DEPARTEMNT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

BASIC ELECTRICAL MACHINES

[ECEg132]

LABORATORY MANUAL

INSTITUTION OF TECHNOLOGY

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

SUPERVISOR:
Made By :Mr Marachew Moges
EE Deptt.

1|Page
ELECTRICAL MACHINES LABORATORY MANUAL
Course outcome
Co1 Demonstrate the knowledge of open circuit and short circuit for transformer
motor and generator
Co2 Apply the knowledge of parallel operation of transformer
C03 Apply the knowledge of load test like resistive load ,capacitive loads and
inductive loads to find the efficiency of machine
Co4 Apply the knowledge of open circuit test and block rotor test of induction
motor to find the efficiency of machine
Co5 Demonstrate the knowledge of speed control and starting method of machine
Si.no name of experiment Page no
CONTENTES

To find the polarity and turns ratio of a single phase 7

transformer.
1

2 parallel operation of two single phase transformer 12

3 Determination of efficiency and voltage regulation open circuit 16

test and short circuit test on single phase transformer
4 Three phase transformer test: star –star(Y-Y) connection, delta- 24
delta connection, star-delta connection and, delta star
connection.

5 TO STUDY OF OPEN CIRCUIT TEST, SHORT 41

CIRCUITTEST AND LOAD TEST OF THREE PHASE
TRANSFORMER

6 starting method of induction motor 53

7 no load and block rotor test on a three phase induction motor 62

8 3-point and 4- point DC motor starter. 69

9 Speed control of DC shunt motor by armature voltage ,variable 74

resister and flux control method

10 CHARACTERISTICS OF SEPARATELY EXCITED DC 81

SHUNT GENERATOR
11 Characteristics and voltage build-up of Shunt DC 88

Generator

12 method of starting synchronous motor 97

13 Synchronous Motor V-Curve 102

LABORATORY PRACTICE SAFETY RULES
1. SAFETY is of paramount importance in the Electrical Engineering Laboratories.

2. Electricity NEVER EXECUSES careless persons. So, exercise enough care and attention in handling electrical equipment and follow safety practices in
the laboratory. (Electricity is a good servant but a bad master).

3. Avoid direct contact with any voltage source and power line voltages. (Otherwise, any such contact may subject you to electrical shock)

4. Wear rubber-soled shoes. (To insulate you from earth so that even if you accidentally contact a live point, current will not flow through your body to earth
and hence you will be protected from electrical shock)

5. Wear laboratory-coat and avoid loose clothing. (Loose clothing may get caught on an equipment/instrument and this may lead to an accident particularly if
the equipment happens to be a rotating machine)

6. Girl students should have their hair tucked under their coat or have it in a knot.

7. Do not wear any metallic rings, bangles, bracelets, wristwatches and neck chains. (When you move your hand/body, such conducting items may create a
short circuit or may touch a live point and thereby subject you to electrical shock)

8. be certain that your hands are dry and that you are not standing on wet floor. (Wet parts of the body reduce the contact resistance thereby increasing the
severity of the shock)

9. Ensure that the power is OFF before you start connecting up the circuit. (Otherwise you will be touching the live parts in the circuit)

10. Get your circuit diagram approved by the staff member and connect up the circuit strictly as per the approved circuit diagram.

11. Check power chords for any sign of damage and be certain that the chords use safety plugs and do not defeat the safety feature of these plugs by using
ungrounded plugs.
12. When using connection leads, check for any insulation damage in the leads and avoid such defective leads.

13. Do not defeat any safety devices such as fuse or circuit breaker by shorting across it. Safety devices protect YOU and your equipment.

14. Switch on the power to your circuit and equipment only after getting them checked up and approved by the staff member.

15. Take the measurement with one hand in your pocket. (To avoid shock in case you accidentally touch two points at different potentials with your two hands)

16. Do not make any change in the connection without the approval of the staff member.

17. In case you notice any abnormal condition in your circuit (like insulation heating up, resistor heating up etc.), switch off the power to your circuit
immediately and inform the staff member.

18. Keep hot soldering iron in the holder when not in use.

19. After completing the experiment show your readings to the staff member and switch off the power to your circuit after getting approval from the staff
member.

20. While performing load-tests in the Electrical Machines Laboratory using the brake- drums: Avoid the brake-drum from getting too hot by putting just
enough water into the brake-drum at intervals; use the plastic bottle with a nozzle (available in the laboratory) to pour the water. (When the drum gets too hot,
it will burn out the braking belts) Do not stand in front of the brake-drum when the supply to the load-test circuit is switched off. (Otherwise, the hot water in
the brake-drum will splash out on you) After completing the load-test, suck out the water in the brake-drum using the plastic bottle with nozzle and then dry
off the drum with a sponge which is available in the laboratory. (The water, if allowed to remain in the brake-drum, will corrode it)

21. Determine the correct rating of the fuse/s to be connected in the circuit after understanding correctly the type of the experiment to be performed: no-load
test or full- load test, the maximum current expected in the circuit and accordingly use that fuse-rating. (While an over-rated fuse will damage the equipment
and other instruments like ammeters and watt-meters in case of over load, an under-rated fuse may not allow one even to start the experiment)
22. At the time of starting a motor, the ammeter connected in the armature circuit overshoots, as the starting current is around 5 times the full load rating of
the motor. Moving coil ammeters being very delicate may get damaged due to high starting current. A switch has been provided on such meters to disconnect
the moving coil of the meter during starting. This switch should be closed after the motor attains full speed. Moving iron ammeters and current coils of watt
meters are not so delicate and hence these can stand short time overload due to high starting current. No such switch is therefore provided on these meters.
Moving iron meters are cheaper and more rugged compared to moving coil meters. Moving iron meters can be used for both a.c. and d.c. measurement.
Moving coil instruments are however more sensitive and more accurate as compared to their moving iron counterparts and these can be used for d.c.
measurements only. Good features of moving coil instruments are not of much consequence for you as other sources of errors in the experiments are many
times more than those caused by these meters.

23. Some students have been found to damage meters by mishandling in the following ways: Keeping unnecessary material like books, lab records, and
unused meters etc. causing meters to fall down the table. Putting pressure on the meter (especially glass) while making connections or while talking or
listening somebody.
 Experiment- 01

1.1 Title of experiment: To find the polarity and turns ratio of a single phase transformer.

1.2 Aims the experiment: determination of how to step up or step down transformer and allow the student to have complete knowledge of what is
a transformer and how to use it.

1.3 Performance objective; student should be

 How to Transformers are often constructed.

 AC voltage can be “stepped up” and current “stepped down

 A transformer that increases the voltage from primary to secondary (more secondary winding turns than primary winding turns) is
called a step-up transformer.
 Conversely, a transformer designed to do just the opposite is called a step-down transformer.
 To know the material required to constrict transformer

1.4 APPARATUS:

Si Name of equipment’s Speciation ,manufacture quantity

no.
1 One transformer 2
2 two voltmeters 2
 3 one autotransformer 1
4 ammeter 2
5 Connecting wire As
required

1.5THEORY:
The transformer is a static and reversible device which transforms the electrical energy from one circutit to another, without any direct electrical connection b
etween two windings and without changing its frequency, with the help of an electromagnetic (mutual) induction.It is essential to know the relative polarity at
any instant of primary and secondary terminals for making correct connections. When the two transformers are to be connected in parallel to share the load on
the system .The marking is correct if voltage V3 is less than V1. Such a polarity is termed as subtractive polarity. The standard practice is to have subtractive
polarity because it reduces the voltage stress between adjacent loads. In case V3 > V1, the emf induced in primary and secondary have additive relation and
transformer is said to have additive polarity.

1.6 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

 Figure 1. 1: the polarity test

1.7 PROCEDURE:

A) Polarity test:

 Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram.

 Switch on the single phase a.c. supply.
 Record the voltages V1, V2 and V3 .In case V3<V1 polarity is subtractive.
 Repeat the step 3 after connecting terminals A1 and a2 .In case V3> V1 polarity is additive.
 Switch off the a.c. supply
 B) Turn Ratio Test:

 Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram.

 Switch on the a.c. supply.
 Record voltage V1 across primary and V2 across various tapping’s of secondary.
 If V1>V2 then transformer is step down.
 If V2> V1 then transformer is step up.
 Switch off a.c. supply.

1.8 OBSERVATION TABLE:

SUB-POLARITY ADD-POLARITY

s.no V1 V2 V3=v1- s.no V1 V2 V3=v1+v2

v2

TURN RATIOS.NO

s.no V1 V2 Turn rate v1/v2

1.9Calculation/Result:
Transformer Basics Example No1

A voltage transformer has 1500 turns of wire on its primary coil and 500 turns of wire for its secondary coil. What will be the turns ratio (TR) of
the transformer.

This ratio of 3:1 (3-to-1) simply means that there are three primary windings for every one secondary winding. As the ratio moves from a larger
number on the left to a smaller number on the right, the primary voltage is therefore stepped down in value as shown.

Transformer Basics Example No2

If 240 volts rms is applied to the primary winding of the same transformer above, what will be the resulting secondary no load voltage.
If V2>V1 then transformer is step up otherwise step down. The turn’s ratio of transformer is greater than one if it is step up transformer and less than one if it
is step down transformer.

1.10 PRECAUTIONS

1. All connections should be tight.

2. The circuit should be according to circuit diagram.

3. The power should be on when the circuit is checked completely.

1.11 Conclusion:

1.12 QUESTION:
1) What is transformer?

2) What do you mean by turns ratio of transformer?

3) What is transformation ratio of transformer?

4) What are the different polarities of transformer?

5) What is the condition of additive polarity?

6) What is the condition for subtractive polarity?

7) What are the different types of transformer?

8) What is the use of autotransformer?

9) What is the use of polarity test?

10) What is the transformation ratio of step-up transformer?

Experiment- 02

2.1 Title of experiment; parallel operation of two single phase transformer

2.2 Aims of experiment; to study the parallel operation of single phase transformers

2.3 Performance objective: student should be able to

 Understand the importance of parallel operation

 Know the condition for parallel operation
 Record the observation
 Draw the conclusion

2.4 APPARATUS:
 Si Name of equipment’s Speciation ,manufacture quantity
no.
1 transformer 200VA 2
2 ammeters 0-20A 3
3 autotransformer 0-270V 1
4 single phase load motor 1
5 wattmeter’s 20A,300V 2
6 voltmeter 0-300V 1
7 Connecting wires As required

2.5 THEORY:

Parallel operation of transformers is used for load sharing. The transformers are connected in parallel on both primary and secondary side.
Following conditions to be satisfied during the parallel operation of transformers.

 Same polarities should be connected.

 The two transformers should have same voltage ratio.
 The percentage impedance should be same.
 There should be no circulating current.

2.6 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure 2.1: Parallel operation of transformers

2.7 PROCEDURE:

 Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram.

 Note down the readings of all wattmeters, ammeters and voltmeters for given load.
 Repeat the above test for different values of load.
 Take at least three readings.

2.8 OBSERVATIOBN TABLE:

S.NO I1 W1(WATTS) I2 W2(WATTS IL=I1+I2(AMPS) WL=W1+W2(WATTS

(AMPS) (AMPS)
1
2
 3

2.9 Calculation/Result:

The two transformers connected in parallel share the load equally.

The total load current is distributed on two transformers accordingly.

I1+I2=IL

The total wattmeter readings are distributed on two wattmeter’s accordingly.

