If you had to answer rnght now, what would your concepts of critical and creative reading ber

How does rikical reading difer from idenijhcation and recaul?

What kinds of questions oould you ast a shudent in order lo delermine ohether or not that shuden!
is reading crifkically?

Art certain students incapable of reading critically?

Are there Dalid oays of teaching a child to read criically?

What is creative reading?

Where does dramahic reading ft7

Does the creaioe emphasis shift behoeen primary and inlermediate grades?

How do children become inooloed in reahive reading?

In order to read critically and creatively, one must analyze and judge reading materal and then
respond to it. Critical and creative reading are closely allied, the instant a reader makes judgments
(critical reading), it almost invariably becomes necessary to decide how to use or synthesize the
information gained (creative reading). In its most useful sense, the information gained from the
reading expenence has been applied or organized for some purpose. Creative reading extends

tar beyond utilitarian application, but it certainly can begin there. We will discuss critical and
creative readin8 separately in the hope of achieving greater clarity and enhancing' understanding.

Critical Reading

The diagram given in Figure 2.3 (see p. 31) shows where critical reading bts into the Harris-Smith
model in Step 7 (Analyze) and, step 5 0udge).

Critical reading begins with analysis and includes judgment or evalua- tion. It would be more precise
to speak of teaching children to read for analysis and evaluation than to speak of critical reading. but
the term crihcal reading is used frequently, though often vaguely, in educa- tional hterature.
Therefore, it is used here as a link to that broad usage that refers to most higher-level
comprehension activity as "critical read- ng

What Is Critical Reading?

Robinson (1964) states that critical reading is the ability to apply rele- vant criteria in evaluating a
selection. It is the judgment of the "veracity, validity, and worth of what is read, based on criteria or
standards developed through previous experience (P3).

Russell (1956) suggests four conditions essential for critical reading:

1. A knowledge of the ffeld in which the reading is being done.

2. An attitude of questioning and suspended judgment 3. Some application of the methods of logical
analysis or scientiic inquiry.

4. Taking action in the light of that analysis.

Neither teachers nor their students will meet all these conditions at all times. Neither adults nor
children can possibly be armed with back- ground knowledge in every field in which they must read.
Today's world is too large, and human knowledge is too vast for that to be possible. It is necessary,
therefore, to equip students with an attitude of geineral awareness so that they can detect
unsupported statements, sweeping generalizations, and conclusions that do not necessarily fol- low
from the evidence given. Even then, an attitude of suspended judgment may not always be possible.
Earlier biases and prejudices affect one's ability to read critically 2t a later period, as do factors such
as age, sex, home backgTOund, and sociopolitical attitudes. Stu- dents should be taught to recognize
their biases and deal with them às factors in the way they react to the printed or spoken word.
Teachers should foster an attitude of inquiry when presenting the techniques of critical reading
Against such a background, children will develoP

high standards for judging what they read.

Critical reading, then, is one of the many operations that make an effective reader. It involves
analysis and judgment in evaluatin8 written material. Although there are a number of factors that
influence a reader's ability to be critical, the processes of analyzing and evaluating can be taught in
the reading program.

Neglect of Critical Reading in the Classroom

Itstruction in critical reading does not receive sufficient emphasis in the schools. A study of teaching
time and emphasis in the United

States showed that more than half the teachers questioned devoted "little or no time" to critical
reading in the first or second grades (Austin & Morrison, 1963). The National Assessment of
Educational Progress (1976) showed that critical reading skills were already low and were continuing
to decline. The study found that 50 percent of high school students could not respond correctly to
questions that required them to read critically. IE practice makes perfect, it would seem that the
concepts and practice in critical reading are being neglected all along the way. Durkin (1984) tound
that teachers spend most ot their time asking simple recall questions even when their basal reader
teacher's manual recommends more challenging questions.

This does not mean that children at any grade level are unable to analyze and judge. Research has
indicated that even first- or second- grade readers or those who were reading as much as two years
below

their grade level were capable of reading critically in materials at their level (McCullough, 1957;
Covington, 1967).

It appears, then, that critical reading skills, though often ignored, can and should be developed
gradually trom the early grades. Perhaps with a better understanding of what is involved in analyzing
and evalu- ating, teachers would devote more time to teaching critical reading in the elementary
grades.

Critical and Creatire Reading

303
of the material. The reader attermpts to determine the accuracy of pre sentation, the author's
professional competence, and the relevancy of the author's thoughts.

Students who are asked to make judgments while reading will

OCcasionally need external guidelines or other references and sources.

Pupils who have had no previous experience with a subject should suspend judgment until a frame
of reference can be established through the application of criteria obtained from outside sources.
When asked about the quality of a short story and having no sense of how to respond, students
must seek information from sources outside them- selves (books, teacher's advice, and so forth).

Internal standards may be all that are necessary for students with a strong basis of experience in the
area. Their task is simple. Difficulty may occur, horvever, when a pupil's internal criteria-the products
of his or her culture-are strongly in confiict with the prevailing outside sources. Because ot an
emotional reaction, the reader may not be able to suspend judgment until a sufficient amount of
evidence is presented on a given subject. For example, Quakers who are reading a plea in favor of
expanded offensive power for the military are influenced by their beliefs to reject this argument,
regardless of its logic or its persua-

sive rhetoric.

It is the teacher's responsibility to aid studernts in clarifying the assumptions they bring to the
reading task, in analyzing and determin ing the assumptions of the author, and in broadening the
background of inforraation from which more unbiased standards of judgment may

come(DeBoer, 1967).

Judging the literary value of a poem or prose selection is another aspect ot evaluation that has come
to be included within the definition of critical rcading. We usually call this "literary appreciation"
because it is treated in courses on literary criticism, but it is actually a kind of critical reading. using
critera arising from the literary form and from the r.ature of the experience being described.

The Art of Questioning

Whea teachers ask questions in order to promote critical reading, they not only present students
with a type of problem but also lead them to ask their own questions and to set personal purposes
for reading

Questions from the teacher that require analysis or evaluation can serve as models for the students
and can help them approach other materials with the same critical attitude.

Critical thinking does not happen automatically. Well-formed questions can give students an
inquiring attitude. If the teacher's ques- tions require nothing inore than immediate recall, however,
then only reading for detail is reinforced, and critical reading skills are neglected.

Wartenberg (1969) lists three qualities involved in the construction of critical questions. Such
questions should do the following:

1. Relate new ideas to the studentť's experiential background and personal involvement.
2. Develop critical thinking and the corTect assessment of state-

ments.

3. Integrate the structure of disciplines so that future learnings and past experiences can be
encompassed in the structure.

