 (5.55)
s s
P1 100, 000 P a kg
ρ1 = =   = 1.1614 3 (5.56)
RT1 287 J (300 K) m
kg K

Now find the wave angle:

M12 sin2 β − 1
tan θ = 2cotβ (5.57)
M12
(γ + cos 2β) + 2
3.02 sin2 β − 1
tan 20◦ = 2cotβ (5.58)
3.02 (1.4 + cos 2β) + 2
(5.59)

Three solutions:

weak oblique shock; common β = 37.76◦ (5.60)

strong oblique shock; rare β = 82.15◦ (5.61)
second law violating “rarefaction” shock β = −9.91◦ (5.62)

1. Weak Oblique Shock

 m m
ũ1 = u1 sin β = 1, 041.6 sin 37.76◦ = 637.83 (5.63)
s s

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5.3. OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVES 135

 m m
ṽ1 = u1 cos β = 1, 041.6 cos 37.76◦ = 823.47 (5.64)
s s
637.83 m
   
ũ1 s
M1n = = = 1.837 (5.65)
c1 347.2 ms
 
ρ1 γ−1 2
= 1+ 2 (5.66)
ρ2 γ+1 (γ − 1) M1n
kg
1.1614 m
 
3 1.4 − 1 2
= 1+ = 0.413594 (5.67)
ρ2 1.4 + 1 (1.4 − 1) 1.8372
kg
1.1614 m 3 kg
ρ2 = = 2.8081 3 (5.68)
0.41359 m
ρ2 ũ2 = ρ1 ũ1 (5.69)
 
kg
637.83 m


ρ1 ũ1 1.1614 m 3 s m
ũ2 = = kg
= 263.80 (5.70)
ρ2 2.8081 m3 s
m
ṽ2 = ṽ1 = 823.47 (5.71)
s
u2 = ũ2 sin β + ṽ2 cos β (5.72)
v2 = −ũ2 cos β + ṽ2 sin β (5.73)
 m  m  m
u2 = 263.80 sin 37.76◦ + 823.47 cos 37.76◦ = 812.56 (5.74)
s s s
 m ◦
 m ◦ m
v2 = − 263.80 cos 37.76 + 823.47 sin 37.76 = 295.70 (5.75)
s s   s
v2
check on wedge angle θ = arctan (5.76)
u2
m
295.70 s

= arctan = 19.997◦ (5.77)
812.56 m s
P2 = P1 + ρ1 ũ21 − ρ2 ũ22 (5.78)
   
kg m 2 kg  m 2
P2 = 100, 000 P a + 1.1614 3 637.83 − 2.8081 3 263.80 (5.79)
m s m s
P2 = 377, 072 P a (5.80)
P2 377, 072 P a
T2 = =   = 467.88 K (5.81)
ρ2 R 2.8081 mkg
287 kgJ K
3
s  
p J m
c2 = γRT2 = (1.4) 287 (467.88 K) = 433.58 (5.82)
kg K s
ũ2 263.8 m s
M2n = = = 0.608 (5.83)
c2 433.58 m s
q
2
2
812.56 m + 295.7 m
p
u22 + v22 s s
M2 = = = 1.994 (5.84)
c2 433.58 m s
T2 P2
s2 − s1 = cp ln − R ln (5.85)
T P1
    1
J 467.88 K J 377, 072 P a
= 1, 004.5 ln − 287 ln (5.86)
kg K 300 K kg K 100, 000 P a
J
s2 − s1 = 65.50 (5.87)
kg K

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136 CHAPTER 5. STEADY SUPERSONIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

2. Strong Oblique Shock

 m m
ũ1 = u1 sin β = 1, 041.6 sin 82.15◦ = 1, 031.84 (5.88)
s  s
 m m
ṽ1 = u1 cos β = 1, 041.6 cos 82.15◦ = 142.26 (5.89)
 s  s
1, 031.84 m

ũ1 s
M1n = = = 2.972 (5.90)
c1 347.2 ms
 
ρ1 γ−1 2
= 1+ 2 (5.91)
ρ2 γ+1 (γ − 1) M1n
kg
1.1614 m3
 
1.4 − 1 2
= 1+ = 0.26102 (5.92)
ρ2 1.4 + 1 (1.4 − 1) 2.9722
kg
1.1614 m 3 kg
ρ2 = = 4.4495 3 (5.93)
0.26102 m
ρ2 ũ2 = ρ1 ũ1 (5.94)
 
kg
1, 031.84 m


ρ1 ũ1 1.1614 m 3 s m
ũ2 = = kg
= 269.33 (5.95)
ρ2 4.4495 m3 s
m
ṽ2 = ṽ1 = 142.26 (5.96)
s
u2 = ũ2 sin β + ṽ2 cos β (5.97)
v2 = −ũ2 cos β + ṽ2 sin β (5.98)
 m ◦
 m m
u2 = 269.33 sin 82.15 + 142.26 cos 82.15◦ = 286.24 (5.99)
s s s
 m ◦
 m ◦ m
v2 = − 269.33 cos 82.15 + 142.26 sin 82.15 = 104.14 (5.100)
s s   s
v2
check on wedge angle θ = arctan (5.101)
u2
104.14 m
 
s
= arctan = 19.99◦ (5.102)
286.24 m s
P2 = P1 + ρ1 ũ21 − ρ2 ũ22 (5.103)
   
kg m 2
 kg  m 2
P2 = 100, 000 P a + 1.1614 3 1, 031.84 − 4.4495 3 269.33 (5.104)
m s m s
P2 = 1, 013, 775 P a (5.105)
P2 1, 013, 775 P a
T2 = =   = 793.86 K (5.106)
ρ2 R 4.4495 m kg
287 kgJ K
3
s  
p J m
c2 = γRT2 = (1.4) 287 (793.86 K) = 564.78 (5.107)
kg K s
m
ũ2 269.33 s
M2n = = m = 0.477 (5.108)
c2 564.78 s
q
m 2 m 2