W1+W2=WL

2.10 PRECAUTIONS:

 Transformers should be connected in such a way that they have same polarity.
 All connections should be neat and tight.
 Connecting leads should be perfectly insulated.

2.11 CONCLUSION:

2.12 QUESTION:
1 What is the minimum no. of transformers needed to conduct this exp.?
2 What is the effect of circulating current in the circuit having two transformers in parallel?
3 When does the circulating current flow in a circuit of two transformers connected in parallel?
4 How much circulating current can be tolerated for parallel operation of transformers?
5 Why the transformer are needed to be operated in parallel.
6 What will happen if two transformers are connected in parallel with wrong polarity?
7 What are the different polarities of transformer?
8 What do you mean by impedance of transformer?
9 What is the working principle of transformer?
10 What do you mean by load sharing?
Experiment -03

3. 1 Title of experiment; Determination of efficiency and voltage regulation open circuit test and short circuit test on single phase transformer

3.2 Aims of experiment: To conduct OC & SC tests on the given 1- phase Transformer and to calculate its

1) Equivalent circuit

parameters A). Referred to

H.V side B). Referred to

L.V side

2) Efficiency at various loads.

3) Regulation at various power factors

4) Maximum Efficiency.

3.3 Performance objective; student should be

 Define single phase transformer

 Understand the importance of OC and SC test
 Record the observation and fill the observation table
 Draw the conclusion from the above observation
3.4 APPARATURS REQUIRED:

Si no. Name of equipment’s Speciation ,manufacture quantity

1 Single phase transformer 1KVA, 230/115V, 50Hz 1
 2 Auto transformer 0-240V 1
3 Voltmeter 0-300V(AC) 1
4 ammeter 0-20A(AC) 1
5 wattmeter 300V,20A 1
6 Connecting wires As required

3.5 THEORY:-

Equivalent circuit of transformer and simplified form of the circuit are shown in Fig.3. 1 and Fig.3.2

Respectively. Various performance parameters of transformers can be calculated if we know values of parameters in equivalent circuit. These parameters can
be easily determined by performing tests that involve little power consumption. Two tests - no-load test (or open circuit test) and short circuit test will provide
information for determining the parameters of the equivalent circuit.

Figure 3. 1: Equivalent circuit of a transformer

 Figure 3.2: Simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer

Open – Circuit (OC) or No-Load Test

The purpose of this test is to determine the shunt branch parameters of the equivalent circuit of the transformer. One of the windings is connected to supply at
rated voltage, while the other winding is kept open - circuited. From the point of view of convenience and availability of supply the test is usually performed
from the LV side, while the HV side is kept open circuited.

Voltage = V1; Current = I0 and power input = P0

Indeed the no-load current, I0 is so small (it is usually 2-6% of the rated current) and R 01 and X 01 are also small, that V1 can be regarded as = E1 by
neglecting the series impedance. This means that for all practical purposes the power input on no-load equals the core (iron) loss i.e.
Short Circuit (SC) Test

This test serves the purpose of determining the series parameters of a transformer. For convenience of supply arrangement and voltage and current to be
handled, the test is usually conducted from the HV side of the transformer while the LV side is short-circuited. Since the transformer resistance and leakage
reactance are very small, the voltage Vsc needed to circulate the full load current under short circuit is as low as 5-8% of the rated voltage. The exciting
current under these conditions is only about 0.1to 0.5% of the full load current Thus the shunt branch of the equivalent circuit can be altogether neglected.
While conducting the SC test, the supply voltage is gradually raised from zero till the transformer draws full load current. The meter readings under these
conditions are: Since the transformer is excited at very low voltage, the iron loss is negligible (that is why shunt branch is left out), the power input
corresponds only to the copper loss, i.e.

Vsc =Voltage,

Isc = Current,

Psc = Power (Copper loss)

Z 01= VSC / ISC = R 01 + X 01

Equivalent resistance, R01= PSC / (ISC)2

Equivalent reactance, X 01 = √( 𝑍012 – 𝑅𝑂12 )

3.6 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

a) Circuit diagram of open circuit test

Figure 3.3: Connection diagram for OC test of a transformer

(a) Equivalent circuit for no load (b) Phasor diagram on no-load
Figure3. 4: Equivalent circuit and phasor diagram for OC test
b) Circuit diagram of short circuit test

Figure3. 5: Connection diagram for short circuit test Figure 3.6: Equivalent circuit on SC test

3.7 PROCEDURE:

A) OC TEST:

 All the connections are done as per the circuit diagram of OC test
  By using 1-phase variac apply rated voltage to the circuit.
 At this rated voltage note down voltmeter, ammeter & wattmeter readings.
 From the values we can find R0 and X0

B) SC test

 All the connections are done as per the circuit diagram of

 By using 1-phase variac rated current is made to flow in the circuit.
 At this rated current note down voltmeter, ammeter & wattmeter readings.
 From this values we can find out R01 & X01

3.8 Observation/Result:

3.8.1 Open circuit test;

SI.NO Vo in volts Io in Amp Wo in Watt

3.8.2 Short circuit test;

SI.NO Vsc in volts Isc in Amp Wsc in Watt

3.9 Calculation/Result

3.9.1 Calculation of Efficiency from O.C. and S.C. Tests

As we have seen that, the practical transformer has two types of major losses namely copper and core losses. The temperature of the transformer rises due to
these losses which are dissipated as heat. Due to these losses, input power drawn by the primary no longer equal to the output delivered at secondary.
Therefore, the efficiency of the transformer is given as

Efficiency, η = Power output in KW/ Power input in KW

= Power output in KW/ (Power output in KW + Losses)

= Power output in KW/ (Power output in KW + Copper loss + Core loss)

We have discussed that, the core loss Pcore remains constant from no load to full load as the flux in the core remains constant. And the copper losses are
depend on the square of the current. As the winding current varies from no load to full load, copper losses are also get varied.Consider that the KVA rating of
the transformer is S, a fraction of the load is x and the power factor of the load is Cos Φ. Then

The output power in KW = xSCos Φ

Suppose the copper loss at full load is Pcu (since x =1),

Then copper loss at x per unit loading = x2Pcu

Therefore the efficiency of the transformer is

Efficiency, η = xSCos Φ / (xS Cos Φ + x2 Pxcu + Pxcore)

In the above efficiency equation, the core or iron losses and full load copper losses are found by OC and SC tests.

3.9.2 Calculation of Regulation

For a fixed voltage in the primary, the secondary terminal voltage will not be maintained constant from no load to full load. This is due to the voltage drop
across leakage impedance which magnitude depends on both degree of loading and the power factor.

So the regulation gives change in secondary voltage from no load to full load at a given power factor. It is defined as the change in the secondary voltage when
the transformer is operating at full load of specified power factor supplied at rated voltage to no load with primary voltage held constant.

Percentage voltage regulation, %R = ((E2 – V2)/ V2 )×100

The expression of voltage regulation in terms voltage drops is given as

%R = ((I1R01 cos Φ +/- I1X01 sin Φ) / V1) ×100

Or

%R = ((I2R02 cos Φ +/- I2X02 sin Φ) / V2) ×100

The above two equations are used based on the parameters are referred to primary or secondary sides. Hence, from the SC test data we can find out the
regulation of a transformer. The positive sign is used for lagging power factor and negative sign is used for leading power factor.

3.10 PRECAUTIONS:

1). Open circuit test is performed on LV side i.e. meters are connected LV side and HV side will be open circuited.

2). for short circuit test is connect meters on HV side and LV side will be short circuited
3). Rated voltage and rated current must be maintained in OC test and SC test respectively.

3.11 Conclusions:

3.12 Question

1) Why in short circuit test measuring instruments are connected in high voltage side?

2) Why the frequency of transformer constant?

3) Why iron loss is at all load?

4) What is the condition for maximum efficiency of transformer?

5) Why in open circuit test measuring instrument are connected in low voltage side?

6) What is the value of cu-loss at 1/8th of full load cu-loss?

7) What do you expect to happen if full rated voltage is applied to transformer under SC –test?

8) What is P.U impedance of transformer?

9) Derive the condition for zero voltage regulation and maximum voltage regulation of single phase transformer

10) What is all day efficiency of transformer?

EXPERIMENT NO: 4

4.1 Title of experiment: three phase transformer test: star –star(Y-Y) connection, delta-delta connection, star-delta connection and, delta star
connection.

4.2 Aims experiment: to understand the different transformer connection

4.3 Performance objective: student should be

 Define difference between star and delta connection

 Understand the importance of star and delta connection
 Record the observation and fill the observation table
 Draw the conclusion from the above observation

4.4 APPARATUS:
 Si no. Name of equipment’s Speciation ,manufacture quantity
1 Three phase transformer 1KVA, 380/50V, 50Hz 1
2 Auto transformer 0-240V at 2Amp 1
3 Voltmeter 0-300V(AC) 2
4 ammeter 0-20A(AC) 2
5 wattmeter 300V,20A 1
6 Connecting wires As required

4.5 THEORY:

Three-phase, also written as 3-phase or 3φ supplies are used for electrical power generation, transmission, and distribution, as well as for all industrial uses.
Three-phase supplies have many electrical advantages over single-phase power and when considering three-phase transformers we have to deal with three
alternating voltages and currents differing in phase-time by 120 degrees as shown below.
Three Phase Transformer Construction

We have said previously that the three-phase transformer is effectively three interconnected single phase transformers on a single laminated core and
considerable savings in cost, size and weight can be achieved by combining the three windings onto a single magnetic circuit as shown.A three-phase
transformer generally has the three magnetic circuits that are interlaced to give a uniform distribution of the dielectric flux between the high and low voltage
windings. The exception to this rule is a three-phase shell type transformer. In the shell type of construction, even though the three cores are together, they are
non-interlaced.
Figure 4.1: Three Phase Transformer Construction

The three-limb core-type three-phase transformer is the most common method of three-phase transformer construction allowing the phases to be magnetically
linked. Flux of each limb uses the other two limbs for its return path with the three magnetic flux’s in the core generated by the line voltages differing in time-
phase by 120 degrees. Thus the flux in the core remains nearly sinusoidal, producing a sinusoidal secondary supply voltage.

The shell-type five-limb type three-phase transformer construction is heavier and more expensive to build than the core-type. Five-limb cores are generally
used for very large power transformers as they can be made with reduced height. A shell-type transformers core materials, electrical windings, steel enclosure
and cooling are much the same as for the larger single-phase types. A three phase transformer or 3φ transformer can be constructed either by connecting
together three single-phase transformers, thereby forming a so-called three phase transformer bank, or by using one pre-assembled and balanced three phase
transformer which consists of three pairs of single phase windings mounted onto one single laminated core. The advantages of building a single three phase
transformer is that for the same kVA rating it will be smaller, cheaper and lighter than three individual single phase transformers connected together because
the copper and iron core are used more effectively. The methods of connecting the primary and secondary windings are the same, whether using just one
Three Phase Transformer or three separate Single Phase Transformers. Consider the circuit below:
Three Phase Transformer Connections

The primary and secondary windings of a transformer can be connected in different configuration as shown to meet practically any requirement. In the case of
three phase transformer windings, three forms of connection are possible: “star” (wye), “delta” (mesh) and “interconnected-star” (zig-zag).The combinations
of the three windings may be with the primary delta-connected and the secondary star-connected, or star-delta, star-star or delta-delta, depending on the
transformers use. When transformers are used to provide three or more phases they are generally referred to as a Polyphase Transformer.