By choosing questions that require analysis or evaluation, a teacher can promote the development
of critical reading and thinking skills.

The Art of Questioning

What questions might be asked about the following selection from a children's book? Formulate
three questions a teacher might ask a second-grade child concerning this story:

Susan and Billy watched Billy's new airplane sail through the air.

"Look at it go, Susanl" Billy called. "It's as fast as lightning." "Let me dy the airplane," beg8ed Susan.

"No, you're too little," answered her brother.

"Please? Susan asked again.

Billy handed the airplane to his sister. "Be careful," he warned. Susan raced across the yard. Gaining
speed, she threw the plane into the air. It made a sudden turn and dropped to the ground in a nose
dive. One of the bright red wings lay beside the plane.

Formulate critical thinking questions:

If a teacher asks questions such as this: "What did Billy say when Susan asked to fly his plane? or
"What color was Billy's airplane? then the reader is asked simply to recall or restate facts. If the child
is asked: "How do you think Billy feels toward his sister now or "What do you expect Billy to do now?
What makes you think so? then it is necessary to move beyond literal comprehension.

Tapping cnitical judgment would require questions like this: "Would it have been better had Billy not
shared his toy or Could a toy plane y as tast as lightning?" Questioning can also lead the child to see
the application of the story to real life: "Have you ever had to share with younger brothers and
sisters? How did you feel about it?"

The Teacher as a Critical Reader

A mature reader should be prepared to detect devices designed to infu- ence a less perceptive
reader. What kínds of questions might arise from the following passage?
You know that I was born and raised in Austria. Do you know that there are no remedial reading
cases in Austrian schools Do you know that there are no remedial cases in Germany, in France, in
Italy, in

Norway, in Spain-practically anywhere in the world except in the

United States? Do you know that there was no such thing as remedial reading in this country either
until about thirty years ago Do you know that the teaching of reading never was a problem
anywhere in the world until the United States switched to the present method around 19251 This
sounds incredible, but it is true.

A competent reader might ask: "How is remedial reading being de- fined by this author? ""Does the
author refer to remedial cases or to classes designed to handle such readers?" (Refer to the fourth
sentence in the passage.) "What is the cause against which the author is building his case-his
purpose for writing?" "What is his professional ield of interest, his specialization? Where are the
facts supporting his as- sumptions?

Although a reader may have no immediate knowledge with which to substantiate or refute this
author's statements, it is still possible to detect some sweeping generalizations and a rather hastily
drawn conclusion. Note the last statement: This sounds incredible, but it is true." The author
appears to have foreseen disbelief on the part of his readers and uses rhetoric to validate the
argument. The mature reader knows that statements are not necessarily true simply because
someone says they are true. Children can be led to a similar type of 1ntelligent inquiry by teachers
who are critical readers themselves and who ask questions which encourage evaluation (Meehan,
1970).

Teachers become academic role models for their students not only by the way they ask questions
but also by the way they read. When teachers talk about the books they have read, they give their
students a message: Adults read and think while they read. It teachers discuss books in 2 manner
similar to that shown in the preceding paragrap, then students begin to become aware of the mental
activity involved in readin8 critically. Teachers are imore likely to read critically them- selves and to
stimulate critical thinking in their students if they have a schema, a mental outline of what critical
reading means (Meehan, 1970). The Harris-Smith model (Fig. 2.3) presents an instructional schema
that may foster classroom questioning and thinking.

Critical Reading Techniques

Technique: Truth Versus Fantasy

In the primary grades, one of the first critical reading skills that teachers attempt t develop in
students is the ability to distinguish truth from far tasy. They are cireful, however, not to discount
the importance

This selection was taken from Why Johnny Can ? Resd by Rudolf Flesch (New York aerNoW 1 book
that stimed much controversy in the late 1950s because ct its indictment ot United States schools for
their lack of attention to phonics.
of stories that are áctional. Teachers realize that tales of fantasy can spark imagination and elicit
creative thought. Even first-grade children, however, can learn to distinguish fact from Bction. They
become aware of fantasy signals such as "once upon a tine beginníngs and of stories incorporating
traditional fantasy motifs such as the beautiful princess, the aged king, the triumph of the younger
brother or sister, ard rebance on magic powers and objects.

To initiate awarepes, the teacher may wish to start with isolated statements and have chidren
respond with a yes or no, depending on previousy established criteria as to the truth or falsity of the
state ments. For example, the following statements might be used:

The moon is made of gTeen cheese.

A dog can fy.

A bOy carn run.

By indicating agreement or disagreement, children can become aware of printed statements that are
not based on fact. Later, they

Can discuss the fantasy elements within stories that take a "could this have happened?" approach.

Could the prinu really have climbed up on Rapunzel's hair? Why or ohy not?

Could a body be as small as Tom Thumb 37

Could the cabbage leaoes actually have groton as large as a barn? Hou do you

knoo?

Very young children can detect the diference between fantasy events and those that are plausible or
might have happened. Children can be directed to listen to two accounts of an event, one of which is
more true-to-life than the other. Discussion as to which really could have happened can then be
encouraged.

The puppy shivered from the cold. No one seemed to notice him on the sidewalk as last-minute
shoppers hurried home with arms uof Christmas packages. He huddled against a tall building to

avoid being stepped on.

Oliver PupPy shivered from the cold. "Oh dear," he sighed, "don't any of those people want a puppy
to take home? I do so want a people." Just then he had an idea. "Tll ask one of them to belong to
me"

Truth Versus Fantasy (Classroom Activity)

Children enjoy changing a factual presentation to one of fantasy by incorporating talking animals,
magical events, or other elements of fantasy. Lessons of this type enable children, when they are
older, to recognize speciic incidents in works of fiction that make the story depart from realism
Have the children read a factual account of something from their basal reader, from a school paper,
or from some other source. Demonstrate various ways in which the factual incident could be retold
as a fantasy. Then have the children tell or write their own fantasy stories based on another factual
account.

The Connotative Power of Words

Awareness of the power of words is a crucial factor in reading critically.

Words can comfort, coax, convince, and deceive. A first step toward intelligent and profitable
reading can be taken when the reader scruti- nizes a passage to determine what reaction the author
is attempting to elicit through the use of words that apPpeal to the emotions, arouse sentiment,
evoke sensory images, or incite action. A competent reader can distinguish between the dictionary
definition ofa word-its denota- tion--and the images and implications suggested by the word-its
conno tation.