286.24 + 104.14
p
u22 + v22 s s
M2 = = m = 0.539 (5.109)
c2 564.78 s
T2 P2
s2 − s1 = cp ln − R ln (5.110)
T1 P1

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5.3. OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVES 137

   
J 793.86 K J 1, 013, 775 P a
= 1, 004.5 ln − 287 ln (5.111)
kg K 300 K kg K 100, 000 P a
J
s2 − s1 = 312.86 (5.112)
kg K
3. “Rarefaction Shock”

 m m
ũ1 = u1 sin β = 1, 041.6 sin (−9.91◦) = −179.26 (5.113)
s s
 m ◦ m
ṽ1 = u1 cos β = 1, 041.6 cos (−9.91 ) = 1, 026.06 (5.114)
s  s
−179.26 m
  
ũ1 s
M1n = = = −0.5163 (5.115)
c1 347.2 ms
 
ρ1 γ−1 2
= 1+ 2 (5.116)
ρ2 γ+1 (γ − 1) M1n
!
kg
1.1614 m 3 1.4 − 1 2
= 1+ 2 = 3.2928 (5.117)
ρ2 1.4 + 1 (1.4 − 1) (−0.5163)
kg
1.1614 m 3 kg
ρ2 = = 0.3527 3 (5.118)
3.2928 m
ρ2 ũ2 = ρ1 ũ1 (5.119)
 
kg
1.1614 m3 −179.26 m


ρ1 ũ1 s m
ũ2 = = kg
= −590.27 (5.120)
ρ2 0.3527 m3 s
m
ṽ2 = ṽ1 = 1, 026.06 (5.121)
s
u2 = ũ2 sin β + ṽ2 cos β (5.122)
v2 = −ũ2 cos β + ṽ2 sin β (5.123)
 m  m  m
u2 = −590.27 sin (−9.91◦) + 1, 026.06 cos (−9.91◦) = 1, 112.34 (5.124)
s s s
 m ◦
 m ◦ m
v2 = − −590.27 cos (−9.91 ) + 1, 026.06 sin (−9.91 ) = 404.88 (5.125)
s s   s
v2
check on wedge angle θ = arctan (5.126)
u2
m 
404.88 s

= arctan = 20.00◦ (5.127)
1, 112.34 ms
P2 = P1 + ρ1 ũ21 − ρ2 ũ22 (5.128)
   
kg m 2 kg  m 2
P2 = 100, 000 P a + 1.1614 3 −179.26 − 0.3527 3 −590.27 (5.129)
m s m s
P2 = 14, 433 P a (5.130)
P2 14, 433 P a
T2 = =    = 142.59 K (5.131)
ρ2 R 0.3527 mkg
3 287 J
kg K
s  
p J m
c2 = γRT2 = (1.4) 287 (142.59 K) = 239.36 (5.132)
kg K s
ũ2 −590.27 ms
M2n = = = −2.47 (5.133)
c2 239.36 m
s

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

138 CHAPTER 5. STEADY SUPERSONIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

q
m 2 m 2



1, 112.34 + 404.88
p
u22 + v22 s s
M2 = = m = 4.95 (5.134)
c2 239.36 s
T2 P2
s2 − s1 = cp ln − R ln (5.135)
T1 P1
   
J 142.59 K J 14, 433 P a
= 1, 004.5 ln − 287 ln (5.136)
kg K 300 K kg K 100, 000 P a
J
s2 − s1 = −191.5 (5.137)
kg K

5.4 Small disturbance theory

By taking a Taylor series expansion of the relationship between β and θ about θ = 0, for
fixed M1 and γ it can be shown that

1 γ+1 M14
tan β = p + θ θ << 1 (5.138)
M12 − 1 4 (M12 − 1)2

Note that when θ = 0 that

1
tan β = p (5.139)
M12 − 1
1
tan2 β = 2 (5.140)
M1 − 1
2 2
sin β sin β 1
2
= 2 = 2 (5.141)
cos β 1 − sin β M1 − 1
1
sin2 β M12
2 = (5.142)
1 − sin β 1 − M12
1
1
sin β = (5.143)
M1
 
1
β = arcsin (5.144)
M1
After a good deal of algebra and trigonometry, it can also be shown that the pressure
change, change in velocity magnitude, w, and change in entropy for flow over a thin wedge is

P2 − P1 γM 2
= p 21 θ (5.145)
P1 M1 − 1

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

5.4. SMALL DISTURBANCE THEORY 139

w2 − w1 θ
= −p 2 (5.146)
w1 M1 − 1
s2 − s1
∼ θ3 (5.147)
s1
In terms of changes,

∆P γM 2
= p 21 ∆θ (5.148)
P1 M1 − 1
∆w ∆θ
= −p 2 (5.149)
w1 M1 − 1
∆s
∼ ∆θ3 (5.150)
s1
Note that a small positive ∆θ gives rise to

• an increase in pressure

• a decrease in velocity magnitude

• a very small change in entropy

Figure 5.6 shows the pattern of waves that one obtains when subjecting a flow to a series
of small turns and the pattern that evolves as the turning radius is shrunk.