Three Phase Transformer Star and Delta Configurations

Connection Primary Winding Secondary Winding

 Delta D d
Star Y y
Interconnected Z z

But what do we mean by “star” (also known as Wye) and “delta” (also known as Mesh) when dealing with three-phase transformer connections. A three
phase transformer has three sets of primary and secondary windings. Depending upon how these sets of windings are interconnected, determines whether the
connection is a star or delta configuration. The three available voltages, which themselves are each displaced from the other by 120 electrical degrees, not
only decided on the type of the electrical connections used on both the primary and secondary sides, but determine the flow of the transformers currents. With
three single-phase transformers connected together, the magnetic flux’s in the three transformers differ in phase by 120 time-degrees. With a single the three-
phase transformer there are three magnetic flux’s in the core differing in time-phase by 120 degrees.

The standard method for marking three phase transformer windings is to label the three primary windings with capital (upper case) letters R, B and C, used to
represent the three individual phases of RED, YELLOW and BLUE. The secondary windings are labelled with small (lower case) letters a, b and c. Each
winding has two ends normally labelled 1 and 2 so that, for example, the second winding of the primary has ends which will be labelled b1 and b2, while the
third winding of the secondary will be labelled c1 and c2 as shown.
Figure 4.2: Three Phase Transformer Connections type

Symbols are generally used on a three phase transformer to indicate the type or types of connections used with upper case Y for star connected, D for delta
connected and Z for interconnected star primary windings, with lower case y, d and z for their respective secondaries. Then, Star-Star would be labelled Yy,
Delta-Delta would be labelled Dd and interconnected star to interconnected star would be Zz for the same types of connected transformers.

A) Delta- Delta Connections

 This connection is generally used for large, low-voltage transformers. Number of required phase/turns is relatively greater than that for star-star
connection.
 The ratio of line voltages on the primary and the secondary side is equal to the transformation ratio of the transformers.
 This connection can be used even for unbalanced loading.
 Another advantage of this type of connection is that even if one transformer is disabled, system can continue to operate in open delta connection but
with reduced available capacity.
B) Star-star (Y-Y)

 Star-star connection is generally used for small, high-voltage transformers. Because of star connection, number of required turns/phase is reduced (as
phase voltage in star connection is 1/√3 times of line voltage only). Thus, the amount of insulation required is also reduced.
 The ratio of line voltages on the primary side and the secondary side is equal to the transformation ratio of the transformers.
 Line voltages on both sides are in phase with each other.
 This connection can be used only if the connected load is balanced.

C) Star-delta OR wye-delta (Y-Δ)

 The primary winding is star star (Y) connected with grounded neutral and the secondary winding is delta connected.
  This connection is mainly used in step down transformer at the substation end of the transmission line.
 The ratio of secondary to primary line voltage is 1/√3 times the transformation ratio.
 There is 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages.

D) Delta-star OR delta-wye (Δ-Y)

 The primary winding is connected in delta and the secondary winding is connected in star with neutral grounded. Thus it can be used to provide 3-
phase 4-wire service.
 This type of connection is mainly used in step-up transformer at the beginning of transmission line.
 The ratio of secodary to primary line voltage is √3 times the transformation ratio.
 There is 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages.
E) Open delta (V-V) connection
Two transformers are used and primary and secondary connections are made as shown in the figure below. Open delta connection can be used when one of the
transformers in Δ-Δ bank is disabled and the service is to be continued until the faulty transformer is repaired or replaced. It can also be used for small three
phase loads where installation of full three transformer bank is un-necessary. The total load carrying capacity of open delta connection is 57.7% than that
would be for delta-delta connection.
V” or “open-Δ” provides 2-φ power with only two transformers.

This configuration is called “V” or “Open-Δ.” Of course, each of the two transformers has to be oversized to handle the same amount of power
as three in a standard Δ configuration, but the overall size, weight, and cost advantages are often worth it. Bear in mind, however, that with one
winding set missing from the Δ shape, this system no longer provides the fault tolerance of a normal Δ-Δ system. If one of the two transformers
were to fail, the load voltage and current would definitely be affected.

F) Scott (T-T) connection

Two transformers are used in this type of connection. One of the transformers has centre taps on both primary and secondary windings (which is
called as main transformer). The other transformer is called as teaser transformer. Scott connection can also be used for three phase to two phase
conversion. The connection is made as shown in the figure below.

4.6 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

4.7 Procedure

1. Label the three live wires of the three-phase supply R, Y, and B. Adjust the AC Variac to line to neutral (L-n) and measure the three line
to neutral voltages and the three line to line voltages. Test if the neutral is grounded or not.
2. Each single-phase transformer has four windings. Create a 1:1 (380v:50v) ratio transformer by connecting the two primary windings in
series and the two secondary windings in series. Check with a DMM the continuity of these two windings.
3. You will now connect three single-phase transformers in succession in the four possible ways listed in the introduction, and measure all
the voltages and characteristics of the three-phase transformers that you create. Read the rest of this procedure before doing this step to
save yourself some time.

Y-Y

1. Connect three identical single-phase transformers in Y-Y configuration with a Y connected load on the secondary side. Include in
your circuit the DVMs necessary to measure the primary and secondary voltages.
2. Measure and record all three line-to-neutral (L-n) and line-to-line (L-L) voltages on the primary and secondary side.
3. With primary side neutral disconnected measure and record all three line-to-line (L-L) voltages on the primary and secondary side.
4. Connect the primary side neutral and apply a balanced three phase load to secondary side of 150W from resistive load cart. Measure and
record all three line-to-neutral (L-n) and line-to-line (L-L) voltages on the primary and secondary side. Measure and record all three line
currents on the primary and secondary side using the AC Current ammeter.
 5. Apply an unbalanced three phase load to secondary side by decreasing load of one rack from resistive load cart to 50 or 100W. Measure
and record all three line-to-neutral (L-n) and line-to-line (L-L) voltages on the primary and secondary side. Measure and record all
three line currents on the primary and secondary side using the AC Current ammeter.
6. With primary side neutral disconnected measure and record all three line-to-neutral (L-n) and line-to-line (L-L) voltages on the primary
and secondary side. Measure and record all three line currents on the primary and secondary side using the AC Current ammeter.
Reconnect primary and secondary side neutral.

Y-Δ

1. Change the secondary side of the Y-Y configuration to form a D-connected secondary side with the primary side neutral connected to the
source neutral. Do not close the final side of the D to perform test indicated in warning section.
2. Measure and record the voltage and frequency appearing across this open terminals with and without the primary side neutral
connected to the source neutral.
3. Reconnect primary side neutral to the source and close secondary side connection to create a three identical single-phase transformers in
Y-D configuration with a D connected load on the secondary side.
4. Measure and record all three line-to-neutral (L-n) and line-to-line (L-L) voltages on the primary and line-to-line (L-L) voltage secondary
side.
5. Apply a balanced three phase load to secondary side of 150W from resistive load cart. Measure and record all three line-to-line (L-L)
voltages on the primary and secondary side. Measure and record the three line currents on the primary side and all three line/phase
currents on the secondary side using the AC Current ammeter.
6. Display and record the voltage phase shift waveform between primary and secondary sides
Δ-Y

1. Create a D -Y configuration with a Y connected load on the secondary side. To accomplish this, you should switch the three live wires of
the three-phase supply R, B, and Y of your preceding Y-D configuration from Y primary side to D secondary side. Connect the Y
configured load to the now Y secondary side. Include in your circuit the DVMs necessary to measure the primary and secondary
voltages.
2. Measure and record the three line-to-line (L-L) primary voltages and all three line-to-neutral (L-n) and line-to-line (L-L) voltages on the
secondary side.
3. Apply a balanced three phase load to secondary side of 150W from resistive load cart. Measure and record all three line-to-line (L-L)
voltages on the primary and secondary side. Similarly, measure and record the three line currents on the secondary side and all three
line and phase currents on the primary side using the AC Current ammeter.
4. Measure and record the power factor created between line-to-line (L-L) primary voltage with secondary line current of the same line
(R, Y, or B) and line-to-line (L-L) primary voltage with primary line current of the same line (A, B, or C).

Δ-Δ

1. Create a D -D configuration with a D connected load on the secondary side. To complete this, you should change the secondary side of the
D-Y configuration to form a D-connected secondary.
2. Measure and record the three line-to-line (L-L) primary and secondary voltages.
3. Apply a balanced three phase load to secondary side of 100W from resistive load cart. Measure and record all three line-to-line (L-L)
voltages on the primary and secondary side. Also, measure and record all three line and phase currents on the primary and secondary side
using the AC Current ammeter.
4. Convert your D -D configuration to “Open Delta” (Ⅴ-Ⅴ) by removing one of your transformers from configuration. Keep the D
connected load on the secondary side.
5. Repeat steps 2 to 4

4.8 OBSERVATION TABLE:

Connection Primary Winding Secondary Winding

Line Voltage VL1 (volt) Phase Voltage Line Voltage Phase Voltage
VPh1 (volt) VL2 (volt) VPh2 (volt)

Yy
Dd
Yd
Dy

4.9 CALCULATION/ RESULT

Then the relationship between line and phase voltages and currents in a three-phase system can be summarised as:

Connection Phase Voltage Line Voltage Phase Current Line Current

 Star VP = VL ÷ √3 VL = √3 × VP IP = IL IP = IL

Delta VP = VL VP = VL IP = IL ÷ √3 IL = √3 × IP

 for a delta-star connected transformer the turns ratio becomes:

 for a star–delta ( Yd ) connected transformer the turns ratio becomes:

4.10 PRECAUTION

1. When connecting three-phase transformers, the secondary Δ side should never be closed until a test is first made to determine that the voltage
within the Δ is zero (or close to zero). If not, and the Δ is closed on itself, the resulting current will be of short-circuit magnitude, with resulting
damage to the transformers. To determine the proper phase relationships in a Δ connected secondary, the voltage is measured across two
windings. This voltage should be equal to the voltage across either winding. If not, one of the windings must be reversed. One side of the third
winding is then connected and the voltage is measured across the three windings. This voltage must be very close to zero. If not, the third
winding connection must be reversed.
2. Different transformers used in this lab may have different ratings – Make a note of the rating of the transformer(s) you are using and don’t
exceed the rating. This is easy to do when switching loads or unbalancing the circuit. If you aren’t sure if your change will cause the transformer
to become overloaded, then you should raise the voltage slowly and watch the current/power flow carefully. You may not be able to run all parts
of this experiment at 380 Volts. Overloading the transformer may either blow the internal fuse if there is one or burn out the transformer.

4.11 CONCULSION

4.12 QUSETION

1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the connections used in the laboratory. Specifically point out those that you observed.
2. Discuss any other results that you think are interesting or confirm or disprove your expectations.
3. Explain any unbalance observed and difference in your data/readings due to the effect of the neutral in Y-Y configuration.
4. Explain any unbalance observed and difference in your data/readings due to the effect of the different rate transformer in Y-Y
configuration.
5. Explain the voltage and frequency appearing across the open terminals of the D test from Y- D configuration with and without the
primary side neutral connected to the source neutral.
6. Calculate phase shift angle between primary and secondary line-to-line (L-L) voltages of Y-D and D -Y configurations.
7. Where is the “Open Delta” (Ⅴ-Ⅴ) used and for what reason?
8. What precautions must be observed when paralleling 3-phase transformer banks?
9. What is meant by transformer magnetizing inrush current? Did you see any signs of its presence while performing the experiment?
10. What is the use of transformer
11. Why transformer rating in KVA
Experiment No.5

5.1 TITLE OF EXPERMNTE; TO STUDY OF OPEN CIRCUIT TEST, SHORT CIRCUITTEST AND LOAD TEST OF THREE PHASE
TRANSFORMER

5.2 AIMS OF EXPERMNTE: this experiment are to find the approximate per phase equivalent circuit parameters of a 3-φ transformer bank using
short circuit and open circuit tests and to determine the regulation and efficiency of the transformer bank through load test. The regulation and efficiency of
the transformer bank determined through load test will be compared with those calculated using the transformer parameters.