Advertisers are aware of connotations as they market a product, appealing to the vanity, desires,
and weaknesses of the public. Editorials that take a decisive stand on a controversial issue are rich
with loaded words that may either flatter readers by appealing to their highest virtues or may
awaken fear and distrust of an issue that is new or different. Appeals for worthwhile charities make
tull use of connotative

language tor good causes. Election times provide an abundance of cam- paign material that carries
loaded words that seek to win public apP- proval tor a cause or a candidate. In descriptive writing,
words that appeal to the senses, evoke mental images, and provide literary effec

tiveness and vividness are used extensively.

Connotative Power of Words (Discussion)

Briefly describe your immediate reaction to each of these words:

child

death

disease

poverty

Each has a certain denotation, but you may have found that your reaction to the words went far
beyond their denotative meanings. For example, although child simply means ofspring. the
connotative implication may have called to mind the sun-total of your experiences with children, or
it may have reminded you of certain speciic instances-your childhood memories or thoughts about
the children you teach. Each of the words just given is an example of a "loaded" word because,
whether you react positively or negatively, each has triggered a stereotyped response
within you. Awareness of the techniques of connotative language makes readers far more critical
than they would otherwise be. How would you make children conscious of the connotative values of
these four words?

Connotative Power of Words

(Classroom Activities)

1. For Primary Grades

Children who can recognize evocative language are better equipped to read critically and to make
rational judgments about what they are reading than they would be without such awareness.
Exercises in the primary grades can be used to iderntity words with strong imagery. A teacher 8uides
the children to spot such imagery through speciic direction:

Find the words that make you almost able to feel the kitten: (uzzy, warm, rough tongue).

Find words that give clues to how Mrs. Hill's farm may have smelled: (fresh cut hay. nnoly painled
fence ).

Similarly, children can find examples of words that appeal to sight, sound, and taste. Many words
appeal to more than one sense. Children with limited experi- ences develop fewer connotations.
Those that do develop first center around sensory impressions. The teacher should look for
opportunities to build on a child's store house of personal connotations: ""Tell me what comes to
mind when I say a word."

Describe what you see or think about." (Use words very close to the child such as home, mother,
love, and so forth).

2. For Intermediate Grades

lt should not be the teacher's purpose to stress analytical reading to such a point that students
scrupulously examine every word in a selection for an expected conno- tation. Literary works are
sometimes better appreciated as a geslall-the sum of the parts. Newspapers, advertisements, and
political speeches provide excellent oppo:tu- nities for working with connotative language in the
intermediate grades.

For example, have children underline the loaded words in a political speech

such as this one:

Long have I been a citizen of our beloved community. I have watched my children grow up here. But
nowam deeply disturbed. Never have witnessed a more tragic upheaval than our caty has sufered
under my opponent,

Major Davis. Taxes have skyrocketed, yet children lie awake at night too nungry to sieep. Our once
tair city streets are littered and gutted. Graft and corruption have encamped at City Hall. But, my
friends, there is hope. Beckon- ng us is bright new horizon, involving us all as free Americans who
want desperately to stop decay ard begin anew. With a dependable team we can aim toward a
better tomorroiv. Continuing down the same path can lead only to certain civic death. The judgment
is yours.
Lead children to note generalities, words with fuzzy meanings, and the ways in which words can be
used to skirt issyes and to embellish empty staternents.

3. For Intemediate Grades a. In an advertisement, look for words that try to appeal to the senses:

Hair that shines like the sun.. . soft and perfect all the ime. (shampo)

With all the sassy flavor, tender garlic, and mild sweet peppers..oozing with twenty- three herbs and
splces. (salad dressing

Seeks out and eliminates cooking odor, musty odor, all kinds of household odors eaves a tresh, clean
scent, but never a telltale odor of its own. (air freshmer)

b. Diccu3s some words that advertisers avoid. See if you can determine why some words are chosen
rather than others (scent rather than smell, for example).

C. Try to determine why a particular brand name was selected for a product

Uoy, Thrill, Halo, and so on).

d. Write advertisement or editorials incorporating as many loaded words and words with strong
imagery as possible.

4. For Intermediate Grades

Think of words that have recently gained second connotations (liberation, ditente, and so on).
VWhich of these words has a general connotation (eliciting similar responses

in the total populace) as opposed to a personal connotation?

Fact Versus Opinion

Often it becomes necessary for the reader to distinguish between state ments of tact and
statements of opinion. Factual statements are objec- tive and can be veriied by using procedures
that can be replicated by others. The truth of the statement "Johnny is seven feet tall" can be
determined by anyone using a measuring instrument such asa

yardstick. On the other hand, the statement Johnny is extremely tal is not veriiable but rests on
one's interpretation ot the words tall or ertremely. which may or may not coincide with another's
viewpoint.

Altick (1969) clarifies the difference between fact and opinion by stating the condition for factual
presentation: "Where there is no com- monly accepted measure of truth, there can be no objective
Fact; every thing that is judged by the individual on the basis of personal standard is subjective."

That is not to suggest that we should not express an opinion unless facts are oblainable. Opinions
are an important part of life.

We depend on the commentaries of experts and on their opinions,

which are based on facts. We expect a senator to interpret economic developments, tor example,
and we expect an editor to editorialize.

The mature reader attempts to maintain critical awareness of the issues so that these can be
weighed in relation to the opinions of others.
At times, however, facts are a necessity. We demand facts about daily occurrences in straight news
reporting, for example. We demand this same kind of factual presentation from textbooks.

Distinguishing fact from opinion is not always simple, especially when one s experience and
background in a subject are weak. In such

Cases, the reader must make use of outside criteria. An author givin8 an opinion often sends signals
to indicate this. Children can be made aware of these, just as they can be made aware of fantasy
signals.

Opinion signals include the following: "t seems to me," "Although not necessarily proved," "In my
opinion," "As I (we) see it, and so on. These indicate that the author's expert (or inexpert) opinion
folows.

Fact Versus Opinion (Classroom Activities)

1. For Primary Grades

Children in primary grades can work with fact and opinion at a simple level. If the teacher makes
sure that children have assimilated criteria for assessing the truth of one statement, they can then
be taught to watch for an obvious signal in another.

A teacher can prepare a list of sentences such as the two that follow and ask the class to indicate
which are opiníons by underliníng the signal words.

A dog is an animal.

think dogs should be kept outdoors.

2. For Intermediate Grades

At an intermediate level, isolated statements of fact and opinion may Progress to materials taken
directly from the content areas. Truths should be rewritten as opin- ions, and vice versa. The teacher
should help children understand the importance of factual presentations in texts. For example,
speculate as to how social studies books would retiect different points of view if written by strong-
minded Repubicans,

Democrats, segregationists, English people, and so on. The teacher can offer state- ments such as
the tollowing and ask students to indicate which are facts (verišable) and which are opinion:

Asia is the largest continent.

