Buckling

LOADING AND BUCKLING OF STRUTS
DESIGN LAB (ME205) LABORATORY REPORT

For
Experiment: Loading and Buckling of Struts
Submitted by
Harsh Tomer (2017MEB1209)
G11 – Mechanical Batch
Supervised by
Dr. Prabhat Agnihotri
&
Dr. Dhiraj Kumar Mahajan
Department of Mechanical Engineering

IIT Ropar
Experiment Performed on: 4-02-2019 and 11-02-2019

Report submitted on: 19-02-2019
Contents
1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 3
2 Apparatus and Equipment Required .................................................................................................... 3
3 Experiments ......................................................................................................................................... 4
4 Experiment 1: Deflection of a simply supported beam........................................................................ 4
4.1 Aim of Experiment ........................................................................................................................... 4
4.2 Theory related to the experiment ...................................................................................................... 4
4.3 Experimental Procedure .................................................................................................................... 4
4.4 Observation ....................................................................................................................................... 5
4.5 Calculations and Graphs ................................................................................................................... 6
4.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 7
5 Experiment 2: Stiffness of Strut Materials ........................................................................................... 7
5.3 Experimental Procedure .................................................................................................................... 8
5.4 Observation ....................................................................................................................................... 8
5.5 Calculations and Graphs ................................................................................................................... 9
5.6 Conclusions and Results ................................................................................................................... 9
6 Experiment 3: Shape of deflected strut ................................................................................................ 9
6.3 Experimental Procedure .................................................................................................................. 10
6.4 Observation ..................................................................................................................................... 11
6.5 Conclusion: ..................................................................................................................................... 20
7 Experiment 5: Comparing Buckling Loads with various end conditions .......................................... 20
7.1 Aim of the experiment .................................................................................................................... 20
7.2 Theory related to the experiment .................................................................................................... 20
7.3 Experimental Procedure .................................................................................................................. 21
7.4 Observation table ............................................................................................................................ 22
7.5 Simulation results............................................................................................................................ 22
7.6 Conclusion: ..................................................................................................................................... 23
8 References .......................................................................................................................................... 23
1 Introduction
In this lab, we verify the deflection formulas of a beam bending and buckling of struts with various end
conditions. Using the data found, we find the mechanical properties of the material.
2 Apparatus and Equipment Required

1. Main Parts with Load meter (Max Load 2000N)
2. Deflection Indicator
3. Standard set of 10 struts of different dimensions and materials
4. Set of weights of 1g and hangers
5. Adjustable and removable fixings
Main Frame with load cell
Deflection meter in different positions

3 Experiments
While designing a structure, we need to know how to choose a material with appropriate dimensions to
avoid catastrophic effects of compression forces. In this experiment, the deflection effects due to
loading and buckling of struts is observed and analysed in the following order:
1. Experiment 1: Deflection of a simply supported beam
2. Experiment 2: Stiffness of the Strut Materials
3. Experiment 3: Shape of deflected strut
4. Experiment 4: Euler Buckling Load using with Pinned end struts
5. Experiment 5: Comparing Buckling Loads with various end conditions
4 Experiment 1: Deflection of a simply supported beam
4.1 Aim of Experiment

To verify the simple beam bending equation for a beam on two supports and show the background
for the Euler formula.
4.2 Theory related to the experiment

For the fixed beam considered in this experiment, we apply point load at the centre of the beam.
The maximum deflection occurs at the centre, and is given by:
𝐹𝑙 3
𝑦= [4.2]
48𝐸𝐼
This is obtained by substituting x by l/2 in the equation given below.
𝐹𝑥
𝑦= (3𝑙 2 − 4𝑥 2 )
48𝐸𝐼
4.3 Experimental Procedure