• compression waves converge

• expansion waves diverge

• convergence of compression waves leads to region of rapid entropy rise–shock formation

• divergence of pressure waves leads to no shock formation in expansion

This has an analog in one-dimensional unsteady flow. Consider a piston with an initial
velocity of zero accelerating into a tube

• lead compression wave travels at sound speed

• lead wave increases temperature (and sound speed) of disturbed flow

• each successive acoustic wave travels faster than lead wave

• eventually acoustic waves catch and form a shock

Consider a piston with zero initial velocity which decelerates

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140 CHAPTER 5. STEADY SUPERSONIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

Wave convergence;
Shock Formation;
Breakdown of Isentropic Assumption

Isentropic Compression

Isentropic Expansion

Wave divergence;

No shock formation

Oblique
Shock

Prandtl-Meyer
Expansion

Figure 5.6: Wave pattern and streamlines for flows undergoing a series of small turns and
for sudden turns

• lead expansion wave travels at sound speed

• lead wave decreases temperature (and sound speed) of disturbed flow
• each successive acoustic wave travels slow than lead wave
• no shock formation

A schematic for these one-dimensional unsteady flows is shown in Figure 5.7

5.5 Centered Prandtl-Meyer rarefaction

If we let ∆θ → 0, the entropy changes become negligibly small relative to pressure and
velocity changes, and the flow is isentropic. The relations can be replaced by differential
relations:

dP γM 2
=√ dθ (5.151)
P M2 − 1

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

5.5. CENTERED PRANDTL-MEYER RAREFACTION 141

t t
accelerating
piston shock
path

decelerating
slow, acoustic piston
lead wave path

x x

P_1, ρ_1 P_1, ρ_1

t suddenly t
accelerated
piston path

shock
locus

suddenly
decelerated
piston
path Prandtl-Meyer
expansion fan

x x

Figure 5.7: Schematic of compression and expansion waves for one-dimensional unsteady
piston-driven flow

dw dθ
= −√ (5.152)
w M2 − 1
ds
∼0 (5.153)
s

Recall now that for adiabatic flow

To γ−1 2
=1+ M (5.154)
T 2
γRTo γ−1 2
=1+ M (5.155)
γRT 2
c2o γ−1 2
= 1 + M (5.156)
c2 2
CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.
142 CHAPTER 5. STEADY SUPERSONIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

 − 1
γ−1 2 2
c = co 1 + M (5.157)
2
 − 3
co γ −1 2 2
dc = − 1+ M (γ − 1) MdM (5.158)
2 2
γ−1
dc MdM
= − 2 γ−1 2 (5.159)
c 1+ 2 M
Also
w = cM (5.160)
dw = cdM + Mdc (5.161)
dw dM dc
= + (5.162)
w M c
γ−1
dw dM 2
MdM
= − γ−1 (5.163)
w M 1 + 2 M2
dw 1 dM
= γ−1 (5.164)
w 1+ 2 M M 2

dθ 1 dM
− √ = γ−1 (5.165)
2
M −1 1+ 2 M M 2
√
M2 − 1 dM
−dθ = (5.166)
M 1 + γ−1
2
M2
Now positive θ corresponds to compression and negative θ corresponds to expansion.
Let’s define ν so positive ν gives and expansion.

ν ≡ − θ + θo (5.167)
dν = −dθ (5.168)
Now integrate the expression
√
M2 − 1 dM
dν = (5.169)
M 1 + γ−1
2
M2
Let ν = 0 correspond to M = 1. This effectively selects θo

√
r r
γ+1 γ−1
ν(M) = tan−1 (M 2 − 1) − tan−1 M 2 − 1 (5.170)
γ−1 γ+1
The function ν(M) is called the Prandtl-Meyer function. It is plotted in Figure 5.8.
Many texts tabulate the Prandtl-Meyer function. For a known turning angle, one can find
the Mach number. As the flow is entirely isentropic, all other flow variables can be obtained
through the isentropic relations. Note:

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

5.5. CENTERED PRANDTL-MEYER RAREFACTION 143

q 
π γ+1
• As M → ∞, ν → 2 γ−1
− 1 , corresponds to vacuum conditions

• given ν, one can calculate M

• isentropic relations give P , ρ, T , etc.

• Prandtl-Meyer function tabulated in many texts

ν (ο) ο
ν_max = 130.5

120

100

80

60 γ = 7/5

10 20 30 40
M

Figure 5.8: Prandtl-Meyer function

Example 5.2
Centered Expansion

m
Given: Calorically perfect, ideal air with P1 = 100 kP a, T1 = 300 K, u1 = 500 s , turned through
a 30◦ expansion corner.