5.3 Performance objective: student should be

 Define difference between star and delta connection with load

 Understand the importance of SC and OP test
 Record the observation and fill the observation table
 Draw the conclusion from the above observation

5.4 Apparatus:

Si no. Name of equipment’s Speciation ,manufacture quantity

1 Three phase transformer 1KVA, 380/50V, 50Hz 1
2 Auto transformer 0-240V at 2Amp 1
3 Voltmeter 0-300V(AC) 2
4 ammeter 0-20A(AC) 2
5 wattmeter 2
 6 Connecting wires As required
7 3-φ Resistive load 1
8 3-φ Capacitive Load 1
9 3-φ inductive Load 1

5.5 THEORY

From the no load and the short circuit transformer tests, it can be seen that the copper loss of a transformer depends on the current, while the iron loss depends
on the voltage. Thus, the total transformer loss depends on volt-ampere (VA). It does not depend on the phase angle between voltages and current (the
transformer loss is independent on the load power factor).This is the reason why transformers are rated in kVA. The short circuit test is used to determine the
values Re and Xe of the series branch of the equivalent circuit. These impedances are usually very low, but they appear higher in value when referred to the
high voltage side. This test is consequently performed on the high voltage side of the transformer in order to keep the current drawn by these impedances at an
acceptable level.

5.6 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Open circuit test

Figure 5.1: connecting diagram of Open circuit test

Short circuit test

Figure 5.2: connecting diagram of Short circuit test

 Three phase transformer R-load

Figure 5.3: connecting diagram of R-load

Three phase transformer C-load

Figure 5.4: connecting diagram of C-load

Three phase transformer L-load

Figure 5.4: connecting diagram of L-load

5.7 Procedure:

Open Circuit Test:

 First of all make sure that the ear thing of your laboratory is proper.
 Make sure that Three Phase Variac knob is at zero position. It is to be remember that open circuit test performs at low voltage side of Star Connected
Three Phase Transformer.
 Connect mains lead to three-phase A.C. mains socket please be ensure red wire to 'R' phase, yellow wire to 'Y' phase, Blue/Black to 'B' phase &
Green wire to 'N' phase
 Make connections as shown in Fig 5.1.
 Verify the connection before switching on the system.
 Switch 'ON' the both main supply as well as push the start switch of auxiliary supply provided on the panel.
 Now set three phase voltage through variac 380 (line to line) voltage.
  Measure the parameters by the M.F. meters 1. Measurement of each parameter can be taken in steps by the push button scroll switch (∆). Fitted in
M.F. Meter 1 any parameter can be locked by the scroll switch (∇) for taking any parameter reading, otherwise parameters will change automatically
after certain time.
 Switch 'OFF' Three Phase Mains and the push the stop switch of the control panel.

Short Circuit Test:

 First of all make sure that the earthing of your laboratory is proper and it is connected to the terminal provided on back side of the panel.
 Make sure that Variac knob is at zero position. NOTE: It is to be remembered that Short Circuit Test performed at high voltage side of
Star Connected Three Phase Transformer.
 Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram is shown in Fig-5.2.
 Verify the connections as per Fig-5.1 & Fig-5.2 before switching on the supply.
 Switch ‘On’ the both main supply as well as push the start switch of auxiliary supply provided on the panel.
 Now switch ‘On’ the Start switch of auxiliary supply provided on the panel.
 Now set three phase voltage through variac 380V (line to line) at Rated Current.
 Measure Line to Line voltage line current active power and power factor by the Multifunction Meter 1 by pressing the Schroll button (∆) and in
steps working by the thus schroll button (∇) otherwise the parameters will change automatically, the volts can be recorded in the observation table.
 Switch “Off” Three Phase Mains and push the stop switch of the control panel.

Transformer with R- Load:

 First of all make sure that the earthing of your laboratory is proper and it is connected to the terminal provided on back side of the panel.
 Make sure that Three Phase Variac knob is at zero position.
 Make connections as shown in the connection diagram Fig-5.3.
 Switch ‘On’ the both main supply as well as push the start switch of auxiliary supply provided on the panel.
  Now set three phase voltage through variac 380V (line to line) at Rated Current. and correspondingly check the variation in all the
required parameters at Multifunction meter First and Second.
 Record the readings of MF1 and MF2 in the observation table Subscript, 1 & 2 are the readings of MF1 & MF2, The readings are taken by the push
button schroll (∆) switch in steps and locking in by Schroll switch (∇). Remember to take the reading 1 & 2 of a particular parameter to a particular
setting of the variac.
 Switch “Off” Three Phase Mains and push the stop switch of the control panel and auxiliary switch.

Transformer with C- Load:

 First of all make sure that the earthing of your laboratory is proper and it is connected to the terminal provided on back side of the panel.
 Make sure that Three Phase Variac knob is at zero position.
 Make connections as shown in the connection diagram Fig-26. The circuit diagram in shown in Fig-5.4.
 Switch ‘On’ the both main supply as well as push the start switch of auxiliary supply provided on the panel.
 Now set three phase voltage through variac 380V (line to line) at Rated Current. and correspondingly check the variation in all the required
parameters at Multifunction meter First and Second. 08 Record the readings of MF1 and MF2 in the observation table Subscript, 1 & 2 are the
readings of MF1 & MF2, The readings are taken by the push button schroll (∆) switch in steps and locking in by Schroll switch (∇). Remember to
take the reading 1 & 2 of a particular parameter to a particular setting of the variac.
 Switch “Off” Three Phase Mains and push the stop switch of the control panel and auxiliary switch.

Transformer with L- Load:

 First of all make sure that the earthing of your laboratory is proper and it is connected to the terminal provided on back side of the panel.
 Make sure that Three Phase Variac knob is at zero position.
 Make connections as shown in the connection diagram Fig-5.5. Switch ‘On’ the both main supply as well as push the start switch
of auxiliary supply provided on the panel.
  Now set three phase voltage through variac 380V (line to line) at Rated Current. and correspondingly check the variation in all the
required parameters at Multifunction meter First and Second.
 Record the readings of MF1 and MF2 in the observation table Subscript, 1 & 2 are the readings of MF1 & MF2, The readings are taken by
the push button schroll (∆) switch in steps and locking in by Schroll switch (∇). Remember to take the reading 1 & 2 of a particular
parameter to a particular setting of the variac.
 Switch “Off” Three Phase Mains and push the stop switch of the control panel and auxiliary switch.

5.7 OBSERVATION TABLE

Open circuit test

S.NO Line to Line Volt V0 in Volt Line Current I0 in Active Power Power factor Pf
(average) Amp. (average) (P0)in watt (cosΦ0
1
2
3
Short circuit test

S.NO Line to Line Volt Vsc in Volt Line Current Isc Active Power Power Factor Pf
(average) in Amp. (average) (Psc)in watt (CosΦ )
1
2
3
Transformer with R- Load:

1) No load reading

s.no Line to Line Line Current Active Power Factor

Voltage (Average) Power
(Average)

V1 V2 I1 12 P1 P2 Pf1 Pf2

2) load reading

s.no Line to Line Line Current Active Power Factor

Voltage (Average) Power
(Average)

V1 V2 I1 12 P1 P2 Pf1 Pf2

2
 3

Transformer with C- Load:

1) No load reading

s.no Line to Line Line Current Active Power Factor

Voltage (Average) Power
(Average)

V1 V2 I1 12 P1 P2 Pf1 Pf2

2) load reading

s.no Line to Line Line Current Active Power Factor

Voltage (Average) Power
(Average)

V1 V2 I1 12 P1 P2 Pf1 Pf2
 1

Transformer with L- Load:

1) No load reading

s.no Line to Line Line Current Active Power Factor

Voltage (Average) Power
(Average)

V1 V2 I1 12 P1 P2 Pf1 Pf2

2) load reading
 s.no Line to Line Line Current Active Power Factor
Voltage (Average) Power
(Average)

V1 V2 I1 12 P1 P2 Pf1 Pf2

5.9 CALCULATION /RESULT

Calculation of Open Circuit Test:

Calculation of Short Circuit Test:

Transformer Efficiency:

The efficiency of a transformer (or any other device) is defined as the ratio of output power to input power.

Regulation of Transformer:

When a transformer is loaded with a constant primary voltage the secondary voltage decreases because of its internal resistance and leakage reactance.
V2 = Secondary terminal voltage at Full-Load.

E2 = Secondary terminal voltage at No-Load.

5.10 PRECAUTON

1. When connecting three-phase transformers, the secondary Δ side should never be closed until a test is first made to determine that the voltage
within the Δ is zero (or close to zero). If not, and the Δ is closed on itself, the resulting current will be of short-circuit magnitude, with resulting
damage to the transformers. To determine the proper phase relationships in a Δ connected secondary, the voltage is measured across two
windings. This voltage should be equal to the voltage across either winding. If not, one of the windings must be reversed. One side of the third
winding is then connected and the voltage is measured across the three windings. This voltage must be very close to zero. If not, the third
winding connection must be reversed.
2. Different transformers used in this lab may have different ratings – Make a note of the rating of the transformer(s) you are using and don’t
exceed the rating. This is easy to do when switching loads or unbalancing the circuit. If you aren’t sure if your change will cause the transformer
to become overloaded, then you should raise the voltage slowly and watch the current/power flow carefully. You may not be able to run all parts
of this experiment at 120 Volts. Overloading the transformer may either blow the internal fuse if there is one or burn out the transformer.

5.11 CONCULSION

5.12 QUESTION

1. what is the importance of load test in transformer

2. What is the imporance of open and short circuit test in three phase transformer

3. what happen if the secondary side star connnected with load in delta

4. Which losses are called magnetic losses?

5. Write equations for hysteresis and eddy-current losses?

6. What are the conditions for maximum efficiency in atransformer?

7. Explain why low power facto r meter I sused in O.O.test?

EXPERIMENT NO: 6

6.1 Title of experiment: starting method of induction motor

6.2 Aims experiment: To study the starting of three phase induction motor.

6.3 Performance objective: student should be

 Define difference between D.O.L and reduce voltage starter

 Understand the importance of starter
 Record the observation and fill the observation table
 Draw the conclusion from the above observation

6.4 APPARATUS:
 Si no. Name of equipment’s Speciation ,manufacture quantity
1 Three phase induction motor 50Hz ,3KW 400/440VOLT 2
(squirrel cage and slip ring motor 1500 RPM 3- Phase
2 D.O.L starter 0-2amp 1
3 Voltmeter 0-300V(AC) 1
4 ammeter 0-20A(AC) 1
5 star delta starter 1
6 Auto transformer 1
7 rheostat 1
8 Connecting wires As required

6.5 THEORY:

NEED FOR STARTER: At the standstill the motor behaves as the short circuit secondary transformer and it draws heavy current from mains, which can
cause the damages at the starting. It can cause the heavy drops in power line. So direct online starting of motor is not desirable. The motor has to be started at
reduced voltage. For heavy duty motors some starting methods are used or resistance has to be included in the circuit at starting. Various starting methods of
induction motors are described below.

