CHAPTER-1:

INTRODUCTION TO
OPERATING SYSTEM:
TOPICS TO BE COVERED…
1.1 Need of Operating System
1.2 Evolution of os
1.3 operating system
i. Batch
ii. Multiprogramming
iii. Time sharing

iv. Real time

v. Multitasking
vi. Multithreding

1.4 operating system servicies

1.5 case study
i. Linux
ii. Windows 7
NEED OF OPERATING SYSTEM
 The need for operating system arises from that
user need services and OS provides that services.
 The central part of a computer system is a
processing engine called CPU.A system should
make it possible for a user’s application to use
that processing unit.
A user application would need to store
information. The OS makes memory available to
an application when required.
 Similarly user programs use input facility to
communicate with the application using key
board or mouse.
 The output is usually provided by a video monitor
or printer.

 OS provides following resources for many

application (like document design ,Accounting ,E
mail ,Image processing ,Games)
1. Processing information
2. Storage information
3. Mechanism to input information
4. Provision for outputting information
CONCEPT OF OPERATING SYSTEM
 Define Operating system?
 The operating system controls and coordinates the
user of the hardware among the various application
programs for the various users.

 It hides complexity of its hardware from user and

provide easy interface.

 An Operating system acts as government; it provides

an environment within which other programs can do
useful work.
 Operating system acts as a resource allocator. A
computer system has many resources like CPU time,
memory space, file storage space, I/O devices etc.
 The operating system acts as manager of these
resources and allocates them to specific programs and
users as necessary for tasks efficiently.
 An operating system is a control program. It controls
the execution of user programs to prevent errors and
improper use of the computer.
 The Primary goal of operating system is
convenience for the user. The operating system
makes the use of system easier.
 The secondary goal of operating system is efficient
operation of the computer system.
COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

 A Computer system can be divided into four

components:

1. Hardware
2. Operating System
3. Application Programs
4. Users
 Hardware :The hardware of computer system
includes the Central Processing Unit (CPU), the
memory, and the input/output (I/O) devices. They
are the basic resources.
 application program includes compilers, database
system, games, and business programs. They define
the way in which the hardware resources are to be
used to solve the computing problems of the users.
 Users :There are many different users trying to solve
different problems using different application
programs.
 Operating system :The operating system controls
and coordinates the user of the hardware among the
various application programs for the various users.
EVOLUTION OF OS
 Serial Processing
Users access the computer in series. From the
late 1940's to mid 1950's, the programmer
interacted directly with computer hardware i.e.,
no operating system. These machines were run
with a console consisting of display lights, toggle
switches, some form of input device and a printer.
Programs in machine code are loaded with the
input device like card reader. If an error occur
the program was halted and the error condition
was indicated by lights. Programmers examine
the registers and main memory to determine
error. If the program is success, then output will
appear on the printer.
 Simple Batch Systems

To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs

are batched together and run as a group. Thus,
the programmers will leave their programs with
the operator. The operator will sort programs
into batches with similar requirements.

The problems with Batch Systems are:

Lack of interaction between the user and job.
 CPU is often idle, because the speeds of the
mechanical I/O devices are slower than CPU.
 Personal-Computer Systems (PCs)

A computer system is dedicated to a single user is

called personal computer, appeared in the 1970s.
Micro computers are considerably smaller and
less expensive than mainframe computers. The
goals of the operating system have changed with
time; instead of maximizing CPU and peripheral
utilization, the systems developed for maximizing
user convenience and responsiveness.

For e.g., MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows and Apple

Macintosh.
 Parallel Systems

Most systems to date are single-processor

systems; that is they have only one main CPU.
Multiprocessor systems have more than one
processor.

