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Synopsis: 3.2. D.C. MOTORS

The document summarizes the key components and operating principles of a line following robot. It discusses the use of a PIC microcontroller to control two DC motors through an H-bridge motor driver circuit. The differential steering system allows the robot to follow or deviate from a dark line using an array of IR sensors and turning the motors at different speeds. The DC motors provide torque through a gear system to move the robot while the H-bridge allows controlling the direction of rotation by reversing polarity.

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Rahul Pandey
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34 views3 pages

Synopsis: 3.2. D.C. MOTORS

The document summarizes the key components and operating principles of a line following robot. It discusses the use of a PIC microcontroller to control two DC motors through an H-bridge motor driver circuit. The differential steering system allows the robot to follow or deviate from a dark line using an array of IR sensors and turning the motors at different speeds. The DC motors provide torque through a gear system to move the robot while the H-bridge allows controlling the direction of rotation by reversing polarity.

Uploaded by

Rahul Pandey
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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1.

SYNOPSIS
The line following robot, operates as the name specifies. It is programmed to
follow a dark line on a white background and detect turns or deviations and modify the
motors appropriately. The optical sensor is an array of commercially available IR
reflective type sensors.
The core of the robot is the PIC 16F873 microcontroller. The speed control of the
motors is achieved by the two PWM modules in the μC. The direction control is provided
by 2 I/O pins. The H-Bridge motor driving/control chip takes these signals and translates
it into current direction entering the motor armature. The motors require separate supply
for operation.
The differential steering system is used to turn the robot. In this system, each back
wheel has a dedicated motor while the front wheels are free to rotate. To move in a
straight line, both the motors are given the same voltage (same polarity). To manage a
turn of different sharpness, the motor on the side of the turn required is given lesser
voltage. To take a sharp turn, its polarity is reversed.
The sensor is an array of 7 IR LED-Phototransistor pairs arranged in the form of
an inverted V. The output of each sensor is fed into an analog comparator with the
threshold voltage (used to calibrate the intensity level difference of the line with respect
to the surface). These 7 signals (from each photo-reflective sensor) is given to a priority
encoder, the output of which to the microcontroller.
The control has 6 modes of operation, turn left/right, move left/right, and drift
left/right. The actual action is caused by controlling the direction/speed of the two motors
(the two back wheels), thus causing a turn. The actual implementation is a behavior based
(neural) control with the sensors providing the inputs. The robot can also be programmed
to find the line by pseudo-random movement in case no line is detected by the optical
sensor.

3.2. D.C. MOTORS


DC motors are widely used, inexpensive, small and powerful for their size.
Reduction gearboxes are often required to reduce the speed and increase the torque output
of the motor. Unfortunately more sophisticated control algorithms are required to achieve
accurate control over the axial rotation of these motors. Although recent developments in
stepper motor technologies have come a long way, the benefits offered by smooth control
and high levels of acceleration with DC motors far outweigh any disadvantages.
Department of Electronics & Communication, GAT, Bangalore - 98
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LINE FOLLOWING ROBOT
Several characteristics are important when selecting DC motors and these can be
split into two specific categories. The first category is associated with the input ratings of
the motor and specifies its electrical requirements, like operating voltage and current.
The second category is related to the motor's output characteristics and specifies the
physical limitations of the motor in terms of speed, torque and power.
Example specifications of the motors used are given below:
Characteristic Value
Operating Voltage: 6V to 12V
Operating Current: 2A Max. (Stall)
Speed: 2400 rpm
Torque: 30 gm-cm
As noticed, the torque provided can hardly move 30gm of weight around with
wheel diameter of about 2cm. This is a fairly a huge drawback as the robot could easily
weigh about a kg. This is accomplished by gears which reduce the speed (2400 rpm is
highly impractical) and effectively increase the torque. If the speed is reduced by using a
gear system by a factor of ρ then the torque is increased by the same factor. For
example, if the speed is reduced from 2400 rpm, to 30 rpm, then the torque is increased
by a factor of (2400/30 = 80) in other words the torque becomes 30 80 2400 gm-cm or
2.4 kg-cm which is more than sufficient.
×
3.3. H-BRIDGE MOTOR CONTROL
DC motors are generally bi-directional motors. That is, their direction of rotation
can be changed by just reversing the polarity. But once the motors are fixed, control
becomes tricky. This is done using the H-Bridge. The figure is given below.
A B C D ACTION
1 0 0 1 CLOCKWISE
0 1 1 0 COUNTER-CLOCKWISE
0/1 0/1 1/0 1/0 BRAKE
ANY OTHER STATE FORBIDDEN
Department of Electronics & Communication, GAT, Bangalore - 98
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LINE FOLLOWING ROBOT
Figure 3.2: The H-Bridge Using Relays.
The Explanation is simple, If A & D are turned on, then the current flows in the direction
shown in the figure below.
Figure 3.3: Clockwise rotation
If B & C are turned on, then the motor rotates in counter clockwise direction.
Figure 3.4: Counter-Clockwise rotation
Department of Electronics & Communication, GAT, Bangalore - 98
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LINE FOLLOWING ROBOT
If you turn on the two upper circuits, the motor resists turning, so you effectively
have a breaking mechanism. The same is true if you turn on both of the lower circuits.
This is because the motor is a generator and when it turns it generates a voltage. If the
terminals of the motor are connected (shorted), then the voltage generated counteracts the
motors freedom to turn. It is as if you are applying a similar but opposite voltage to the
one generated by the motor being turned. In other words, it acts like a brake. Any other
state like A & C = ON or B & D = ON will cause a direct path to ground causing a very
high current to pass through the relays thus causing a burnt fuse (if it exists).
The following figure shows an H-Bridge using only transistors. The same theory
applies.
Figure 3.5: H-Bridge using transistors.
Usually, the above circuitry can be used only for direction control. The Existing H-Bridge
is further modified to include another transistor, now making speed control possible too.
This is shown in the figure below.
Figure 3.6: Enhanced H-Bridge
Department of Electronics & Communication, GAT, Bangalore - 98
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LINE FOLLOWING ROBOT
Department of Electronics & Communication, GAT, Bangalore - 98
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The same direction rules apply, but now the motor will behave as per the direction
control only when a ‘1’ is given to the EN input. Speed control is usually done by giving
a PWM signal, and the duty cycle is varied to vary the speed of the motor. Usually
protection diodes are also incorporated across the transistors to catch the back voltage that
is generated by the motor's coil when the power is switched on and off. This fly-back
voltage can be many times higher than the supply voltage! If diodes are not used, the
transistors have a good chance to get burnt.

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