1. Direct-on-line (DOL) starters

Small three phase induction motors can be started direct-on-line, which means that the rated supply is directly applied to the motor. But, as mentioned above,
here, the starting current would be very large, usually 5 to 7 times the rated current. The starting torque is likely to be 1.5 to 2.5 times the full load torque.
Induction motors can be started directly on-line using a DOL starter which generally consists of a contactor and motor protection equipment such as a circuit
breaker. A DOL starter consists of a coil operated contactor which can be controlled by start and stop push buttons. When the start push button is pressed, the
contactor gets energized and it closes all the three phases of the motor to the supply phases at a time. The stop push button de-energizes the contactor and
disconnects all the three phases to stop the motor. In order to avoid excessive voltage drop in the supply line due to large starting current, a DOL starter is
generally used for motors that are rated below 5kW.

2. Reduced voltage starting

a) Starting of squirrel cage motors
Starting in-rush current in squirrel cage motors is controlled by applying reduced voltage to the stator. These methods are sometimes called as reduced
voltage methods for starting of squirrel cage induction motors. For this purpose, following methods are used:

1. By using primary resistors

2. Autotransformer
3. Star-delta switches

1. Using primary resistors: Obviously, the purpose of primary resistors is to drop some voltage and apply a reduced voltage to the stator. Consider, the
starting voltage is reduced by 50%. Then according to the Ohm's law (V=I/Z), the starting current will also be reduced by the same percentage. From the
torque equation of a three phase induction motor, the starting torque is approximately proportional to the square of the applied voltage. That means, if the
applied voltage is 50% of the rated value, the starting torque will be only 25% of its normal voltage value. This method is generally used for a smooth
starting of small induction motors. It is not recommended to use primary resistors type of starting method for motors with high starting torque
requirements.
Resistors are generally selected so that 70% of the rated voltage can be applied to the motor. At the time of starting, full resistance is connected in the
series with the stator winding and it is gradually decreased as the motor speeds up. When the motor reaches an appropriate speed, the resistances are
disconnected from the circuit and the stator phases are directly connected to the supply lines.
Figure 6.1control the starting of induction motor by primary resistors

2. Auto-transformers:
Auto-transformers are also known as auto-starters. They can be used for both star connected and delta connected squirrel cage motors. It is basically a three
phase step down transformer with different taps provided that permit the user to start the motor at, say, 50%, 65% or 80% of line voltage. With auto-
transformer starting, the current drawn from supply line is always less than the motor current by an amount equal to the transformation ratio. For example,
when a motor is started on a 65% tap, the applied voltage to the motor will be 65% of the line voltage and the applied current will be 65% of the line voltage
starting value, while the line current will be 65% of 65% (i.e. 42%) of the line voltage starting value.

This difference between the line current and the motor current is due to transformer action. The internal connections of an auto-starter are as shown in the
figure. At starting, switch is at "start" position, and a reduced voltage (which is selected using a tap) is applied across the stator. When the motor gathers an
appropriate
speed, say upto 80% of its rated speed, the auto-transformer automatically gets disconnected from the circuit as the switch goes to "run" position.
The switch changing the connection from start to run position may be air-break (small motors) or oil-immersed (large motors) type. There are also provisions
for no-voltage and overload, with time delay circuits on an auto starter.

Figure 6.3 control the starting of induction motor by Auto-transformers

3. Star-delta starter:
This method is used in the motors, which are designed to run on delta connected stator. A two way switch is used to connect the stator winding in star while
starting and in delta while running at normal speed. When the stator winding is star connected, voltage over each phase in motor will be reduced by a factor 1/
(sqrt. 3) of that would be for delta connected winding. The starting torque will 1/3 times that it will be for delta connected winding. Hence a star-delta starter
is equivalent to an autotransformer of ratio 1/(sqrt. 3) or 58% reduced voltage.

b) Starting of slip-ring motors

Slip-ring motors are started with full line voltage, as external resistance can be easily added in the rotor circuit with the help of slip-rings. A star connected
rheostat is connected in series with the rotor via slip-rings as shown in the fig. Introducing resistance in rotor current will decrease the starting current in rotor
(and, hence, in stator). Also, it improves power factor and the torque is increased.

The connected rheostat may be hand-operated or automatic. As, introduction of additional resistance in rotor improves the starting torque, slip-ring motors
can be started on load. The external resistance introduced is only for starting purposes, and is gradually cut out as the motor gathers the speed.

Figure 6.4 control the starting of induction motor by Star-delta starter

6.6 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

DOL STARTING

Star –delta starting

Figure 6.5 control the starting of induction motor by DOL

Figure 6.6 control the starting of induction motor by Star-delta starter

6.7 PROCEDURE:
Star Delta method of starting: All the six terminals of stator winding are brought out and are connected as shown in Fig. In the starting the stator winding is
connected in start and full voltage is applied across these terminals. The voltage of each phase is 1/3 of normal value. As the motor picks up the speed, the
changeover switch disconnects the winding of motor. Now it connects the winding in delta across supply terminals. This method reduces the current taken by
the motor to one third the current it would have drawn if it was directly connected in delta. However, the starting Torque is also reduced to one third. This
method is cheap, but it should be used when high starting torque is not required like machine tools, pumps, motor generator etc.

6.8 OBSERVATION:

Star- Delta method is a safe method for starting of induction motor as the inrush current in the starting is very high without the starter. This is due to the
absence of back emf at the starting.

6.9 CALCULATION/RESULT

When the stator winding is star connected, voltage over each phase in motor will be reduced by a factor 1/ (sqrt. 3) of that would be for delta connected
winding. The starting torque will 1/3 times that it will be for delta connected winding. Hence a star-delta starter is equivalent to an autotransformer of ratio
1/(sqrt. 3) or 58% reduced voltage.

6.10 PRECAUTIONS:

1. Make sure that all connections are tight.

2. The connections should be according to circuit diagram.

3. Don’t touch the naked connection, it may give shock.

6.11 CONCULSION
6.12 QUESTION:

1. Are the three phase induction motor self-starting?

2. Why the three phase induction motors need starter?
3. Why reduced voltage is used for starting large power rating squirrel cage induction motor.
4. For which type of motors the direct on line starting can be used.
5. In which types of starters used for three phase induction motor reduced voltage is applied to stator.
6. What is the maximum rating of 3-phase induction motor which can be started without using a starter?
7. Does the direct on line starter reduces the starting current?
8. What are the different safety devices provided in various types of starters?
9. How can we reduce the starting current?
10. Does the direct – on – line starter reduces the starting current?
EXPERIMENT NO. 7

7.1 Title of experiment: no load and block rotor test on a three phase induction motor

7.2 Aim of experiment: To perform the no load and block rotor test on a three phase induction motor.

7.3 Performance objective: student should be

 Define 3- phase induction motor

 Understand the importance of the test
 Identify the necessary material used
 Follow the recommended steps
 Record the observation and fill the observation table
 Draw the conclusion from the above observation

7.4 APPARATUS:

Si no. Name of equipment’s Speciation ,manufacture quantity

1 Three phase induction motor 1KVA, 380/50V, 50Hz 1
2 Auto transformer 0-240V at 2Amp 1
3 Voltmeter 0-600V(AC) 1
4 Voltmeter 0-60 V (AC) 1
5 ammeter 0-10A(AC) 1
 6 ammeter 0-2.5A(AC) 1
5 wattmeter 600V,2.5A 1
wattmeter 60V,5A 1
6 Connecting wires As required

7.5 THEORY:

No load test:

The no load test is similar to the open circuit test on a transformer. It is performed to obtain the magnetizing branch parameters (shunt
parameters) in the induction machine equivalent circuit. In this test, the motor is allowed to run with no-load at the rated voltage of rated
frequency across its terminals. Machine will rotate at almost synchronous speed, which makes slip nearly equal to zero. This causes the
equivalent rotor impedance to be very large (theoretically infinite neglecting the frictional and rotational losses). Therefore, the rotor equivalent
impedance can be considered to be an open circuit which reduces the equivalent circuit diagram of the induction machine (Fig. 1) to the circuit
as shown in Fig. 2. Hence, the data obtained from this test will give information on the stator and the magnetizing branch. The connection
circuit diagram of no load test is shown in Fig. 3. The no load parameters can be found from the voltmeter, ammeter, and wattmeter readings
obtained when the machine is run at no load as shown below:

Blocked rotor test:

Blocked rotor test is similar to the short circuit test on a transformer. It is performed in the to calculate the series parameters of the induction
machine i.e., its leakage impedances. The rotor is blocked to prevent rotation and balanced voltages are applied to the stator terminals at a
frequency of 25 percent of the rated frequency at a voltage where the rated current is achieved. Under the reduced voltage condition and
rated current, core loss and magnetizing component of the current are quite small percent of the total current, equivalent circuit reduces to the
form shown in Fig.

Load Test of Induction Motor

To determine how speed, efficiency, power factor, stator current, torque and slip of an induction motor vary with load, the load test on an
induction motor is performed.

7.6 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure 7.1 3-phase motor no load test

Figure 7.2 load test on 3-phase induction motor

7.7 PROCEDURE:

No-load test:

 Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram.

 The variac should be at zero voltage and motor should be unloaded.
 Switch on the three phase a.c. supply.
 Start the motor at reduced voltage and slowly increase the supply voltage.
 Observe the direction of rotation and to reverse the direction of rotation change the phase sequence.
 Take the readings of all the meters.
 Increase the load on motor gradually and take the reading.
  Switch off the supply.

Block Rotor test:

 Block the rotor by mechanical load

 Slowly increase the voltage to allow the full rating current to flow.
 Take the readings of all the meters and calculate the parameters using above formulae
 Switch off the supply

7.8 OBSERVATION TABLE:

NO-LOAD TEST

s.no Vo volt Io AMPS W1 WAT W2 WAT W0=W1+W2 WATS

BLOCK ROTORTEST

s.no Vsc volt Isc AMPS W1 WAT W2 WAT Wsc=W1+W2 WATS

7.9 CALCULATION/RESULT:

Calculation from No-Load Test of Induction Motor

The procedure to find out the separate losses from no-load test of an induction motor is as follows:

The total power drawn by the motor is equal to the sum of two wattmeter’s readings

W=W1+W2

No-load power factor cos φo = Wo /3IoV

No-load resistance Ro= V/Iocos φo
No-load reactance Xo = V/Iosin φo

Where Io is the no-load current measured by an ammeter at normal voltage and rated frequency of supply, R 1 is the stator winding resistance and V per phase
is the applied voltage.

Copper losses in the stator = 3Io2R1.

Therefore, total constant losses = (Po – 3Io2R1) watts.

Calculations from Blocked Rotor Test of Induction Motor

Let Psc is the total power measured when Isc/phase is the current circulating and Vsc/phase is the voltage applied.
Then equivalent impedance/phase, Z1’ = Vsc/Isc ohm
Power factor, cos φsc = Psc/3VscIsc
Let R1’ be the equivalent resistance then
R1’ = Psc/3I2sc ohm
Therefore, equivalent reactance,
X1’ = √ [(Z1’)2– (R1’)2].
The whole power input to the motor when the rotor is locked is absorbed as full copper losses in the motor as well as minute iron losses. A small
voltage only (10 to 15% of normal voltage) is applied to circulate full load current in the motor.
Since iron losses depend on supply voltage and very small supply voltage is applied in load test of induction motor are therefore these losses are
very small and hence these are neglected.
Therefore, Psc = total copper losses in motor. If Isc = full load current of motor, then Psc is total copper loss on full load.