The advantages of parallel system are as follows:

throughput (Number of jobs to finish in a time

period)
 Save money by sharing peripherals, cabinets and
power supplies
 Increase reliability

 Fault-tolerant (Failure of one processor will not

halt the system).
TYPES OF OS
I. BATCH OS
 Early computers were large machines having input
devices like card readers and tape drives and output
devices like line printers, tape drives and card
punches.
 The users of such system did not interact
directly with the computer system, the user
prepare job consisting of – data, program and control
information about the job and use to submit it to
computer operator.
 The operating system fairly simple its major task
was to transfer control automatically from one
job to next. The operating system was always in
memory.
 Operators used to batch up jobs with similar
needs into a group to speed up the processing.
The operators use to batch up the jobs submitted
to him.
 The batch system has no interaction between
the user and the job while the job is
executing.
 The job is prepared and submitted, and some
time later the output appears. The delay between
job submission and job completion is called
turnaround time.
 The CPU is often idle. This idleness occurs
because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices
is slower than electronic devices.
 Operating
system

Input
User Output
(batch of jobs)
progra
m Area
Advantage:
 Simple

 Difficult to debug program.

 A job could enter an infinite loop.

 Due to lack of protection scheme, one batch job can

affect pending jobs.

Disadvantage:
 Low throughput, CPU remains idle when I/O is going
on
 Debugging is possible only offline, after output appears

 Operation were too much time consuming

 Programmers do not have direct interaction with job.

II. MULTIPROGRAMMING OPERATING SYSTEM:
Multiprogramming increases CPU utilization by
organizing jobs so that the CPU always has one job to
execute.

Operating
system

job1

job2

job3

job4
 The operating system keeps several jobs in memory
simultaneously.

 This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job

pool the number of jobs that can be kept
simultaneously in memory is usually much smaller
than the number of jobs that can be in the job pool.

 Operating system picks and begins to execute one of

the jobs in memory and the other job may have to
wait for some task, such as I/O operation.

 In multiprogramming system, the CPU simply

switches to, and executes another job. When that
job needs to wait, the CPU is switched to another
job.
 Eventually the first job finishes waiting and gets
CPU back .CPU has always at least one job to
execute.

 In multiprogramming operating system all the jobs

that enter the system are kept in the pool. This
pool consists of all processes residing on disk
awaiting allocation of main memory.

 When the operating system selects a job pool, it

loads that job into main memory is called job
scheduling.

 If several jobs are ready to run at the same time,

the system must choose among them, this decision
is called CPU scheduling.
ADVANTAGE
 High and efficient CPU utilization.

 User feels that many programs are allotted CPU

almost simultaneously.

DISADVANTAGE

 CPU scheduling is required.

 To accommodate many jobs in memory, memory
management is required.
IV.REAL TIME OPERATING SYSTEM

 A real-time operating system is used where there

are rigid time requirement on the operation of a
processor or the flow of data, and thus is often
used as a control device in a dedicated application.

 RTOS has very little user-interface ,capability and

no end user utilities.
 RTOS always controls inputs and respond within
defined time constraint.

 Systems that control scientific experiments,

medical imaging systems, industrial control
systems, and some displays, automobile-engine
fuel-injection system are real-time system.
 A real-time operating system has well-defined, fixed
time constraints processing must be done with the
defined constraints, or the system will fail.

 There are two flavours of real-time systems:

1. Hard real time
2. soft real time
Hard real-time:
 A hard real-time system guarantees that critical tasks
complete on time.

 This goal requires that all delays in the system be

bounded , from the retrieval of stored data to the time
that takes the operating system to finish any request
made of it.

 Secondary storage of any sort is usually limited or

missing , with data being stored in short-term memory
or in read-only memory(ROM).

 Most advanced operating system features such as

virtual memory is not found in real-time system.
 Ex: oil refinery (plant),ATM
Soft real-time system:
 A less restrictive type of real-time operating system is
a soft real-time system, where a critical real-time task
gets priority over other tasks , and retains that priority
until it completes.

 Soft real-time system have more limited utility that

hard real-time system.