Asia is the mest beautiful continent.

On June 13, 1967, Thurgood Marshall became the first black person to be appointed to the Supreme
Cour

Thurgood Marshall deserved the honor of being appointed to the Supreme Court.

1des

Judging Author Competence

Children who have learned to evaluate the printed word critically will be guarded in their acceptance
of an author's right to speak as an authority on a given topic. Again, judgments of this sort n2ed not
be delayed until the intermediate grades.
Dear Mr. Cousteau,

Why are you sure some fish need profectin

Reading comes alive when the author is viewed as a person with whom to communicate. One way
students can gain a sense of involvement with an author is to write a letter.

Two third-grade boys in a suimer corTective reading class were having an animated discussion
concerming the amount ot 8ear needed by a deep-sea diver

"But I read it in a book!" Paul protested, when his argument was disputed.

"Yes, but books say different things sometimes," David retorted.

"But Jacques Cousteau wrote my book!

The point was wor, both boys resting their cases on their assessments of the competency of this
authority.

A mature reader notes both the source of a publication and the author's backgrourd. Knowing about
an author's professional training and bias enables a raader to discern and evaluate the author's
viewpoint.

Judging Author Competence (Classroom Activities)

For Primary Grades

Children in primary grades can be asked the tollowing:

Is this author writing about something or someone he or she really knows?

How can we find out? (Lead students to the jacket laps of books, to reviews, to the librarian.)

Where might we look to check some of these facts? (Encyclopedias and other references.)
2. For Intermediate Grades

Children in intermediate grades can be taught to use a number ot resources in judging an author's
competence. They can be shown how to use Whos Who in America and American Men o Saence tor
biographucal data. hey can learn to check the CArC catalog in the library and the Reader s Guidt to
Periodical Literature in order to determine the scope of an author's work. Additional lessons for the
intermediate grades might inciude the folowng:

a. Havin8 the children write to publishers to obtain information about an author.

b. Having the children use sources such as the Junior Bok of Authors or sections of the Horn Book or
Elementary English. (A school librarian can provide assistance in helping children learn about vanous
references and how to use them.) . Having children critically compare different authors backgrounds,
ecucation,

Teputations, and professional posihons. or example, two blurbs about authors of science books
could be presented. One author might be the head ot a science department and director of research
studies at a university and might have worked as a consultant on several science textbookS. The
second authOr might be interested in science, might have read extensively, and might be primarily
an author of books for children. Ask students: Which of the two might have more background for
wnting a book on leat identibcation what is the standard for selecting one author over the other?
Can you deterrnine whether people who write publicity copy for publishing houses have any reason
to exaggerate an author's expertise in a particular held hus may result in evaluating the source of the
author's expertise.

Determining Author Purpose

Determining the intent of the author enables the reader to evaluate the author's message more
caretuly. Is the purpose to intorm, amuse, convince, or arousel Does he or she wish to state tacts,
deprecate, or dispel doubt? The purpose of an author's work determines where it 15 pubushed. it
the author wishes to contnbute to an increase of knowl edge in a certain held by reporting the
results o his or her researcn, then a scholarly journal with limited readership may be chose. On the
other hand, an author who wants to appeal to a wide audence might cho0se the Reader s Digest.
Similariy, the Congressional Record proba- bly carries a more direct account of a Senate bill you are
tolowin8 than does the editorial page ot your local newspaper. The purpose tor which each piece is
printed is different.

Children can learn to become aware ot how author purpose may affect a presentation. For example,
Robert Lawson's delightrul book

Ben and Me is a ictionalized account of the scientiic achievements o

Benjamin Franklin as "told" by a mouse who takes full credit for ranklin's discoveries. It can be
compared with the D'Aulaires book

Bemjamin Franklin, a biography of this famous inventor. The totally dif- ferent approach and
purpose of each book are evident in this contrast.
Children can be taught to discern differences in presentation because of differences in purpose.

Determining Purpose (Classroom Activity)

Stories can be analyzed for author purpose. A simple classification scheme such as "fun'" or
"information" may provide a good starting point for such work. Newspapers and magazines may be
used by students in the intermediate grades. Other activities include the following

1. Reading seleted paragraphs with readily determined purposes. For example, one para- graph may
intorm the children about the new school cateteria-size, cost, seating capacity, and hours it is open.
Another may urge students to take care ot the cateteria, stressing thee rules while appealing to
school spirit.

2. Writing articles toith diferent purposes. Using the same subject matter, have each child write a
piece with a speciic purpose in mind that is different from other children's pieces. The purpose can
be to amuse, to inform, to frighten, and so on. Compare the articles.

3. Comparing seoeral newspapers jor dijerent acounts of the same coent. Also, contrast articles that
are written in straight news style with those that are feature presentations. Determine the slant of
each article, the author's purpose, and the way this purpose can be determined.

Identifying Propaganda

Ir. 1937 the Institute of Propaganda Analysis reported seven techniques commonly used to infience
the unwary reader. Since then, the identiß- cation of propaganda has been emphasized by teachers
more than any other area of critical reading. The original list of techniques has since

Dcen expanded, interpreted, and repeatedly redefined. Basically, the

ist includes these:

1. Bad names.

2. Glad names.

3. Transfer.

4. Testimonial.

5. Plain folks.

6. Stacking the cards.

7. Bandwagon.

Bad names is a method by which readers are encouraged to make a negative judgment about
someone or something without examiningg the evidence carefully. The writer intends to provoke an
emotional reaction through the use of words with unpleasant connotations.

Avoidance behavior is sought by name-calling: "Relieve iritating itch- ing" or "the situation is a
rotten-smelling mess."
Glad names is a method that is also dependent on the connotative appeal of certain words. In this
case, the propagandist appeals to our senses, our noblest ambitions, our feelíngs of love and of
loyalty. "Lov ers of justice," "seekers of truth and honor, "dedicated to democracy and delicate,
demure beauty Are examples of "glad names" usod to arouse a pleasant response and to ensure
acceptance or approVal without scrutiny of the evidence.

Transfer involves the utilízation of long-standing feelings of adm ration for one thing in an attempt to
evoke the same feelings toward a different product or issue. Politicians cite their church affiliations,
hoping for the transter process to work its magic. Beauty queens exto.

the merits of diferent products, and the pubic is led by its desire too emulate the beauty who is
selling the products.