Find: Fluid properties after the expansion

Analysis:

P1 100 kP a kg
ρ1 =
=  = 1.1614 3 (5.171)
RT1 J
0.287 kg K (300 K) m
s  
p J m
c1 = γRT1 = 1.4 287 (300 K) = 347.2 (5.172)
kg K s
u1 500 ms
M1 = = = 1.4401 (5.173)
c1 347.2 m s
 
γ−1
To = T1 1 + M12 (5.174)
2
 
1
To = 300 K 1 + 1.44012 = 424.43 K (5.175)
5

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

144 CHAPTER 5. STEADY SUPERSONIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

 γ
 γ−1
γ−1
Po = P1 1 + M12 (5.176)
2
 3.5
1
Po = 100 kP a 1 + 1.44012 = 336.828 kP a (5.177)
5
Now calculate the Prandtl-Meyer function for the freestream:
r r
γ+1 γ−1
q
ν(M1 ) = tan−1 (M12 − 1) − tan−1 M12 − 1 (5.178)
γ−1 γ+1
r r
1.4 + 1 1.4 − 1 p
ν(M1 ) = tan−1 (1.44012 − 1) − tan−1 1.44012 − 1 (5.179)
1.4 − 1 1.4 + 1
ν(M1 ) = 0.177138 rad (5.180)
180◦
ν(M1 ) = 0.177138 rad = 10.1493◦ (5.181)
π rad
The interpretation here is that an initially sonic flow would have had to had turned 10.1493◦ to achieve
a Mach number of M1 = 1.4401.

Now add on the actual turning:

ν(M2 ) = ν(M1 ) + 30◦ (5.182)
ν(M2 ) = 10.1493◦ + 30◦ = 40.1493◦ (5.183)
π rad
ν(M2 ) = 40.1493◦ = 0.700737 rad (5.184)
180◦
A trial and error solution gives the M2 which corresponds to ν(M2 ) = 0.700737 rad:

r r
1.4 + 1 1.4 − 1
q
0.700737 rad = tan−1 (M22 − 1) − tan−1 M22 − 1 (5.185)
1.4 − 1 1.4 + 1
M2 = 2.54431 (5.186)
 −1
γ−1 2
T2 = To 1 + M2 (5.187)
2
 −1
1
T2 = 424.43 K 1 + 2.543312 = 189.4 K (5.188)
5
 γ
− γ−1
γ−1 2
P2 = Po 1 + M2 (5.189)
2
 −3.5
1
P2 = 336.828 kP a 1 + 2.543312 = 18.43 kP a (5.190)
5
P2 18.43 kP a kg
ρ2 = =  = 0.3390 3 (5.191)
RT2 0.287 kgJ K (189.4 K) m
s  
p J m
c2 = γRT2 = 1.4 287 (189.4 K) = 275.87 (5.192)
kg K s
 m m
w2 = M2 c2 = 2.54431 275.87 = 701.89 (5.193)
s s

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

5.6. WAVE INTERACTIONS AND REFLECTIONS 145

5.6 Wave interactions and reflections

Shocks and rarefactions can intersect and reflect in a variety of ways.

5.6.1 Oblique shock reflected from a wall

An oblique shock which reflects from a wall is represented in Figure 5.9.

Μ_1 Μ_2
Μ_3

β_1 β_2

P_3
P_2
interior streamline
P_1 pressure field

P_3

P_1 wall pressure

Figure 5.9: Reflection of an oblique shock from a wall

Note:
• analysis just that of two oblique shocks
• flow always turns to be parallel to wall
• angle of incidence not equal angle of reflection due to non-linear effects
• interior pressure profile has two steps
• wall pressure profile has single step
• P2 > 2P1 , that is the pressure is higher than that obtained in the acoustic limit

5.6.2 Oblique shock intersection

Two oblique shocks intersect as sketched in Figure 5.10
Note:
• flow always turns to be parallel to wall
• when shocks intersect, flow turns again to be parallel to itself

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

146 CHAPTER 5. STEADY SUPERSONIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

Μ_2

Μ_1 Μ_3

Μ_2

Figure 5.10: Interaction of two oblique shocks

5.6.3 Shock strengthening

A flow turned by a corner through an oblique shock can be strengthened by a second turn
as sketched in Figure 5.11

am
stre
slip
ra
r
ef
ac
tio
n

Figure 5.11: Shock Strengthening Sketch

Note: three new waves generated

• strengthened shock
• slipstream in which pressures match, velocity directions match, but velocity magnitudes
differ
• weak rarefaction wave

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

5.7. SUPERSONIC FLOW OVER AIRFOILS 147

5.6.4 Shock weakening

A flow turned by a corner through an oblique shock can be weakened by a second turn as
sketched in Figure 5.12

Figure 5.12: Shock Weakening Sketch

5.7 Supersonic flow over airfoils

The standard problem in flow over an airfoil is to determine the lift and the drag. While in
actual design it is the magnitude of the lift force FL , and drag force FD , that is most crucial,
there exists dimensionless numbers the lift coefficient CL and the drag coefficient CD which
give good relative measures of airfoil performance.