 They are risky if used for industrial control and

robotics because of their lack of deadline support.
 They are useful in multimedia , virtual reality, and
advanced scientific projects such as undersea
exploration and planetary rovers.
 Ex: digital audio ,multimedia
V. MULTITASKING OPERATING SYSTEM OR
TIME – SHARING O.S.:
 It is a logical extension of multiprogramming
operating system.
 The ability to execute more than one task at the
same time, a task being a program is called
multitasking.
 The terms multitasking and multiprocessing are
often used interchangeably although multiprocessing
implies that more than one CPU is involved.
 In multitasking, only one CPU is involved, but it
switches from one program to another so quickly that
each user may interact with each program while it is
running. So it gives the appearance of executing all
of the programs at the same time.
 A time – shared operating system uses CPU
scheduling and multiprogramming to provides each
user with a small portion of a time – shared computer.
Each user has at least one separate program in
memory.

 A program in execution is called process

 Time slice is amount of that is given to process to

execute on processor (CPU).

 A time – Sharing operating system must have memory

management, synchronization, communication,
protection file system and disk management.
 There are two basic types of multitasking:
1. Pre-emptive multitasking (forcibly)
2. Non pre-emptive or cooperative multitasking (
voluntarily)

 Preemptive - a program is allowed to execute only

for some maximum time duration, after this time
duration CPU is forcibly taken away from the
program.

 Minimize the response five for user.

 Ex: OS/2, Windows 95, Windows NT, the Amiga

operating system and UNIX use
Non pre emptive

 Non pre-emptive multitasking, each program

can control the CPU for as long as it needs it.
 If a program is not using the CPU .However, it
can allow another program to use it temporarily.
 Ex: Microsoft Windows 3.x and the MultiFinder
(for Macintosh computers)
VI. MULTITHREADING OPERATING SYSTEM

 Thread is a flow of control within a process.

 A thread also called a lightweight process (L W P)
is a basic unit of CPU utilization.

 Thread contains a thread ID, a program counter, a

register set, and a stack.

 It shares data with other threads belong to the same

process like its code section, data section and other
operating system resources.

 Process is a heavy eight process, has a single

thread of control.
 If the process has multiple threads of control, it can
do more than one task at a time.

 For ex: A web browser might have one thread

display images or text while another thread
retrieves data from the network.

 A word process may have a thread for displaying

graphics, another thread for reading keystroke
from users, and a third thread for performing
spelling and grammar checking.
Advantage of multithread programming

 Responsiveness:
Multithreading an interactive application may allow
a program to continue running even if part of it is
blocked or is performing lengthy operation, so
increasing responsiveness to the user.

 Resource sharing
Threads share the memory and resources of the
process to which they belong.
3. Economy
 Allocating memory and resources for process creation
is costly. Threads share resources of the process to
which they belong, it is more economical to create
and context switch threads.

4. Utilization of multiprocessor architecture

 Multithreading can be greatly increased in
multiprocessor architectures, where each thread
may be running in parallel on a multiprocessor.

 A single-threaded process can only run on one CPU,

no matter how many are available. Multithreading
on a multi-CPU machine increases concurrency.
OPERATING SYSTEM SERVICES
OR
FUNCTION OF OPERATING SYSTEM
 The operating system provides an environment
for the execution of programs.

 The operating system provides services to

programs to the users of those programs .The
operating system services are provided for the
convenience of the programmer.
 FOR USER:
 Operating system provides services to the user
program and system.
1) User Interface: it provides interface to user so
user can perform some action. It provides three
types of interfaces,
 Command line Interface (CLI), in which user
can type command and methods for executing
them.
 Batch interface, in which commands and
directives to control those commands are entered
into files ,and those files are executed.
 Graphical User Interface (GUI),in which
interface is a window system with pointing device
to direct I/O ,chooses from menus, keyboard to
enter text.
2) Program execution: The system must be able to
load a program into memory and run it. The
program must be able to end its execution either
normally or abnormally (indicating error).

3) I/O operations: A running program may require

I/O involves a file or an I/O device. For specific
devices, special functions may be desired.
For efficiency protection , users usually cannot
control I/O devices directly. The operating system
provides a means to do I/O.

4) File-system manipulation: The programs need to

read and write files and programs must also create
and delete files. The operating system maintains the
file system.
5) Communications: In many conditions the process
needs to exchange information with another process.
Such communications can occur in two ways:

 The fist takes place between processes that are

executing on the same computer.