7.10 PRECAUTIONS:

 All connections should be neat and tight.

 Connecting leads should be perfectly insulated.
 There should be no error in ammeter and voltmeter.

7.11 CONCULSION

7.12 QUESTION
1. What machine parameters can be obtained from No-Load test?

2. What is the power factor of the machine? Comment on its value.

3. What should be the no load current of an induction motor?

4. Even though there is no-load, why wattmeter reading is not zero?

5. Comment on the slip of the machine when operated at rated voltage.

6. How to obtain the no-load input power to an induction motor when two-wattmeter method of measuring power used?

7. Can a three phase induction motor be started from a single phase supply?

8. No load test is conducted at (a) rated current, (b) rated voltage, (c) high voltage, (d) high current

9. What is the nameplate reading on the machine? What inferences can be drawn from it?

10. What is the real and reactive power consumed in this test?

11. What are the different losses that are present in an induction machine?

12. Which loss in the machine is significant in no load test and why?

13. Why block rotor test of an induction motor is carried out?

14. How does the equivalent circuit of an induction motor simplify to under blocked rotor conditions? Justify.

15. What is the power factor of the machine?

16. Which loss in the machine is significant in blocked rotor test and why?
EXPERIMENT NO: 8

8.1 Title of experiment: 3-point and 4- point DC motor starter.

8.2 Aim of experiment: To study a 3-point and 4- point DC motor starter.

8.3 APPARATUS REQUIRED:

 1. 3-point starter
2. 4-point starter
3. Dc shunt motor 220V,12A,1500Rpm
4. Ammeter(0-5A),(0-10A)
5. Voltmeter (0-300V)

8.4 Theory

Starting methods of a DC motor Basic operational voltage equation of a DC motor is given as

E = Eb + IaRa hence, Ia = (E - Eb) / Ra
Now, when the motor is at rest, obviously, the back emf E b = 0. Hence, armature current at the moment of starting can be given as I a = E / Ra. In practical DC
machines, armature resistance is basically very low, generally about 0.5 Ω. Therefore, a large current flows through the armature during starting. This
current is large enough to damage the armature circuit. Due to this excessive starting current -

1. The fuses may blow out and the armature winding and/or commutator brush arrangement may get damaged.
2. Very high starting torque will be produced (as torque is directly proportional to the armature current), and this high starting torque may cause huge
centrifugal force which may throw off the armature winding.
3. Other loads connected to the same source may experience a dip in the terminal voltage.

A large DC motor will pick up speed rather slowly due to its large rotor inertia. Hence, building up the back emf slowly causing the level of high starting
current maintained for quite some time. This may cause severe damage. To avoid this, a suitable DC motor starter must be used. Very small dc motors,
however, may be started directly by connecting them to the supply with the help of a contactor or a switch. It does not result in any harm because they gather
speed quickly due to small rotor inertia. In this case, the large starting current will die down quickly because of the fast rise in the back emf.
3-Point Starter

When the connected dc motor is to be started, the lever is turned gradually to the right. When the lever touches point 1, the field winding gets directly
connected across the supply, and the armature winding gets connected with resistances R1 to R5 in series. During starting, full resistance is added in series
with the armature winding. Then, as the lever is moved further, the resistance is gradually is cut out from the armature circuit. Now, as the lever reaches to
position 6, all the resistance is cut out from the armature circuit and armature gets directly connected across the supply. The electromagnet 'E' (no voltage
coil) holds the lever at this position. This electromagnet releases the lever when there is no (or low) supply voltage. It can be seen that, when the arm is moved
from the position 1 to the last position, the starter resistance gets added in series with the field winding. But, as the value of starter resistance is very small as
compared to the shunt resistance, the decrease in shunt field current may be negligible. However, to overcome this drawback a brass or copper arc may be
employed within a 3 point starter which makes a connection between the moving arm and the field winding, as shown in the figure of 4 point starter below.
When the motor is overloaded beyond a predefined value, 'overcurrent release electromagnet' D gets activated, which short-circuits electromagnet E and,
hence, releases the lever and the motor is turned off. The internal wiring of a 3 point starter is as shown in the figure
4 Point Starter

The main difference between a 3 point starter and a 4 point starter is that the no voltage coil (electromagnet E) is not connected in series with the field
coil. The field winding gets directly connected to the supply, as the lever moves touching the brass arc (the arc below the resistance studs). The no voltage
coil (or Hold-on coil) is connected with a current limiting resistance Rh. This arrangement ensures that any change of current in the shunt field does not affect
the current through hold-on coil at all. This means, electromagnetic pull of the hold-on coil will always be sufficient so that the spring does not unnecessarily
restore the lever to the off position. A 4 point starter is used where field current is to be adjusted by means of a field rheostat for the purpose of operating the
motor above rated speed by reducing the field current.

DC series motor starter

Construction of DC series motor starters is very basic as shown in the figure. The start arm is simply moved towards right to start the motor. Thus,
maximum resistance is connected in series with the armature during starting and then gradually decreased as the start arm moves towards right. This starter is
sometimes also called as a 2 point starter. The no load release coil holds the start arm to the run position and leaves it when the voltage is lost.

8.5 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

8.6 PROCUDER

8.7 OBSERVATION

DC motor with 3-point starter is operated and studied.

8.8 Calculation/RESULT:

DC motor with 3-point starter is operated and studied.

8.9 PRECUATION

1. All connections should be tight and proper.

2. Reading must be taken carefully.
3. Before starting the motor check the starter at maximum.
8.10 CONCULSION

8.11 QUESTION

1. What is the need for starter with a d.c motor?

2. How does a 3-point starter function?
EXPERIMENT .9

9.1 TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR

9.2 AIM OF EXPERIMENT: To study the speed control of a DC shunt motor using
A. Field current control
B. Armature voltage control

9.4 APPARATUS:
 Sl Apparatus Apparatus QUANTITY
No Name Type
DC SHUNT MOTOR 1
1 DC Motor
3HP,1500RPM,220V,12A
2 Ammeter 1 (0-10A) 1
3 Ammeter 2 (0-5A) 1
4 Voltmeter 0-300V 1
5 Rheostat 320 2
6 Tachometer 0-10000rpm 1
7 Connecting wire As required

9.5 THEORY:

Any D.C. motor can be made to have smooth and effective control of speed over a wide range. The shunt motor runs at a speed defined by the expressions.
The back emf of the dc motor is given by

𝑃∅𝑁𝑍
𝐸𝑏 =
60𝐴

Where Eb is back emf of dc motor in volts.

P is no. of poles.

Φ is flux per pole in wb.

N is speed in rpm.
 Z is no. of conductors and A is no.of parallel paths.

So the equation for speed is given as;

𝐸𝑏 𝐴
𝑁= ∗ 60
∅ ∗ 𝑍𝑃

𝐸𝑏
𝑁=𝐾∗
∅ (neglecting Ia*Ra at no-load)

𝑉−𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎
𝑁=𝐾∗ ∅

i.e. N α Eb and N α 1/ Φ.

The equations clearly indicate that:

1. Applied voltage control.
2. Armature rheostat control.
3. Field flux control.
Applied voltage control:
In the past, Ward-Leonard method is used for Voltage control method. At present, variable voltage is achieved by SCR controlled AC to DC converter unit is
used to control the speed of a motor. In this method, speed control is possible from rated speed to low speeds. Speed can be controlled by varying the
resistance in armature circuit included in the form of a rheostat which varies armature voltage.
Armature rheostat control:
Speed control is achieved by adding an external resistance in the armature circuit.
This method is used where a fixed voltage is available. In this method, a high current
rating rheostat is required.
Disadvantages:
(a) Large amount of power is lost as heat in the rheostat. Hence, the efficiency is low.
(b) Speed above the rated speed is not possible. The motor can be run from its rated
speed to low speeds.
Field flux control:
Speed control by adjusting the air gap flux is achieved by means of adjusting the field
current i.e., by adding an external resistance in the field circuit. The disadvantage of this
method is that at low field flux, the armature current will be high for the same load. This
method is used to run the motor above its rated speed only. Speed can also be controlled by decreasing the flux (Φ) i.e. by including an external
resistance which decreases the field current.

9.6 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

1. FIELD CONTROL METHOD 2. ARMATURE CONTROL METHOD

Figure 9.1 FIELD CONTROL METHOD figure 9.2 ARMATURE CONTROL METHOD
9.7 PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.

2. Switch on the main supply and start the motor.

3. Note down the readings of all the meters and speed.

4. Vary the value of rheostat in the armature circuit.

5. As we increase the resistance, voltage is reduced in turn, speed is also reduced.

6. Now vary the value of rheostat in parallel with the series field.

7. As we decrease the resistance more current is diverted through diverter Therefore the current flow through the field is less. Thus less flux is
produced and speed of motor is increased.

9.8 OBSERVATION TABLE

1. Armature control method: (keeping field current constant)

Sl.No. Armature Voltage(V) Speed (rpm) Field current(A)
current(A) (Constant)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

1. Field control method: (keeping armature voltage constant)

Sl.No. Armature Field Speed(rpm) Voltage(V)

current(A) current(A) (Constant)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

9.9 CALCULATION/RESULT:
The curve between:

 Speed versus armature voltage (field current constant).

 Speed versus field current (armature voltage constant) are plotted.

The speed of D.C. motor varies directly proportional to armature current and inversely proportional to field flux.

9.10 PRECAUTIONS:

 Make sure that all connections are tight.

 Vary the value of rheostat slowly.

 Take the readings carefully and accurately.

 Don’t touch the naked connection, it may give shock.

9.11 CONCULSION:
9.12 QUESTION:

1. To control the speed above and below the rated speed, which method should have to use and why?
2. What are the methods for speed control of dc series motor?
3. If the voltmeter is connected at a point of starter instead of across armature, what does it read?
4. How does the speed of a DC shunt motor vary with armature voltage and field current?
5. Compare the resistance of the armature and field winding.
6. What is the importance of speed control of DC motor in industrial applications?
7. Which is of the two methods of speed control is better and why?
8. Why is the speed of DC shunt motor practically constant under normal load condition?
9. What are the factors affecting the speed of a DC shunt motor?
10. What range of speed can you get with the armature control method of speed control of d.c. shunt motor.
11. What range of speed can you get with the field control method of speed control of d.c. shunt motor.
12. If the rated speed of a d.c. shunt motor is 1440 rpm ,which method of speed control Would you suggest to obtain a speed of 1000 rpm
13. What are the limitations of armature control method for speed control of d.c. shunt motor.
14. What would you do to reverse the direction of rotation of a d.c. shunt motor.
15. What will happen if the shunt field winding of a loaded d.c. shunt motor accidentally breaks?
16. Name the advantages of field control for controlling the speed of d.c. shunt motor.
17. What will happen if d.c. shunt motor running on no load has shunt field winding opened accidently.
18. Why the speed d.c. shunt motor practically constant?
EXPERIMENT .10

10.1 TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: CHARACTERISTICS OF SEPARATELY EXCITED DC SHUNT GENERATOR

10.2 AIMS EXPERIMENT: To plot the following characteristics of a separately excited DC generator
I. No load characteristics or magnetizing curve.
II. Load characteristics.
III. External characteristics.