FL
CL ≡ 1 (5.194)
ρ u2 A
2 1 1
FD
CD ≡ 1 (5.195)
ρ u2 A
2 1 1

Though this is the traditional formula, it is probably not the best for interpreting how the
forces vary when flight speed is varied. This is because when u1 , flight speed is varied both
numerator and denominator change. To remedy this, we can instead scale by the ambient
sound speed to define a dimensionless lift force F ∗L and dimensionless drag force F ∗D :

FL
F ∗L ≡ (5.196)
ρ1 c21 A
FD
F ∗D ≡ (5.197)
ρ1 c21 A

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

148 CHAPTER 5. STEADY SUPERSONIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

far
ge
g ed field
di tion
n Mach
P_1 lea efac wave
T_1 rar
M_1

P_2

α_ο
slipstream
P_2’

le hoc
ad k
s

in
g
far

ed
ge
field
Mach
wave

Figure 5.13: Supersonic Flow over a Flat Plate

5.7.1 Flat plate at angle of attack

The simplest problem is that of a flat plate at angle of attack αo . A schematic is illustrated
in Figure 5.13. Note:

• flow over the top is turned through an isentropic rarefaction to P2

• flow over the bottom is turned through an oblique shock to P2′

• Since P2′ > P2 , there is both lift and drag forces!

• both a shock and rarefaction are attached to the trailing edge to turn the flow to the
horizontal

• the flow regions are separated by a slipstream in which pressure and velocity directions
match
(P2′ −P2 ) cos αo
• FL = (P2′ − P2 ) A cos αo , CL = 1
ρ u2
2 1 1

(P2′ −P2 ) sin αo

• FD = (P2′ − P2 ) A sin αo , CD = 1
ρ u2
2 1 1

• the drag here is known as wave drag or induced drag

• other components of drag, skin friction drag and thickness drag are zero due to inviscid
limit and zero thickness limit

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

5.7. SUPERSONIC FLOW OVER AIRFOILS 149

In the small disturbance limit

∆P γM12
=p ∆θ (5.198)
P1 M12 − 1
γP1 M 2
P2′ = P1 + p 2 1 αo (5.199)
M1 − 1
γP1 M 2
P2 = P1 + p 2 1 (−αo ) (5.200)
M1 − 1
2γP1 M 2
P2′ − P2 = p 2 1 αo (5.201)
M1 − 1
2γP1 u21
P2′ − P2 = p 2 γP
αo (5.202)
M1 − 1 ρ11
2
P2′ − P2 = p ρ1 u21 αo (5.203)
M12 − 1
2
FL = p 2 ρ1 u21 αo A cos αo (5.204)
M1 − 1
2
FL = p 2 ρ1 u21 αo A(1) (5.205)
M1 − 1
4αo
CL = p (5.206)
M12 − 1
2
FD = p 2 ρ1 u21 αo A sin αo (5.207)
M1 − 1
2
FD = p ρ1 u21 αo2 A (5.208)
2
M1 − 1
4 αo2
CD = p (5.209)
M12 − 1
FL 2 M12 αo
F ∗L = = (5.210)
ρ1 c21 A
p
M12 − 1
FD 2 M12 αo2
F ∗D = = (5.211)
ρ1 c21 A
p
M12 − 1
High Mach number limit: F ∗L = 2M1 αo (5.212)
High Mach number limit: F ∗D = 2M1 αo2 (5.213)
Dimensionless lift and drag are plotted versus Mach number in Figure 5.14

Example 5.3
Lift and Drag on an Inclined Flat Plate

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150 CHAPTER 5. STEADY SUPERSONIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

2
F* = F / ρ 1 c A
L L 1
2
Dimensionless Lift Force
1.75 Flat Plate at Small Angle of Attack
1.5

1.25

1 Invalid Region

0.75

0.5
ο
0.25 α ο= 5

0 2 4 6 8 10
M1

F* = F / ρ c 2 A
D D 1 1
0.5

Dimensionless Drag Force

0.4
Flat Plate at Small Angle of Attack

0.3

0.2
Invalid Region

0.1
ο
α ο= 5
0 2 4 6 8 10
M1

Figure 5.14: Dimensionless Lift and Drag versus Incoming Mach Number for Flat Plate at
Small Angle of Attack

Given: Flat plate, of chord length 2 m, depth 10 m inclined at 20◦ to the horizontal in a freestream
of M1 = 3, P1 = 100 kP a, T1 = 300 K.

Find: Lift and drag forces on the plate.

Analysis: First some preliminaries:

s  
p J m
c1 = γRT1 = (1.4) 287 (300 K) = 347.2 (5.214)
kg K s
 m m
u1 = M1 c1 = (3.0) 347.2 = 1, 041.6 (5.215)
s s
P1 100, 000 P a kg
ρ1 = =   = 1.1614 3 (5.216)
RT1 287 J (300 K) m
kg K
 γ
 γ−1
γ−1 2
Po = P1 1 + M1 (5.217)
2
 3.5
1
Po = 100 kP a 1 + 32 = 367.327 kP a (5.218)
5

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

5.7. SUPERSONIC FLOW OVER AIRFOILS 151

In a previous example, we found the oblique shock state under identical conditions:

P2′ = 377, 072 P a (5.219)

Now consider the rarefaction.