i. Loosen the fixings of the measuring end if necessary and move it to the end of the
base.
ii. Fit the two-knife edge supports to the front side of the main base, above the
measurement scale, so they are exactly 600 mm apart (for example - set them to 200
mm and 800 mm). Make sure the sharp edge is upwards.
iii. Fit the flat plate digital deflection indicator holder to the front of the base, so that it is
exactly mid- way between the two-knife edge supports.
iv. Find the 750-mm long steel specimen strut (number 1). Calculate the second moment
of area for the strut and put the beam onto the knife edge supports.
v. Fit the digital indicator into its holder, so its display faces forward. Adjust the
deflection indicator in its holder to allow it to measure approximately 10 mm of
downward beam deflection.
vi. Use a pencil to mark the beam at its centre (375 mm) and adjust it so that the pencil
mark is just under the tip of the Deflection Indicator.
vii. Hook the Knife Edge Weight Hanger onto the beam at the mid position, just under the
tip of the Deflection Indicator.
viii. Zero the deflection indicator. The deflection reading from this point onwards ignores
any initial bend in the beam and any bend caused by the small weight of the Knife
Edge Weight Hanger.
ix. Fit the Hooked Weight Hanger to the bottom of the Knife Edge Weight Hanger. Add
9 x 10 g weights to give a total of 100 g load (as the hanger itself is of 10g) and record
the reading of the deflection indicator.
Increase the load to 200 g, 300 g, 400 g and 500 g. At each increase, record the deflection
4.4 Observation
Table 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 shows the variation of the deflection of the steel, brass and aluminium beams
respectively with increase in load at the centre of beam.
Beam Material: Steel Second moment of Inertia (I) = 1.43*10-10 m4

Distance between Supports (L) = 600mm Young's Modulus E = 200 GPa
Load (g) Force(N) Measured Measured FL3 (Nm^3) Theoretical
Deflection Deflection Deflection
(mm) (m) (m)
0 0 0 0 0 0
100 1 -0.16 -0.00016 0.216 0.000157
200 2 -0.29 -0.00029 0.432 0.000315
300 3 -0.42 -0.00042 0.648 0.000472
400 4 -0.57 -0.00057 0.864 0.00063
500 5 -0.7 -0.0007 1.08 0.000787
Table 4.1: Data obtained while measuring beam deflection for varying loads at centre of
steel beam
Beam Material: Brass Second moment of Inertia (I) = 1.71*10-10 m4
(mm) (m) (m)
0 0 0 0 0 0
100 1 -0.24 -0.00024 0.216 0.000271
200 2 -0.48 -0.00048 0.432 0.000541
300 3 -0.69 -0.00069 0.648 0.000812
400 4 -0.94 -0.00094 0.864 0.001082
500 5 -1.17 -0.00117 1.08 0.001353
brass beam
Beam Material: Aluminium Second moment of Inertia (I) = 1.71*10-10 m4
(mm) (m) (m)
0 0 0 0 0 0
100 1 -0.35 -0.00035 0.216 0.000375
200 2 -0.65 -0.00065 0.432 0.00075
300 3 -1.03 -0.00103 0.648 0.001125
400 4 -1.34 -0.00134 0.864 0.0015
500 5 -1.74 -0.00174 1.08 0.001874
aluminium beam
4.5 Calculations and Graphs

4.6 Conclusion
From graph, we can see that there is a little deviation between measured value and theoretically
calculated values. This may be caused due to error while taking measurements from deflection meter ,
or due to continuous use of same struct or due to non-straightness in the struct
5 Experiment 2: Stiffness of Strut Materials

To test the struts and use your results to find their actual stiffness, and from this, find the Young’s
Modulus for the material that makes the strut.