Testimonial involves an authority or wel-known person wiio en- dorses or rejects a product, service,
or issue. The propagandist attempts to play on the name and fame of the individual in order to
convince the pubic to react in the same way. Testimoníal is similar to transter for example, "Janie
Jansen, famous screen star, uses 7ress, the shampoo for beautiful women.

Plain folks is the title given to the attempt-often by public speakers such as politicians, ministers, and
businesspeople-to gain favor and win confidence by imitating the speech patterns, dress, and
interests of those whom they seek to impress.

Stacking the cards is a method of withholding some element of truth.

Omission of truth or slanting of judgment may make truth appear to be falsehood and vice versa. For
example: "You know that Ro0sevelt was betraying us because he made secret deals with the
Communist boss Stalin."

Bandoagon is the "follow-the-crowd" approach. All are urged to join with the masses and to team
with a winner. For example: "Moree

or

doctors use the number-one selling brand."

Because there are so many types of propaganda, it is more impor tant for teachers to help children
become aware of the technique itself rather than to become expert in classifying the various types.
A ready source for classroom work with propaganda is found in the advertise- ments sprinkled
abundantly throughoutnewspapers and magAZines.

These are easuy obtaina ble and are usually interesting to students in the internediate grades.

The abilhty to recognize propaganda does not guarantee the ability to resist it in its varied forms
(Nardelli, 1957). Therefore, the teacher should strive to give as many concrete examples as possible
and to give applications to actual experiences.

Evaluating Critical Reading

Children who become critical readers can judge the veracity, worth, and validity of what they read.
They can judge the author's work
by distinguishing fact from fantasy, by determining the author's pur- pose and competence, by
taking note ot the use of evocative language, and by utilizing outside resources to check tacts. They
become aware of propaganda and the ettect it can have, and they can successfully analyze
arguments, grouping the points made and evaluating the con- clusions. Critical readers make use of
their skills in newspaper reading.

incidental reading experiences, and reading for pleasure. They are likely to become more intelligent
voters, citizens, and consumers as a result of thes2 skills.

By using the ideas and exercises described in this chapter, teachers can develop their own tests tor
critical reading. One ot the surest wayys to evaluate pertormance in this area is to ask a series ot key
questions.

For each category ot critical thinking that has been emphasized, select a question that channels the
child's response. For example: "ls this passage an opinion or a tacti Give your evidence. Whether the
re sponse is in writing or through discussion, the teacher has an opportu nity to determine the
child's skill in making hat kind ot judgment.

If the child has difficulty, the teacher has a very clear objective tor teaching. A checklist similar to the
one given in Figure 10.1 can be used to record observations about the critical skills chosen for
emphasis.

Written responses to reading can be of great value in getting chil- dren to think critically. Many
theorists see reading and writing as constructive acts. VWriting requires a structuring ot ideas that
may give students a more critical sense of what they have read (Lehr, 1983).

FIGURE 10.1 Checklist of Skills in Critical Reading

Always Usually Seldom Nover

Can the student do the following? gnize the :ignificance of the content.

Find the main idea of a paragraph.

Find the main idea ot larger

selections.

Develcp independent purposes for

reading.

dentity the authors purpose.

Develop standards to determine the accuracy And releancy ot information.

Draw conclusions from the authors interpretaton oco

es.

contrasting and comparing them with

facts and opinions from several other sources.

Suspend judgment until sufficient data is 8athered.

Recognizing the inference implied by the author.

Distinguish between fact and fiction.

Creative Reading

If affective processes are involved in critical reading. it is probable that cognitive, cnitical-thinking
processes are operating dunng creative reading (Newton, 1980). CreahDe is a term that evokes
visions of sparkle, mist, or explosion. Because most people want to be creative and want to
encourage creativity in others, the term 1s used enalessiy to descnbe what teachers and students
"ought to be doing8 in the classroom.

Yet the very personal nature of creativity sug8ests that we cannot measure a "creative product.

Must we assume that any original activity or product merits the label creahide? Must a discussion of
creativity stop with a label because we don't have low-to-high critera for creativity? Just how does
one deternine ornginality in the hst place? Evidently, we can easily become entangled in the vague
meanings of the word creahioe. But in this text we want to go beyond tre vague statement that
teachers and students "ought to be creative," a statement that is ittle more than a cliche.

Why. then, do we use the term aeaioe readingThe ternn eliats many positive feelings in teachers and
in those who train teachers, and positive teelings are not a bad place to begin. Creative reading will
be defined here operationally in terms of what creative readers do.

Creative Reading: What Is It?

Creative reading occurs when the reader attempts to extend a passage beyond the limits set by the
author (see the Harris-Smith mode: of reading, Fig. 2.3). The reader develops new ideas and feelings
that can be traced directly to reading and can describe the relationshiP between the selection read
and the extension that has been made trom it-that is, how the reading has been applied. In that
sense, a teacher can say that students engage in creative reading when they pertorm a dance, recite
a poem, or draw a picture representing their reaction to something they have read. Hypothetically,
chidren can trace the relationship between their reading and the feelings expressed by their artistic
work.

This is not to say that extension activity must always be artistic or a representation ot teelings, Quite
the contrary! Most creative read- ing, as defined here, will probably be a cognitive activity. A typical
extension of reading is to incorporate what has been read into some framework of knowledge or
expenence. he reader tries to organize or synthesize knowledge. By rearranging or iling in 8aps in a
concep tual scheme, the reader is using the reading selection to develop an expanded view of the
world. Or it may be possible to predict what will happen next in the story-another cognitive and
creative activity.

Creative reading is deined here as a unique personal expression stimulated by the reading material
whether this expression is a thought, a composition, a dramatic presentation, or a work of art. The
reading
is transtormed into something usable For the individual. On reading about Alice falling down the
rabbit hole in wonderland, one child may say, "Oh How scary Another may draw a picture ot Alice
using an umbrella in the manner of Mary Poppins about to drift into the land of make-believe. Both
responses flow trom what is read and in that cense can be viewed as part of the continuous process
of reading8

It is imperative for the reader to absorb ideas so that they exert an intiuence on thoughts and
actions. In order to be successful, readin8 instruction must lead the reader to understand that what
is read carmot simply remain on the page, but must have an impact that affects atti- tudes and
perceptions (Torrance, 1969).

The creative extension begins when new arrangements, applica- tions, and relationships are drawn.
In a sense, the child actually enters into a form of coauthorship, s0 engrossed in the material does he
or she become when encouraged by a teacher who also reads creatively.

Thoughts and teelings spring up, ready to be channeled into a multitude of creative directions.