 The second takes place between processes that are

executing on different computer systems that are tied
together by a network.

 Communications may be implemented via shared

memory or via message passing , in which the
information is moved between processes by operating
system.
6. Error Detection: The operating system constantly
needs to be aware of possible errors. Errors may
occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O
devices and in user programs.

 For each type of errors, the operating system should

take the proper action to ensure correct and
consistent computing.
 FOR SYSTEM
 Operating a system function that exists not for
helping the user, but rather ensuring the efficient
operation of the system.

7) Resource allocation: Operating system manages

many resources like CPU cycles, main memory, and
file storage. Resources are allocated to multiple
users.
 Some resources have special allocation code,
whereas others may have general request and
release code.
 For eg. In determining how best to use the CPU,
the operating system have CPU- scheduling routines
that takes account the speed of the CPU,the jobs
that must be executed, the number of registers.
8) Accounting: The tracking of which user use how
many and which kind of computer resources can be
used for billing or simply accumulating usage
statistics.

 Usage statistics may be a valuable tool for

researchers who wish to reconfigure the system to
improve computing services.

9)Protection: Protection involves ensuring that all access to

system resources is controlled.
THE USER VIEW AND OPERATING VIEW

 Operating system can be explored from two view

points: the user view and system view.

User View
 The user view of the computer varies by the
interface being used.
 It is top down view

 Primary goal :user convenience

 1. Single user system

 Pc consisting of monitor, keyboard, mouse, and

system unit are designed to be used by single
person.(system that is used by single person is a
single user system).

 In the case, the operating system is designed mostly

for case of use, with some attention paid on
performance, and none paid to resource utilization.

 Performance is important to the user, but it does not

matter if the most of the system is sitting idle ,
waiting for the slow I/O speed of the user.
2) User connected to Mainframe or Minicomputer
 Many user are connected to mainframe or
minicomputer through terminal to access to share the
resources and exchange information.
 From that user’s point of view, the operating system is
designed to maximize resource utilization.

3) User on Workstations
 User at workstation, connected to networks of other
workstations and servers have dedicated resources at
their disposal , but they also share the resource such as
networking and server – file , compute and print
servers.
 The operating system is designed to compromise
between individual usability and resource utilization.
5)Handheld computers
 These devices are mostly standalone, used singly by
individual users. Some are connected to network,
either directly by wire or through wireless modems.

 Due to power and interface limitations they perform

relatively few remote operations.

 The operating system are designed mostly for

individual usability (but performance per amount of
battery life is important.

6) Embedded Computers
 Some computers have little or no user view for eg
embedded computers.
System view

 It is bottom up view.

 From computer‘s view the operating system is the

program that is most intimate with hardware.

 The operating system is a resource allocator. The

operating system acts as manager of resources –
hardware and software – required solve a problem.

 A control program manages the execution of user

programs to prevent errors and improper use of the
computer. It is especially concerned with the control
of I/O devices.
 The fundamental goal of operating system to execute
user programs and to make solving user problems
easier.

 When number of users conflicting request for

resources then OS decides how to allocate them to
specific program and users so that computer can
work efficiently and fairly.
CASE STUDY
Linux
 Linux Operating System has primarily three
components
 Kernel − Kernel is the core part of Linux. It is
responsible for all major activities of this
operating system. It consists of various modules
and it interacts directly with the underlying
hardware. Kernel provides the required
abstraction to hide low level hardware details to
system or application programs.
 System Library − System libraries are special
functions or programs using which application
programs or system utilities accesses Kernel's
features. These libraries implement most of the
functionalities of the operating system and do not
requires kernel module's code access rights.
 System Utility − System Utility programs are
responsible to do specialized, individual level
tasks.
Windows 7

 Objectives: learn about main features in each

Windows 7 edition and what are minimum
hardware requirements
 Prerequisites: no prerequisites.

 Key terms: windows 7 editions, starter, home

basic, home premium, professional, enterprise,
ultimate, hardware requirements, processor
architecture.
 There are six different Windows 7 editions:
 Starter

 Home Basic

 Home Premium

 Professional

 Enterprise

 Ultimate