For the fixed beam considered in this experiment, we apply point load at the centre of the beam. The
beam deflection formula, for deflection between load and support points is: [1]
𝐹𝑥
𝑦= (3𝑙 2 − 4𝑥 2 ) [5.1]
48𝐸𝐼
The maximum deflection occurs at the centre, and is given by:
𝐹𝑙 3
𝑦= [5.2]
48𝐸𝐼
This is obtained by substituting x by l/2 in the first equation.

i. Repeat the procedure for experiment 1, using the 750 mm long steel, aluminium and brass
struts.
5.4 Observation
Table 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3 shows the variation of the deflection of the steel, brass and aluminium
beams respectively with increase in load at the centre of beam.
Beam Material: Brass Second moment of Inertia (I) = 1.71*10-10 m4
Distance between Supports (L) = Experimental Young's Modulus E = 97 GPa
600mm
Load (g) Force(N) Measured Measured FL3 E=FL^3/48yI Average
Deflection Deflection (Nm^3) (GPa) Young’s
(mm) (m) Modulus
100 1 0.24 0.00024 0.216 109.649123
200 2 0.48 0.00048 0.432 109.649123
300 3 0.69 0.00069 0.648 114.416476 111.631489
400 4 0.94 0.00094 0.864 111.982083
500 5 1.17 0.00117 1.08 112.460639
Table 5.1: Data obtained while measuring beam deflection for varying loads at centre of brass beam
Beam Material: Aluminium Second moment of Inertia (I) = 1.71*10-10 m4

600mm
(mm) (m) Modulus
100 1 0.35 0.00035 0.216 75.1879699
200 2 0.65 0.00065 0.432 80.9716599
300 3 1.03 0.00103 0.648 76.6479305 77.3964481
400 4 1.34 0.00134 0.864 78.5545954
500 5 1.74 0.00174 1.08 75.6200847
Table 5.2: Data obtained while measuring beam deflection for varying loads at centre of aluminium beam
Beam Material: Steel Second moment of Inertia (I) = 1.43*10-10 m4

600mm
(mm) (m) Modulus
100 1 0.16 0.00016 0.216 196.678322
200 2 0.29 0.00029 0.432 181.488203
300 3 0.42 0.00042 0.648 187.969925 187.755716
400 4 0.57 0.00057 0.864 184.672207
500 5 0.70 0.00070 1.08 187.969925
Table 5.3: Data obtained while measuring beam deflection for varying loads at centre of steel beam
5.5 Calculations and Graphs

Error calculations is as follows-
|111.63−97|
i. × 100 = 15.08 %
97
|77.39−70|
ii. × 100 = 10.55 %
70
|187.75−200|
iii. × 100 = 6.125 %
200
The experiments showed that Young’s Modulus was correct within experimental error.
5.6 Conclusions and Results

The calculated values of young’s modulus for steel and aluminium are quite close to the actual values,
but there is some error this is also due to slightly different value of g(9.81) or may be due to neglecting
weight of hanger. The error may also result from the force exerted by the deflection meter. Also, the
strut initially has some deflections because of using it multiple times. Strut is also applying some
downward force which can cause a significant deflection for calculations in the range of mm.
6 Experiment 3: Shape of deflected strut

To prove the theory about the sinusoidal shape of buckled struts, for each end condition- fixed-fixed,
fixed-pinned and pinned-pinned.

Buckling is a mode of deformation which develops in a direction or plane normal to that of the loading
which produces it. Therefore, deformation changes rapidly with the change in the magnitude of applied
loading. It occurs in members and elements that are in a state of compression. The simple test of
buckling was analysed using struts which were initially straight and struts with eccentricities. Struts
were compressed by equal and opposite axial forces. [2]
Fig. 6.1: Strut deflection in fixed-fixed condition
Fig. 6.2: Strut deflection in pinned-pinned condition
Fig. 6.3: Strut deflection in fixed-pinned condition