Readers can erploy the experience as a foundation on which to fashion a unique superstructure. In
that way, reflective thinking and the ability to react in the light of one's own experiences constitute
creative reading. It should be emphasized that the desire to communi- cate through a creative
product is a logical tollow-up to any creative act. Indeed, the communication itselt may be integral to
the creative

act, as in a child's spontaneous comment: "That poem makes me teel like a warm doughnut.

Preparing for Creativo Reading (Classroom Activity)

The satisfaction gained from extension develops feelings of worth and a sense of individuality for
each child. Teacher alertness to the many opportunities or creative expression will help children
rperience reading and expand thoughts and feelings inn a variety of ways.

Sparking CTeative expression involves "expectation and anticipation" as the read- ing task is
approached, and it also requires"doing something" with the story. Suppose your class had just read
"The Three Little Pigs." Prepare sample lessons that would lead to each of the following categories.
How would you build expectation and anticipation for the activities before the children bagin to
read?

1. Oral activities.

2. Written activities.

3. Arts and crafts.

4. Dramatics.
Interpretive Oral Reading (Discussion)

Reading aloud gives students a chance to express feelings and to show that they have good vocal
command of one kind of reading, In all the activities listed here, the intent is to create an
atmosphere in which children can demonstrate their feelings and thoughts as they read a particular
passage. The teacher must remember, however, that reading aloud tends to be a highly emotional
experience for some youngsters.

Each of us has experienced stage fnght. to some degree. The prospect of standing before a group as
a performer is often intimidating. particularly for one who has difficulty with reading. Although a
healthy attitude toward self-improvement is necessary, it should not be emphasized to such an
extent that mistakes are feared.

It is important that an atmosphere of support and acceptance be created for oral- reading activities.
In this setting, a child can comfortably prepare for oral reading

Oral Reading by the Teacher

We make the blanket recommendation that every teacher read aloud to students every day of the
school year. This may be dificult to accomplish during busy periods such as parent-teacher
coníerence time, but the value and importance of daily oral reading by tive teacher are
undiminished.

Oral reading by the teacher contributes ir many ways to an effec- tive reading program. It forms an
integral part of the total literature- appreciation program (Huck, 1976), but oral reading by the
teacker need not be limited to literary classics. In fact, a wide selection o books should be read to
children in order to broaden their readáng interests and build their backgrounds in unfamiliar areas.
The teacher can actually stimulate children's reading by the type and breadth of reading shared with
them. Children frequently read silently a book their teacher has shared or find another book by the
same author after the teacher has read a book aloud.

Not to be overlooked is the therapeutic value of reading aloud to students. Books with a special
theme can be sclected to suit the needs of a group or can -be chosen to match the everts of the day.

Ladycake Farm by Mabel Leigh Hunt (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippíncott Co., 1952), a story of race
prejudice, may provide the opportunity tor some children to face their personal biases individually.
The story can also provide the basis for group discussions, with an exchange of ideas encouraging
reflection and self-analysis.

The skill of many teachers at oral reading can serve as an excellent model for students. The
effectiveness of proper phrasing, clear articula- tion, and dramatic interpretation is readily apparent
to children when demonstrated by their teacher. Special attention can be called to these factors, and
the students can be helped to concentrate on each element in turn while the teacher reads aloud.
As not all teachers are effective oral readers and because of the

need for a variety of models, recordings of others reading aloud may be used. Leonard Bemstein
reading "Peter and the Wolf can be a valuable istening experience for students, and boys in
particular will benefit from the oPportunity to hear male voices reading aloud.

Supplying Different Endings

In many classroomis it is too often assumed that a story is over when the inal sentence is read.
Instead, teachers should realize the end of a story provides an excellent opportunity for doing
something new, for expanding on what has been read. Reopen the story, provide new solutions, let
each child speculate about it according to his or her own creative urges. Instead of accepting the
"happily ever after ending.

why not imagine what might have hapPpened to the "Gingerbread

Man"7 A whole new series of adventures can be built on the repetitive sequence of the story's
structure with the children becoming oral au- thors.

Modifying a crucial incident within the story may also lead to spinning off new ideas. The teacher
who encourages divergent thinking of this sort is helping children to respond creatively. "The
Valentine

Box," a story by Maude Hart Lovelace, deals with the efforts ofa lonely girl, new at school, to aid a
classmate in recovering valentines blown from her hand by the winter wind. Children could
speculate about a change in the new girl's decision: How would thee story have changed if she had
decided not to risk being late or losing her own valentines in order to help someone else? Several
children can be given

the opportunity to inish the story in different ways.

Even prereaders who are listening to a story can participate in creating a story ending. One irst-grade
teacher noticed a frown on the tace ot one boy in the story circle as the tale of Peter Rabbit" came
to an end.

"What are you thinking, Danny?" the teacher asked.

"Well, he shouldn't have left home in the first place! Danny shouted defiantly.

Here is a chance to find out how Danny would reconstruct the story and make up new
consequences. A lively discussion is certain to follow, and the result can be a new twist to an old
tale.

Story Endings (Classroom Activity)

Have children read a story or a book. (All children can read the same thing, or they may choose their
own material to read if you prefer.) Discuss the characterss and events in the story. Make a special
effort to help the children identify the conlict involved in the story they have read. ("What problems
do the characters try to solve in the story?") Then guide the children to invent new endings for the
story by having them:
1 Add an addiuonal character (perhaps themselves).

Cnar.ge one of the key events in the story 3. Resolve the confic, using the same characters in a new
way.

With older children you can do the iame acivity, but have them ty to write their new ending as if the
original author had written it. Have the children read their new endings and try to decide whose
ending is most similar to the author's style and why.

Dramatic Oral Interpretation

Oral interpretation helps children become sympathetic to the characters they portray. Reading parts
can put ife into a story, help children understand the characters' motives, and offer a more direct
experience with the story itselt. Prior class discussion about the kind of person

a particular character is can lend a sense of reality to that character's life and may result in varied
oral interpretations by students who view the character from different vantage points. Abrahan
Lincoln and one of his famous speeches (such as the Gettysburg Address) are favorites for dramatic
interpretation in the classroom.

Poetry and Drama (Classroom Activities)

Poetry lends itself well to dramatic oral interpretation. The enjoyment of poetry is heightened when
it is shared by reading aloud. All children can share in the expenence of poetry through choral
reading

1. For Primary Grades

A teacher can take advantage of the rhythm of a poem by having youngs children provide
accompaniment with simple instruments such as sand blocks, dowel sticks, seedpods, or bottles.
Children begin choral speaking quite naturally as they chime in on the chorus or a repeated line of a
favorite poem read by the teacher. From this simple beginning, the rudiments for choral readíng are
developed.