10.4 APPARATUS:

1. DC motor 5 hp, 230 V, 20.5 A, 1425 rpm.

2. DC generator 5hp, 110 V, 1425 rpm.
3. rheostat
4. Voltmeter (0-300V)
5. Ammeter (0-2.5A)
6. Connecting wires.

10.5 THEORY:

The emf generated in the armature of a dc machine under no load condition is given by

𝐸𝑔= ∅𝑍𝑁𝑃
60𝐴
i.e. Eg ∝ ∅
Which can be written as Eg =KɸN.
if N is constant then

Eg=Kɸ

But ɸ α I

So Eg=KI
f

From this equation it is clear that induced emf is directly proportional to field current when speed is constant. Thus the generated emf is directly
proportional to the flux per pole, which in turn depends on the field current (I f).The characteristics curve plotted between the generated emf, 𝐸𝑔
and 𝐼𝑔 at constant speed rotation is called magnetization characteristics of DC generators.

The connection of separately excited dc generator is as shown in the figure. The field current If is increased steadily in steps from zero to
maximum and the corresponding values of If and Eg are indicated by field ammeter and the voltmeter across the armature are noted on plotting
these results, a curve form as shown in graph is obtained.
 DEPARTEMNT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

1. NO-LOAD CHARACTERISTICS OR MAGNETIZING CURVE.

We know that
Eg  N  and for separately excited D.C. generator   I f. So the generated emf
E g  I f N. By increasing or decreasing the generated field current I f we can vary the generated emf
Eg with speed N constant by varying the motor field current. This characteristic, drawn between the
generated emf Eg and field current I f known as no-load characteristic which is shown in Fig.

2. LOAD CHARACTERISTICS.
We know that for separately excited D.C. generator terminal voltage V t  E g  I a R a and also the generated emf E g  I f N . So by varying
the generated field current I f we can vary the terminal voltage Vt keeping the speed N constant by varying the motor field current for a constant
load current Ia . This characteristic, drawn between the terminal voltage Vt and field current I f known as load characteristic which is shown in
Fig.

3. EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS
we know that for separately excited D.C. generator terminal voltage V t  E g  IaR a and also the
generated e.m.f. E g  I f N. So by varying the load current Ia we can vary the terminal voltage Vt
keeping the speed N constant by varying the motor field current for a constant generated field current
I f . This characteristic, drawn between the terminal voltage Vt and load current Ia known as external
characteristic which is shown in Fig.

10.6CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

115 | P a g e
ELECTRICAL MACHINES LABORATORY MANUAL
Figure 10.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF SEPARATELY EXCITED DC SHUNT GENERATOR

10.7PROCEDURE:
1) Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.
2) Keep the switch S1 in OFF position.
3) Switch ON dc supply and start the motor with the help of three point starter.
4) Run the motor at its rated speed by varying the rheostat Rfm to adjust the speed.
5) Note down the voltmeter reading ( Eg ). Though the generator field is open the voltmeter will
read few volts induced due to residual magnetism.
6) Excite the generator field with full resistance Rfg from the 220 V dc source.
7) Increase the generator field If by reducing the field resistance Rfg in step. Note down at least five
reading of Eg and If. Go up to 120 % of rated generator voltage.
8) Now make the switch S1 ON.
9) By varying the field rheostat Rfg vary the field current If keeping the load current Ia constant.
10) Note down the voltmeter reading Vt and generated field current If.
11) Again make the switch S1 OFF.
12) Now adjust the generator field current If by varying the rheostat Rfg to obtain the rated induced
emf on generator.
13) Now make the switch S1 ON and vary the load current Ia step by step. For each step adjust the
motor field rheostat Rfm to keep the speed constant.
14) Note down the voltmeter reading Vt and load current Ia.
15) Disconnect the circuit from the supply.
16) Draw the three characteristics of separately excited generator.

10.8OBSERVATION TABLE

1. NO-LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
Sl Field Current If Generated emf Eg Speed N
No (amp) (volt) (rpm)
1
2
3
4
5
2. LOAD CHARACTERISRICS:
Sl Field Current If Generated emf Eg SpeedN
No (amp) (volt) (rpm)
1
2
3
4
5
3. EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS:

Terminal
Load Current Field Current Speed
Sl Voltage
Load IL If N
No Vt
(amp) (amp) (rpm)
(volt)
1 1 amp.
2 2 amp.
3 3 amp.
4 4 amp.
5 5 amp
10.9 CALCULATION/ RESULT

Plot the graph between Eg and If.

10.10 PRECAUTIONS:

1. Make sure that all the connections are tight.

2. Take the readings carefully.
3. Plot the graph accurately.

10.11 CONCULSION
10.12 QUESTION

1. What is residual magnetism?

2. Why load characteristics have similar nature with no-load characteristics?
3. Draw the no-load characteristic, load characteristic and external characteristic of series and
shunt dc generator.
4. In external characteristics, what are the armature resistance drop and armature reactance drop?
EXPERIMENT .11

11.1 TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: Characteristics and voltage build-up of Shunt DC Generator

11.2AIMS EXPERIMENT: To plot the following characteristics of a separately excited DC generator

I. No load characteristics or magnetizing curve.
II. Load characteristics.
III. External characteristics.

To obtain the open circuit characteristics of the given DC shunt generator at its
rated speed and determine the Critical resistance and Critical speed.

11.3PERORMED OBJECTIVE

11.4 APPARATUS:
  DC motor 5 hp, 230 V, 20.5 A, 1425 rpm.
 DC generator 5hp, 110 V, 1425 rpm.
 Rheostat 1200 omhs
 Voltmeter (0-300V)
 Ammeter (0-2.5A)
 Loading rheostat 5KW, 230V
 Connecting wires

11.5THEORY
The O.C.C is a curve showing the relationship between the no load emf generated and the shunt field current (Eo and If ). Even when the field current is zero
there is some residual magnetism present in the poles. Hence there is a small voltage generated even at zero field current, which is called the residual voltage.
As the field current is increased, Eo also increases and the curve traced is almost a straight line. As If is further increased the poles start getting saturated, the
straight line relation no longer holds good and the curve bends and becomes almost horizontal. In a D.C. generator, for any given speed, the induced emf in
the armature is directly proportional to the flux per pole.
Eg =(ΦZNP)/60A Volts
Where Ф is the flux per pole in webers,
Z is the no. of conductors in the armature,
N is the speed of the shaft in rpm,
P is the no. of poles and
A is the no. of parallel
paths.
A = 2 (wave)
A = P (lap)
Critical resistance:
It is that value of resistance in the field circuit at which the generator will just excite(or voltage build up begins). If the resistance is higher, the machine will
fail to build up voltage. It is given by the slope of the tangent drawn to the linear portion of the magnetization curve from the origin.

Conditions for voltage build up in a d.c shunt generator

1. There should be some residual magnetism in the poles.
2. For the given direction of rotation, the shunt field coils should be properly connected.
That is, the coils should be so connected that the flux generated by the field current aids
the residual flux.
3. When excited at no load, the shunt field circuit resistance should be less than the
critical resistance.

Critical Load Resistance of Shunt Wound DC Generator

This is the minimum external load resistance which is required to excite the shunt wound generator. To conduct a load test on a D.C. shunt generator and to
draw it’s external and internal load characteristics.

Internal Characteristic of Shunt Wound DC Generator

The internal characteristic curve represents the relation between the generated voltage Eg and the load current IL. When the generator is loaded
then the generated voltage is decreased due to armature reaction. So, generated voltage will be lower than the emf generated at no load. Here in
the figure below AD curve is showing the no load voltage curve and AB is the internal characteristic curve.

External Characteristic of Shunt Wound DC Generator

AC curve is showing the external characteristic of the shunt wound DC generators. It is showing the variation of terminal voltage with the load
current. Ohmic drop due to armature resistance gives lesser terminal voltage the generated voltage. That is why the curve lies below the internal
characteristic curve.

The terminal voltage can always be maintained constant by adjusting the of the load terminal.

When the load resistance of a shunt wound DC generator is decreased, then load current of the generator increased as shown in above figure. But
the load current can be increased to a certain limit with (upto point C) the decrease of load resistance. Beyond this point, it shows a reversal in
the characteristic. Any decrease of load resistance, results in current reduction and consequently, the external characteristic curve turns back as
shown in the dotted line and ultimately the terminal voltage becomes zero. Though there is some voltage due to residual magnetism.
We know, Terminal voltage

Now, when IL increased, then terminal voltage decreased. After a certain limit, due to heavy load current and increased ohmic drop, the terminal
voltage is reduced drastically. This drastic reduction of terminal voltage across the load, results the drop in the load current although at that time
load is high or load resistance is low.
That is why the load resistance of the machine must be maintained properly. The point in which the machine gives maximum current output is
called breakdown point (point C in the picture).

11.6CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Load Resistance of Shunt Wound DC Generator

Figure11.1 Load Resistance of Shunt Wound DC Generator

Open circuit characteristics of the given DC shunt generator

Figure 11.2 Open circuit characteristics of the given DC shunt generator

11.7 PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram. Keep the motor field rheostat in the minimum position and the generator field rheostat in the
maximum position at starting.

2. Start the MG set and bring it to the rated speed of the generator by adjusting the motor field rheostat. Keep the speed constant at this value throughout the
test as the emf generated depends on speed.

3. Adjust the terminal voltage to rated value by means of the generator field rheostat. Keep the rheostat in this position throughout the experiments its
variation changes the field circuit resistance and hence the generated emf.

4. apply the load and note the values of the load current, IL; terminal voltage, V and field current, fat different values of the load until full load current is
obtained. Calculate the armature current in each case: Ia= IL+ If

5. Make the connections for the measurement of armature resistance. Note down the voltage drop Va across the armature for different values of current I
passing through it. Armature resistance in each case is calculated.

6. Ra= Va/ I., Ra (Hot) = 1.25 Ra. Take the mean of the values which are close together as the resistance of the armature, Ra

7. Calculate the generated e.m.f. E at each value of the load current. E= V+ IaRa

8. Draw external characteristic, V versus IL and internal characteristic, E versus IL.

11.8 OBSERVATION:

Open circuit characteristics of DC shunt generator

 S.NO Field current Armature
If(Amps) voltage
Eo(VOLTS)
1
2
3
LOAD TEST ON A D.C SHUNT GENERATOR

S.NO Field current Load current terminal IA=Il+If(Amps) Eg=V+IaRa(VOLTS)

If(Amps) IL(amps) voltage
V(VOLTS)
1
2
3

11.9 CALCULATION/RESULT

Critical resistance at rated speed, Rc = E1 / If1

Critical speed of the Machine, Nc = (E2 / E1) N1

Eg = V + IaRa
& Ia = IL + Ish
Terminal Voltage (V) =..................V
Load Current (IL) =..................A
Shunt Field Current (Ish) =..................A
Armature Current (Ia) = IL + Ish =.................A
Generated emf (Eg) = V + Ia(Ra+Rse) = . . . . . . . . .
11.10 PRECAUTIONS:

1. While starting the motor, field regulator must be in minimum position.

2. The field rheostat of generator should be at maximum position
3. Do not overload the generator.
4. At every step speed should be maintained constant.

11.11 CONCULSION

11.12 QUESTIONS:

1. Why is the generated e.m.f. not constant even though the field circuit resistance is kept unaltered?

2. Find out the voltage drop due to full load armature reaction.
3. Differentiate between D. C. Shunt Motor and D. C. shunt Generator?