r r
γ+1 γ−1
q
ν(M1 ) = tan−1 (M12 − 1) − tan−1 M12 − 1 (5.220)
γ−1 γ+1
r r
1.4 + 1 1.4 − 1 p
ν(M1 ) = tan−1 (32 − 1) − tan−1 32 − 1 = 0.8691 rad = 49.7973◦ (5.221)
1.4 − 1 1.4 + 1
ν(M2 ) = ν(M1 ) + 20◦ (5.222)
ν(M2 ) = 49.7973◦ + 20◦ = 69.7973◦ (5.223)
r r
1.4 + 1 1.4 − 1
q
69.7973◦ = 1.218 rad = tan−1 (M22 − 1) − tan−1 M22 − 1 (5.224)
1.4 − 1 1.4 + 1
M2 = 4.3209 (5.225)
 γ
− γ−1
γ−1 2
P2 = Po 1 + M2 (5.226)
2
 −3.5
1 2
P2 = 367.327 kP a 1 + 4.3209 = 1.591 kP a (5.227)
5
FL = (P2′ − P2 ) A cos αo (5.228)
FL = (377, 072 P a − 1, 591 P a) (10 m) (2 m) cos 20◦ (5.229)
FL = 7, 142, 073 N (5.230)
FL 7, 142, 073 N
CL = 1 2
=  
2 (5.231)
2 1 u1 A
ρ 1 kg
2 1.1614 m 3 1, 041.6 m
s (10 m) (2 m)
CL = 0.5668 (5.232)
FD = (P2′ − P2 ) A sin αo (5.233)
FD = (377, 072 P a − 1, 591 P a) (10 m) (2 m) sin 20◦ (5.234)
FD = 2, 320, 600 N (5.235)
FD 2, 320, 600 N
CD = 1 2
=  
2 (5.236)
2 ρ1 u 1 A 1.1614 kg3 1, 041.6 m (10 m) (2 m)
1
2 m s

CD = 0.1842 (5.237)
4αo
Compare with thin airfoil theory: CL thin =p (5.238)
M12 − 1
4 (20◦ ) π180
rad
◦
CL thin = √ = 0.4936 (5.239)
2
3 −1
4α2
CD thin = p 2o (5.240)
M1 − 1
◦ π rad 2


4 (20 ) 180◦
CD thin = √ = 0.1723 (5.241)
32 − 1

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152 CHAPTER 5. STEADY SUPERSONIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

5.7.2 Diamond-shaped airfoil

The simplest supersonic airfoil with camber for analysis purposes is the diamond shaped
airfoil as sketched in Figure 5.15. The sketch shows the airfoil at zero angle of attack. The
upper half of the wedge is inclined at angle ǫ to the horizontal In this case there will be no
lift but there will be drag. Note the following features:

far field
Mach waves

P_1
T_1
M_1

lead oblique P_2 P_3

shock P_4 trailing oblique
2ε shock

Prandtl-Meyer
rarefaction

Figure 5.15: Supersonic Flow over a Diamond-Shaped Airfoil

• sudden turn through lead oblique shock

• turn through isentropic Prandtl-Meyer rarefaction

• final turn through oblique shock attached to trailing edge

• far field limit: acoustic (Mach) waves

• Thin airfoil limit CL thin = √ 4ǫ2 , same as for flat plate!

M1 −1

2
• Thin airfoil limit CD thin = √ 4ǫ2 , same as for flat plate!
M1 −1

5.7.3 General curved airfoil

A general airfoil with camber is sketched in Figure 5.16. The sketch shows the airfoil at zero
angle of attack. In this case there will be no lift but there will be drag. Note the following
features:

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

5.7. SUPERSONIC FLOW OVER AIRFOILS 153

• lead oblique shock

• lead shock weakened by series of non-centered rarefaction waves

• shock at trailing edge, also weakened by non-centered rarefaction waves

• far field: acoustic (Mach) waves

Figure 5.16: Supersonic Flow over a Curved Airfoil

5.7.4 Transonic transition

Transonic flow exists whenever there is a continuous transition from subsonic to supersonic
flow. One example of a transonic flow is sketched in Figure 5.171 which shows an accelerating
airfoil.
Note:

• for high subsonic Mach number a bubble of supersonic flow appears

• smooth transition from subsonic to supersonic

• shock transition from supersonic to subsonic

• as Mach number increases, supersonic bubble expands

• for slightly supersonic Mach number, new shock approaches from far field

• as supersonic Mach number increases, shock from far field approaches leading edge and
supersonic bubble disappears

• challenging problems, not easily solved till 1960’s!

1
adopted from Bryson, A. E., “An Experimental Investigation of Transonic Flow Past Two-Dimensional
Wedge and Circular-Arc Sections Using a Mach-Zehnder Interferometer,” NACA Tech. Note 2560, 1951.

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

154 CHAPTER 5. STEADY SUPERSONIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

Sonic Locus Sonic Locus

Shock
Shock
M<1 M>1 M<1 M<1 M>1 M<1

Μ_1 = 0.852 Μ_1 = 0.892

M>1 Shock
Shock Shock

M>1
M<1 M>1 M>1
M<1
Sonic Locus M>1
M<1

Μ_1 = 1.207 Μ_1 = 1.315 Μ_1 = 1.465

Figure 5.17: Transition from Subsonic to Transonic to Supersonic Flow

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

Chapter 6

Linear flow analysis

see Anderson, Chapter 9

In this section we consider flows which are

• steady,

• two-dimensional,

• irrotational,

• isentropic,

• calorically perfect, and

• ideal.

The analysis is extensible to other cases.

6.1 Formulation
In lecture a detailed discussion is given in which the linearized velocity potential equation is
obtained:
2

∂2φ ∂2φ
1 − M∞ + 2 = 0. (6.1)
∂x2 ∂y

6.2 Subsonic flow

Here we consider flows in which the Mach number is subsonic, but not negligibly small.