2. For Intermediate Grades

Older children can find natural divisions for high and low voices in favorite poems and can also
locate parts of the poem that sem to require a solo voice or sound effect. In this way, the potential
for enjoying poetry together is greatly enhanced.

Children who are hesitant to read aloud by themselves may join in a group reading, thus gaining a
sense of belonging. The satisfactions derived from choral reading should not be sacriiced for the sake
of achíeving perfect rhythm and harmony.

The importance of choral reading lies in interpreting the mood of the poem and in gaining pleasure
from group participation.
Written nterpretation

Students carn give life to stories by crealing neo endings and by communi- cating such endings orally
or in writing. Especially because writing enables children to make direct visual comparisons, the
notion is fos- tered that stories need not be static but can involve fresh, dynamic thinking.

Children can also turm stories of all kinds into plays. whether based on dialogue or presented as
straight narrative. The impetus for writing plays stems largely from the desire to participate actively
in a story that lends itself to action. The fables of Aesop provide a good starting point for novice
playwrights: The action is simple, the characters are few, and the dialogue is straightforward. Fairy
tales, legends, and the favorite stories of students themselves are easily dramatized.

Wriing poetry and songs is also pOssible as a follow-up activity when the children are caught up in a
story or event. When such activity is not assigned, but arises rather from spontaneous appreciation
of a shared reading experience, the enjoyment is heightened.

A first-grade class inished a story about a snowstorm. Later that afternoon, big snowflakes began to
hit against the classroom window.

The children were excited to see the story coming to life. The teacher sensed this excitement and
followed the repetitive rhythm of one child's chantIts snow, it's snow, it's snow-on the piano. Soon
other children joined in, and the result was a melody "composed" by almost everyone in the class.

It has been said that every child is a poet. Indeed, poetry arises

dunakinu

7hgin

Sunahw, X wrcas dw miman lunahinv uitk, mu ai lime.

Aomdmesdra tt.po- lighe.

bordima duit and somdema brzh.

dunahinu ls wil shina yos

Shou youv aunakine to o lana,

dhour sunakine hrrugh yourbey amih.

unahinu inn your sart all ahte.

FIGURE 10.2 Children Enjoy Writing Poems.

spontaneously from children who are deeply excited by an expenence and are intent on
communicating this excitement. 1o encourage the writing ot poetry, the teacher should read poems
to the clas6-lots of poems of all kinds-and should openly demonstrate pleasure in reading poetry. It
is also important to be alert to the poetry in the language of children and to write down as many
exampies as possible.

Children's poems need not rhyme but should reiect and express their innermost thoughts. Figure
10.2 gives an example of a poem written by a third-grade girl.

Leter oriting can serve as an excellent extension of creative reading.

It can be imaginary, as, for example, a letter Jane and Michael Banks might have sent to Mary
Poppins after her abrupt departure. Children also beneät from writing letters to authors, expressing
appreciation for a story they have read or suggestingalternate solutions or asking pertinent
questions. Many authors respond to their young critics, and an increased interest in reading and an
immeasurable sense ot self- worth develop as a result of such communications.

Writing Stories and Poems (Classroom Activities)

Parallel Stories

Paralel stories grow from the original plot but may follow a minor character into full development or
fan out from an event mentioned only brietly in pzssing within the onginal story. Ihey can deveiop
trom such discussions as i Iwere Sarah or trom speculation about what must have happened before
the event took place. Expanding the role ot a character provides oPportunities tor children to manip
ulate events and to assign charactenstics, teelings, thoughts, and even environmental stimuli to
enrich their reactions to the story. Children are otten deeply drawn into discussions of two versions
of a story prepared by their classmates. sharng a story on parallel planes adds richness to the
reading experience. Other oPportunities for building parallel stories include the following:

1. Pretending to be a character who witnesses the action from a perspective different from that of
the author. Write this new interpretation.

2. Describing the personality traits a character would probably exhibit if he or she could be met face-
to-face.

3. Pretending to be a certain character and keepíng a diary of that characterrs thoughts and feelings.

4. Composing a letter that one character ina story might have written to another, describin8 some
event and that character's reaction to it.

2. Class Poetry

Writing poetry in response to a story makes an excellent class project. The teacher should recognize,
however, that children's poems are sometimes lacking in those elements considered important in
adult writing. Although children's poetry may appear rudimentary by some standards, those children
who write poetry as a reaction
to what they have read will gain conidence in their ability to communicate. When

encouragingg the writing of poetry, the teacher should stress communication far more than ferm.

Poetry starters for the class may include these:

1. Finding descriptions in stories that lend themselves to poetry. Have the chil- dren read these
descriptions and then write their reaction to (or re-creation of) the passage in a poetic style.

2. Having the children respond poetically to the story by structuring each line.

Begin each line the same way ("T feel .. The giant." and so forth and have the chidren complete the
line. After the first few lines, the children will probably have exhausted the obvious endings and will
begin to be more creative.

Sample techniques for writing poetry are given in books such as A Celebration of

Bees-Helping Children Wrile Poetry by Barbara Juster Esbensen (Minneapolis: Winston

Press, 1975).

Arts and Crafts

The kinds of illustrations youngsters make for the stories they read can give a good indication of the
things that appeal to children and that they remember and consider to be important. Furthermore,
illus- trating stories provides children with opportunities to express them- selves in ways that do not
rely exclusively on words. Finger paints can be used eifectively to illustrate stories and poems of
mood and mystery or those that draw on these elements tor special errect. wit splashes ot blue and
swirls ot white, young artists can create wind and rain. A story that lends itself particularly well to
this type ot

expression is Plink Plink Goes the Water in My Sink by Ethel and Leonard

Kessler (New York: Doubleday, 1954). Encourage children to sweep their ingers and swirl their fists in
the paint to create movement, excitement, and texture.

In books such as Hide and Serk Fog by Alvin Tresselt, the titles suggest the moods that the stories
elicit. Watercolors can be used as background wash for illustrations of these books.

Children's Drawings

1. Crayon-resist is a method in which foreground igures are drawn ayo before watercolors are
applied to the entire picture, with the cayoned pat resisting the paint. This method can be
used effectively for depictins passages of graphic description.
Three-dimensional models are tangible interpretations of a shared story expe rience. Models can be
sculpted from paper, day, toothpicks, or odds and ends. Children involved in a unit of stories dealing
with píoneers can fashion an enire village as a class project or can work on ioramas-miniature scenes
reproduced in three dimensions against a painted background.