4. State the conditions required to put the D.C shunt generator on load.

5. Why the terminal voltage decreases when load is increased on the generator?

6. How do you compensate for the armature reaction?

7. What happens if shunt field connections is reversed in the generator?

8. The E.M.F. induced in armature conductors of a D.C shut generator is A.C or D.C?

9. Specify the applications of D. C. shunt Generators.

10. Why is Rh1 kept in minimum position at starting?

11. Why is Rh2 kept in maximum position at starting?

12. Why does the terminal voltage of a generator decrease with increase in load?

13. How are the meter ratings selected for this experiment?

14. What are the different losses in a d.c generator?

15. What is the condition for maximum efficiency in a d.c machine?

16. What is armature reaction? How does it affect the functioning of the machine?
Experiment 12.

12.1 TITLE OF EXPERMNT: method of starting synchronous motor

12.2 AIMS OF EXPERMNTE: to start the synchronous motor using;

1. Using pony motors

2. Using damper winding
3. As a slip ring induction motor
4. Using small d.c. machine coupled to it.

12.3 APPRATUS:

1. Synchronous Motor

2. Induction motor

3. Damper winding

12.4 THEORY

As we all know that Synchronous motors cannot self-start as it has no starting torque. Therefore different ways are used to start the motor. External force is
used at start for bringing up the speed up to synchronous speed. The three main ways are:
  Reduce frequency of stator to a safe starting level.
 Use external prime mover.
 Use of damper winding.

Motor starting with an external prime Mover: Synchronous motors are mechanically coupled with another motor. It could be either 3 phase induction motor
or DC shunt motor. DC excitation is not fed initially. It is rotated at speed very close to its synchronous speed and after that DC excitation is given. After
some time when magnetic locking takes place supply to the external motor is cut off.

Damper winding: In case, synchronous motor is of salient pole type, additional winding is placed in rotor pole face. Initially when rotor is standstill, relative
speed between damper winding and rotating air gap flux in large and an emf is induced in it which produces the required starting torque. As speed approaches
synchronous speed, emf and torque is reduced and finally when magnetic locking takes place, torque also reduces to zero. Hence in this case synchronous is
first run as three phase induction motor using additional winding and finally it is synchronized with the frequency.

Starting a Synchronous Motor Using an Induction Motor

We need to bring the rotor of the synchronous motor to synchronous speed before we switch on the motor. For that reason, we directly couple a small
induction motor (pony motor) with the synchronous motor. Note here, that the number of poles of the induction motor should be less than the synchronous
motor else it will never be able to achieve the synchronous speed of the synchronous motor. This is because an induction motor always has a speed less than
the synchronous speed and for it to become equal to the synchronous speed of the synchronous motor, its own speed has to be increased. After the rotor of the
synchronous motor is brought to the synchronous speed, we switch on the DC supply to the rotor. After that, we simply de-couple the induction motor from
the synchronous motor shaft.

Starting a Synchronous Motor Using a DC Machine

It is similar to above method with a slight difference between the two. A DC machine is coupled to the synchronous motor. The DC machine works like a DC
motor initially and brings the synchronous motor to synchronous speed. Once it achieves the synchronous speed, the DC machine works like a DC generator
and supplies DC to the rotor of the synchronous motor. This method offers easy starting and better efficiency than the earlier method.

12.5 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

1. As a Slip Ring Induction Motor 2. Using damper winding

Figure 12.1 As a Slip Ring Induction Motor figure 12.2 Using damper winding

3. Using Small D.C. Machine

Figure 12.3 Starting a Synchronous Motor Using a DC Machine

12.6 PROCEDUER

1. DC Test

1. Turn on the low-power DC power supply with a short circuit across its terminals.
1. Limit the current on the low-power DC power supply to 1.8 A.
2. Turn off the supply and disconnect the short circuit.
2. Connect the supply terminals across ports 1 and 4 of the synchronous motor.
1. Turn on the supply and measure the DC voltage and current. Vary the voltage as needed to reach a current of 1.8 A.
2. Turn off the supply, then repeat the previous two steps for ports 2 and 5 and ports 3 and 6.
3. Disconnect the low-power DC power supply.
2. Synchronous Machine Start-up

1. Make sure the three-phase disconnect switch, synchronous motor switch, and DC motor switch are all off.
1. Check that the VARIAC is at 0%.
2. Wire the VARIAC to the three-phase outlet, and connect the setup shown in Fig. 1.
3. Remember to set the 1 to 1000 scaling of the digital power meter current probe.
2. Check that the "Start/Run" switch is in the "Start" position.
3. Turn on the three-phase disconnect switch.
4. Quickly increase the VARIAC output until the digital power meter reads around 115 V.
5. Measure the armature current IAC1, armature voltage VAC1, real power, and power factor.
6. Remember that the phase (line-to-neutral) voltage and phase current on phase "a" are being measured, so the power factor measurement on the power
meter is correctly reflecting the per-phase power factor.
7. Measure the torque and speed of the machine.
8. Turn on the 125 V DC power supply. Make sure all connections are clear from the supply terminals.
1. Press the supply "Start" button and set the supply output to 125 V.
9. Flip the "Start/Run" switch to the "Run" position. Pay attention to how the machine sound changes. The machine sound becomes smoother as the
rotor magnetic field locks to the stator rotating magnetic field.
1. Record the armature current IAC1, armature voltage VAC1, real power, power factor, and the field voltage and current from the DC power
supply display.
2. Measure and record the torque and speed of the machine.
10. Turn off the DC power supply, flip the "Start/Run" switch to the "Start" position, and set the VARIAC back to 0%.
11. Turn off the three-phase disconnect switch. Leave the rest of the circuit intact.
12.7 OBSERVATION:

In this method, the motor is first started as an induction motor and then starts running as a synchronous motor after achieving synchronous speed. For this,
damper windings are used. Damper windings are additional windings consisting of copper bars placed in the slots in the pole faces. The ends of the copper
bars are short-circuited. These windings behave as the rotor of an induction motor. When 3 phase power is supplied to the motor, the motor starts running as
an induction motor at a speed below synchronous speed. After some time DC supply is given to the rotor. The motor gets pulled into synchronism after some
instant and starts running as a synchronous motor. When the motor reaches synchronous speed, there is no induced emf in the damper windings anymore and
hence they don’t have any effect now on the working of the motor. This is the most commonly used technique for starting synchronous motors.

12.8 CALCULATION/RESULT:

Speed of ranges from 150 rpm to 1800 rpm. The speed is synchronous and does not depend on load conditions. Speed always remain constant from no load to
full load.

N = Speed of Motor in rpm

f = frequency, and

p = No. of poles
EXPERMNTE: 13

13.1 TITLE OF EXPERIMNTE: Synchronous Motor V-Curve

13.2 AIMS EXPERIMNTE: To draw the V-Curves and inverted v-curves of the given three phase
synchronous motor by constant output.

1. To practice designing an experiment

2. To obtain the no-load V-curve of a synchronous motor

13.3 APPARATUS REQUIRED:

13.4 THEORY

Unloaded synchronous motors are used in parallel with the receiving end of a transmission line to improve line voltage regulation. The motor, with proper
field excitation, can act like capacitor on its input side and thus draw leading current to compensate for the lagging current taken by an inductive load. A V-
curve of a synchronous motor shows the relation between armature currents as ordinates and field currents as abscissas when the motor operates with a
constant power input at rated terminal voltage. A family of V-curves may be obtained for a given motor by observing the above relations for a number of
values of constant power inputs. The input power to a three-phase synchronous motor is given by P= √3VIcosφ and if P is kept constant and V is naturally
constant because the motor is connected to the power supply, it follows that for any given V-curve if I varies, cos φ must also change. The minimum point of
the V-curve represent
the condition of unity power factor (pf). The motor appears as inductive load if the field current is less than that corresponding to the minimum point on the V-
curve; and it appears as capacitive load for field currents above that. The equivalent circuit per phase is shown in the Fig 1 with the armature resistance
neglected. Êaf is the induced back emf due to the flux created by the rotor current I f. If saturation is neglected then Êaf is proportional to If . Va is the applied
voltage per phase and usually taken as a reference. The angle of Êaf with Va is the power angle δ. Another expression of the power given to the motor is: P =
3(Va Êaf / X ) sin(δ ). Fig shows that when Êaf increases (by increasing the field current) and with constant power, the negative power factor angle increases
(less negative) then it becomes zero, and with further increase in the field current the angle becomes positive, i.e., the motor is consuming negative Q
(supplying Q to the grid). Ê

Equivalent circuit per phase of a synchronous machine.

Figure13.5 Phasor diagrams for different excitations and constant
From the above figure and from what you learned in the energy conversion course, it should be clear that for a constant P given to the motor, the armature
current depends on the field current. When the motor consumes reactive power, the power factor is lagging and the armature current is large (Fig 2.a). As the
field current increases, the power factor improves, the pf angle becomes smaller (but still negative), and the armature current decreases. For a certain field
current, the pf angle is zero and the armature current is smallest for a certain P. Increasing the field current further, would make the pf leading, the motor will
supply Q and the armature current would start increasing again. The objective of this experiment is to obtain a graph of the armature current (y-axis) against
the field current (x-axis).

13.5 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure 13.2 open and short circuit test of synchronies motor

13.6 PROCEDUER
OC Test:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram
2. DPST – I is closed and the motor is started using a 3 point starter
3. The field rheostat of motor is adjusted to give rated speed of alternator.
4. DPST – 2 is closed and the field rheostat of alternator is adjusted to get
various voltages and corresponding field currents are noted. This procedure
is repeated up to rated field current.
SC Test:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. DPST – I is closed and the motor is started using a 3 point starter.
3. The field rheostat of motor is adjusted to get rated speed of the alternator.
4. The field rheostat of alternator is adjusted to get rated current in the
armature of alternator.
5. This value of Isc and the corresponding If are noted..

6. The field rheostat of alternator is brought back to maximum resistance

Position and the field rheostat of the motor is brought back to minimum Resistance
position.
7. Open the DPSTS.
Determination of Ra:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram
2. DPSTS is closed and the rheostat is adjusted
3. For various values of voltages the value of current is noted
4. The rheostat is brought back to maximum position

13.7 OBSERVATION TABLE

Open Circuit Test

S.No. No load voltage V0 No Load Field

Current
1
2

Short Circuit Test:

S.No. Rated I(A) If (A)

1
2

13.8 CALCULATION/ RESULT

FORMULAE USED:
Ra= Rdc* 1.3
Zs= Vph/Isc

Xs=√(Zs2−𝑅𝑎2)
Xs
ȹ=tan−1
Ra

SYNCHRONOUS REACTANCE:
OCC and SC characteristic are drawn as shown. The field current OA gives the rated
voltage per phase RV.
The same field current RA given as armature current OB on short circuit.
Therefore Synchronous Impedance, ZS=OV/OB

Therefore Synchronous Reactance, XS=√(Zs2−𝑅𝑎2)

CONSTANT INPUT POWER LINE:
Let P be the constant total input to the synchronous motor. Therefore constant input
power per phase equals
P/3. Therefore Vph*Iph*cosΦ=P/3
Iph* cosΦ=P/3Vph
Since P & V are constant Iph*cosΦ is also a constant.
The vector OR is equal to Vph/ZS is drawn lagging OV1 by an angle he reference OV1 is drawn to represent V as shown in the figure.
The V curves are useful in adjusting the field current. Increasing the field current if beyond the level for minimum armature current results in leading power
factor. Similarly decreasing the field current below the minimum armature current result results in lagging power factor. It is seen that the field current for
unity power factor at full load is more than the field current for unity power factor at no load.The figure below shows the graph between power factor and
field current at the different loads.
It is clear from the above figure that, if the synchronous motor at full load is operating at unity power factor, then removal of the shaft load
causes the motor to operate at a leading power factor.

13.9 CONCULSION

13.10 QUESTION