155
156 CHAPTER 6. LINEAR FLOW ANALYSIS

6.2.1 Prandtl-Glauret rule

A discussion is given where it is shown that the pressure coefficient on a supersonic airfoil
can be determined in terms of the pressure coefficient known from subsonic theory:
cpo
cp = p . (6.2)
1 − M∞2

6.2.2 Flow over wavy wall

The technique of separation of variables is used to show the subsonic flow over a wavy wall
can be written in terms of the velocity potential as
p !
2 y
 
U∞ h 2πx −2π 1 − M∞
φ(x, y) = p sin exp . (6.3)
1 − M∞2 l l

6.3 Supersonic flow

6.3.1 D’Alembert’s solution
The D’Alembert solution for the wave equation is shown for supersonic flows:
 p   p 
2
φ(x, y) = f x + M∞ − 1y + g x − M∞ − 1y . 2 (6.4)

6.3.2 Flow over wavy wall

The solution for flow over a wavy wall is given in detail in lecture.

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

Chapter 7

Viscous flow

This chapter will focus on problems in which viscous stress plays an important role in deter-
mining the motion of the fluid. The topic in general is quite broad; to gain understanding
of the fundamental physics, we will restrict our attention to the following limits:

• incompressible fluid

• isotropic Newtonian fluid with constant properties

• at most two-dimensional unsteady flow

The chapter will consider the governing equations and then solve a few representative
problems.

7.1 Governing equations

This section considers the governing equations for the conditions specified for this chapter.
In dimensional non-conservative form, the governing equations are as follows:

∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
 2
∂ u ∂2u

∂u ∂u ∂u ∂P
ρ + ρu + ρv =− +µ +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x2 ∂y 2
 2
∂ v ∂2v

∂v ∂v ∂v ∂P
ρ + ρu + ρv =− +µ +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2
 2
∂2T
    
∂T ∂T ∂T ∂P ∂P ∂P ∂ T
ρcp +u +v = +u +v +k +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2
 2  2  2 !
∂u 1 ∂u ∂v ∂v
+2µ + + +
∂x 2 ∂y ∂x ∂y

157
158 CHAPTER 7. VISCOUS FLOW

An argument could be made to eliminate the viscous dissipation term and the pressure
derivatives in the energy equation. The argument is subtle and based on the low Mach
number limit which corresponds to incompressibility.

7.2 Couette flow

Consider a channel flow driven by plate motion See Figure 7.1

U
T = T0
y=h

P0 P0
y

x
y=0
x=0 T = T0

Figure 7.1: Sketch for Couette flow

The mechanics of such a flow can be described by stripping away many extraneous terms
from the governing equations.

Take

∂u ∂T
• fully developed velocity and temperature profiles: ∂x
≡ 0, ∂x
≡0
∂
• steady flow ∂t
≡0

• constant pressure field P (x, y, t) = Po

• constant temperature channel walls T (x, 0, t) = T (x, h, t) = To

Since fully developed mass gives:

∂v
=0 (7.1)
∂y
v(x, y) = f (x) (7.2)

and since in order to prevent mass flowing through the wall boundaries, v(x, 0) = v(x, h) = 0,
thus

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7.2. COUETTE FLOW 159

v(x, y) = 0 (7.3)
∂u
Since ∂x
= 0, ∂u
∂t
= 0 and ∂T
∂x
= 0, ∂T
∂t
= 0, we have at most,

u = u(y) (7.4)
T = T (y) (7.5)

The y momentum equation has no information and x momentum and energy reduce to the
following:

d2 u
0=µ 2 (7.6)
dy
2
 2
dT du
0=k 2 +µ (7.7)
dy dy

The x momentum equation is thus

d2 u
=0 (7.8)
dy 2
du
= C1 (7.9)
dy
u(y) = C1 y + C2 (7.10)

Now applying u(0) = 0 and u(h) = U to fix C1 and C2 we get

y
u(y) = U (7.11)
h
Shear stress:

∂u
τyx = µ (7.12)
∂y
U
τyx =µ (7.13)
h
The energy equation becomes

2
d2 T

µ du
2
=− (7.14)
dy k dy

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160 CHAPTER 7. VISCOUS FLOW

d2 T µ U2
= − (7.15)
dy 2 k h2
2
dT µU
=− y + C1 (7.16)
dy k h2
1 µ U2 2
T (y) = − y + C1 y + C2 (7.17)
2 k h2
Now T (0) = To and T (h) = To . This fixes the constants, so

 
1 µ 2  y   y 2
T (y) = U − + To (7.18)
2k h h
In dimensionless form this becomes
1 µcp U 2  y   y 2
 
T − To
= − (7.19)
To 2 k cp To h h
    
T − To P r Ec y y 2
= − (7.20)
To 2 h h
µ
µcp ρ ν momentum dif f usivity
Prandtl Number: Pr ≡ = k
= = (7.21)
k ρcp
α thermal dif f usivity
U2 kinetic energy
Eckert Number: Ec ≡ = (7.22)
cp To thermal energy

Now

dT 1 µ U2
= (h − 2y) (7.23)
dy 2 k h2
dT 1 U2
qy = −k = µ 2 (2y − h) (7.24)
dy 2 h
µU 2
qy (0) = − (7.25)
2h
Note:

• at lower wall, heat flux into wall; heat generated in fluid conducted to wall

• wall heat flux magnitude independent of thermal conductivity

• higher plate velocity, higher wall heat flux

• higher viscosity, higher wall heat flux

• thinner gap, higher wall heat flux

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7.3. SUDDENLY ACCELERATED FLAT PLATE 161

h
Also since Tmax occurs at y = 2

1µ 2
Tmax = U + To (7.26)
8k
Note:

• high viscosity, high maximum temperature

• high plate velocity, high maximum temperature

• low thermal conductivity, high maximum temperature

Dimensionless wall heat flux given by the Nusselt number:

 
 q (0)   q (0)∆y 
 y  y
Nu ≡  k∆T  =   (7.27)
 ∆y  k∆T 
µU 2 h
2h 2
Nu = 1µ 2 =2 (7.28)
k8 kU

7.3 Suddenly accelerated flat plate

The problem of pulling a plate suddenly in a fluid which is initially at rest is often known
as Stokes’ First Problem or Rayleigh’s problem.

7.3.1 Formulation
Consider a channel flow driven by a suddenly accelerated plate. See Figure 7.2 Initially,
t<0

• fluid at rest

• plate at rest

For t ≥ 0

• plate pulled at constant velocity U

Assume:

• constant pressure P (x, y, t) = Po

∂u
• fully developed flow ∂x
= 0, ∂T
∂x
=0

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162 CHAPTER 7. VISCOUS FLOW

u(∞, t) = 0
T(∞, t) = T0 u (y, 0) = 0
T(y, t) = T0
ρ, µ, P0

u = u (y, t) 1/2
y δ ∼ (µ t / ρ)

u(0,t) = U
U
T(0, t) = T0

Figure 7.2: Sketch for Stokes’ First Problem

Again from mass we deduce that v(x, y, t) = 0. The x momentum equation reduces to

∂u ∂2u
ρ =µ 2 (7.29)
∂t ∂y
The initial and boundary conditions are

u(y, 0) = 0 (7.30)
u(0, t) = U (7.31)
u(∞, t) = 0 (7.32)

7.3.2 Velocity profile

This problem is solved in detail in lecture. The solution for the velocity field is shown to be
Z y/√νt
u 2
exp −s2 ds


=1− √ (7.33)
Uo π 0

7.4 Starting transient for plane Couette flow

The starting transient problem for plane Couette flow can be formulated as

∂u ∂2u
=ν 2 (7.34)
∂t ∂y
u(y, 0) = 0, u(0, t) = Uo , u(h, t) = 0. (7.35)
In class a detailed solution is presented via the technique of separation of variables. The
solution is

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

7.5. BLASIUS BOUNDARY LAYER 163

∞
−n2 π 2 νt
 
u y 2X1  nπy 
=1− − exp sin (7.36)
Uo h π n=1 n h2 h

7.5 Blasius boundary layer

The problem of flow over a flat plate in the absence of pressure gradient is formulated and
solved using the classical approach of Blasius.

7.5.1 Formulation
After suitable scaling and definition of similarity variables, discussed in detail in class, the
following third order non-linear ordinary differential equation is obtained:

d3 f 1 d2 f
+ f = 0, (7.37)
dη 3 2 dη 2
 
df  df 
= 0, = 1, f |η=0 = 0. (7.38)
dη η=0 dη η→∞

This equation is solved numerically as a homework problem.

7.5.2 Wall shear stress

The solution is used to obtain the classical formulae for skin friction coefficient:
0.664
Cf = √ , (7.39)
Rex
and drag coefficient:
1.328
CD = √ . (7.40)
ReL

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164 CHAPTER 7. VISCOUS FLOW

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.

Chapter 8

Acoustics

This chapter outlines the brief introduction to acoustics given in class in somewhat more
detail.

8.1 Formulation
We reduce the Euler equations for isentropic flow to the following equations where quantities
with a hat are understood to be small perturbations about the ambient state, denoted with
a subscript of ”o”.

∂ ρ̂
+ ρo ∇ · v̂ = 0 (8.1)
∂t
∂ v̂
ρo + ∇ · P̂ = 0 (8.2)
∂t
P̂ = c2o ρ̂. (8.3)

Introducing the velocity potential ∇φ = v̂ and employing further manipulation allows the
equation to be written as the wave equation:

∂2φ
2
= c2o ∇2 φ. (8.4)
∂t

The pressure, velocity, and density are then obtained from

∂φ
P̂ = −ρo , (8.5)
∂t
v̂ = ∇φ, (8.6)
∂φ
ρ̂ = −ρo c2o . (8.7)
∂t

165
166 CHAPTER 8. ACOUSTICS

8.2 Planar waves

The D’Alembert solution for planar waves is shown in class to be

φ = f (x + co t) + g(x − co t), (8.8)

P̂ = −ρo co f ′ (x + co t) + ρo co g ′ (x − co t), (8.9)
û = f ′ (x + co t) + g ′ (x − co t), (8.10)
(8.11)

8.3 Spherical waves

The D’Alembert solution for spherical waves is shown in class to be
1 1
φ = f (r + co t) + g(r − co t), (8.12)
r r
ρo co ′ ρo co ′
P̂ = − f (r + co t) + g (r − co t), (8.13)
r r
1 ′ 1
û = f (r + co t) + g ′(r − co t), (8.14)
r r
(8.15)

CC BY-NC-ND. 28 March 2011, J. M. Powers.