Dramatic Interpretation

When children respond to a story, they move wholeheartedly toward a reenactment of the tale and
delight in re-creating the events in the ives of the characters. Through the imagination of children,
the au thor's words are brought to life. Pantomiming. role-playing. playacting.

puppetry, and shadoOw plays are all methods for creative interpretation.

Playing out a story through pantomime is one of the simplest torms of Creative dramatics. Variations
on the pantomimie technique incude acting the story while selected readers describe the everits or
treely interpreting tavorite parts of a story.

Shadou plays-acting out a story behind a suspended sheet with astrong light directly behind the
players-can be most effective in implementing pantomime because all attention is focused on bodily
movements and gestures.

Puppets provide an excellent medium for expressing reactions to what children

*a L. nave read.
In role-playing the students assume the outstanding traits of the nain characters in a story and play
out imagined discussions or climactic cenes. Students from a third-grade class read with interest
stories bout the life of Christopher Columbus from boyhood to old age.

Deciding to act out his life, they constructed his ships from tables ind chairs, designated the
chalkboard as Spain, and set sail. Similarly, ther children followed newspaper and TV accounts of a
lunar expedi- ion and then enacted the roles of astronauts.

Playacing differs from role-playing in that parts are assigned and sually "earned" in one fashion or
another. Often such plays are writ- en, produced, and directed by students.

Simple puppets are a joy for most children. They are particularly good for helping shy children to
project their feelings and to extend their verbal experiences. Activities with puppets spark language
expres sion, broaden understanding, deepen feelings and emotions, and de- velop sympathy and
relationships with the characters in the story.

Puppets can be made from paper bags, from sticks, or with papier- maché heads and cloth bodies.
They may be as elaborate as time, energy and skill permit. They serve the function of allowing
children to play out stories in a projected role.

Creatioe dance and rhythms are techniques that can be used to enact entire stories or to
demonstrate a portion of a story with movement.

Pantomime and Dance

1. Pantomimt. Choose portions of the story that lend themselves to action and movement. Instruct
the children to use only gestures and movements to convey their characters. For example:

Skip through the vods as Litle Red Riding Hood.

Run home fFrom the ball as Cinderella.

Be the crotchety grandfather or carefret Peter in Peter and the Wolf

As ont of the seoen dioarfs. discoer the intrusion of Snoto White.

Children can design their aom pantomimes and challege the class to ues what they are portraying

2. Creatioe dance and rhythms. Prepare instructions ahead of time that will lead the children
through a creative interpretation experience. Allow the children plenty of time to experience arnd
act out the instructions. Sample directions

could be these:

Move like the sagry. bagzy eleghant. Bend and soey slroly, slaly.

Be a hiny srd under the ground. Feel the verm sun m yeur kack Stretch the san. G uroo.

Be the Indian, hiaoatha. Greet the morming sun: Meoe to the bect f indian Der joyful lance.
Summary

Critical and creative reading were discussed separately in this chapter although in reality the two
cannot be dearly separated. Cihical reading is concerned primarily with the reading-thinking skils
that enable a reader to apply criteria to a selection and make judgiaents about it.

The skills of analysis and roaluafion relate closely to critical reading.

Creatioe reading is concerned primarily with integrating the reading expe nence into the knowledge
and feelíngs of the reader and with producing8 a response unique to each individual. The skills of
synlhesis and ezlensiom are closely related to our defnition of creative reading; they involve a
demonstration of the connection between the selection read and the way the reader uses that
selection. Such a connection is characterized by both an objective, rational element and a subjective,
emotional one

The most important procedure a teacher can follow in helping students to become critical readers is
to ask questions that lead students

Deyond simpie recall and restatement. Students should learn to classify information or events and to
apply criteria in this classihcation process.

The teacher who is able to move the discussion systematically toward evaluation is most likely to
help children become critical readeTS.

A key factor in developing creative readers is the teacher's attitude of encouraging. exploring, and
valuing the extension or application of what is read by the child. Creative reading fosters divergent
thinkirg whether the results are expressed orally, in writing, through motion, or through an art form.

The active involvement of children with print, whether through analysis, evaluation, or extension, is
an important part ot the reading process. Critical and creative reading foster this active involvement.

Terms for Self-study

analysis interence

extension

pantomime synthesis

evaluation

connotation

Discussion Questions

1. Why is it important for a teacher to distinguish between literal and critical reading?

2. In what ways would the teaching of critical reading differ between the primary and intermediate
grades?

3. In addition to asking questions, what other means does a teacher have for teaching critical
readíng? For teaching cieative reading?

4. How can the Harris-Smith Reading Model from Chapter 2 help teach critical and creative reading?

5. What statements of objectives could be used to give teachers a sense of direction for developing
creative reading?
6. How would a teacher determine whether or not a response to reading was an original one?

Recommended Readings

Cheyney, Amold B. (1971). Traching reading skils hrough the newspaper. Newark,

DE: International Reading Association.

Cheyney provides practical suggestions for developing critical and creative reacins skills by using the
newspaper

Hittelman, Daniel R. (1983). Deroelopmenlal reading, K-8: Traching frem a psychelinguistic

Perpetio(2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton Miflin.

This book stresses the relationship between reading and writing and offers the premise that
students ot all ages gain in reading proiciency it they write or create their own texts.

Lehr, Fran (1983, November-December). Developing critical and creative read- ing and thinking skills.
Language Arts, 60 (8), 1031-

Lehr oters practices for involving students in thinking critically.

McCaslin, Nellie (1974). Creaioe dramatis in the classroom (2nd ed.). New York:

David MeKay.

This book provides guidance on how to encourage creative dramatics.

Chapters 6 and 7 su88est ways to develoP Plays trom stones.

Newkirk, Thomas (1982, May). Young writers as critical readers. Language Ars.

59(5), 451457.

Newkirk suggests writing as a means to spur critical reading

Roser, Nancy, & Frith, Margaret (eds.). (1963). Chrldren s choices: Ieaching toith books children like.
Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

This text identifies books that children trequentiy choose and like to read.

It also su88ests that children will read more critically in those books they

want to read.

Tiedt, Iris M., et al. (1983). Teaching writing in K-8 classrooms. Englewood Clifs,

N: Prentice-Hal.

Tiedt presents a model for teaching writing that includes actual lesson plans tor using oral language,
narrative writing, expOsitory wrnting, sen- tence writing. word choices, and editing8.

Zavatsky, Bill, & Padgett, Ron (Eds.). (1977). The whole uword catalog 2. New

York: McGraw-Hill. Published in association with Teachers and VWriters

Collaborative.
This is a novel collection of ideas and materials that can be used to stimulate

creativity through writing, drama, music, art, and media such as ilm and television.