i. Find the strut you need for your test (steel strut) and make a pencil mark at its mid-point (for
example - make a pencil mark at 375 mm along a 750 mm strut). For reference, measure the
thickness and width of the strut.
ii. Turn the hand wheel of the loading end to give 5 to 10 mm gap behind its chuck. Use the hexagon
tool supplied, to loosen the four screws securing the loading end and slide it along the base until
your strut fits into each chuck for the end condition you need. Re-tighten the four screws.
iii. Fit the deflection indicator on its L-shaped holder, to the top of the base and adjust it so its tip
touches your pencil mark, half-way along the strut.
iv. In this experiment, your strut will only bend by a maximum of 10 mm away from the Deflection
Indicator, so adjust it in its holder, so that its tip will extend at least 10 mm when the strut bends.
v. Use the large hand wheel to apply a small force to the strut. Check that its bends away from the
deflection indicator. If not, reduce the force and turn the strut around.
vi. Use the large hand wheel and carefully add a small load to the strut (less than 5 N). This helps to
check the end fixings are holding the strut securely, especially if you are testing with the pinned
ends condition.
vii. Zero the deflection indicator reading.
viii. Move the indicator along the strut, from the halfway pencil mark towards the right in 25 mm
steps. At each step, re-tighten the deflection indicator fixings before you takea deflection reading.
ix. When you have reached as far right as you can go, set the indicator back to the halfway pencil
marks and move in 25 mm steps to the left of the strut, recording the deflection results as negative
values (as shown in the results table).
x. Move the deflection indicator back to the halfway point. Use the hand wheel to load the strut
until the central deflection reaches approximately 6 mm. Record the load for reference.
xi. Repeat steps VIII and IX, recording deflected readings for the loaded strut.
xii. Repeat the experiment with fixed - fixed and fixed-pinned end conditions.
xiii. Repeat the experiment with brass strut and then aluminium strut. Use the loading end as the fixed
end.
6.4 Observation
Table 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8 and 6.9 shows the variation of the deflection of the different
strut materials and for different end conditions
Strut Material: Brass

Strut Dimensions: 750mm*0.75inch*0.1875mm
End Condition: Both ends fixed
Deflection Deflection Reading Deflection Reading (Loading) Actual deflection
Position
-250 -0.41 -1.50 -1.09
-200 -0.4 -2.74 -2.34
-150 -0.30 -4.04 -3.74
-100 -0.21 -5.2 -4.99
-50 -0.17 -5.87 -5.75
0 0 -6.0 -6.0
50 0.09 -5.6 -5.96
100 0.06 -4.56 -4.35
150 0.12 -3.36 -3.48
200 0.24 -2.03 -2.27
250 0.34 -0.8 -1.14
Table 6.1: Deflection for Brass: Both ends fixed

Deflection in Brass - Both Fixed

7
6
Actual Deflection (mm)
0
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
Position of Strut for deflection (mm)

End Condition: Fixed-Pinned
Position
-250 -0.41 8.49 8.9
-200 -0.4 7.12 7.56
-150 -0.30 6.26 6.56
-100 -0.21 5.93 6.14
-50 -0.17 5.92 6.09
0 0 6.0 6.0
50 0.09 6.56 5.47
100 0.06 7.29 7.23
150 0.12 8.39 8.27
200 0.24 9.58 9.34
250 0.34 10.67 10.43
Table 6.2: Deflection for Brass: Fixed-Pinned

Deflection in Brass - Pinned-fixed

12
10
0
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300

End Condition: Both ends pinned
Position
-250 0.41 -2.61 -3.02
-200 0.4 -3.77 -4.17
-150 0.3 -4.73 -5.03
-100 0.21 -5.47 -5.57
-50 0.17 -5.81 -5.98
0 0 -6. -6.
50 0.09 -5.8 -5.89
100 0.06 -5.35 -5.41
150 0.12 -4.86 -4.98
200 0.24 -3.77 -4.01
250 0.34 -2.64 -2.98
Table 6.3: Deflection for Brass: Both ends pinned

Deflection in Brass - Both end pinned

7
6
0
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
Strut Material: Aluminium

Deflection Deflection Deflection Reading Actual deflection
Position Reading (Loading)
-250 0.47 2.64 2.17
-200 0.33 3.79 3.46
-150 0.17 4.76 4.59
-100 0.09 5.4 5.31
-50 0.07 5.85 5.78
0 0 6 6
50 0.13 5.92 5.79
100 0.23 5.43 5.2
150 0.29 4.74 4.45
200 0.52 3.77 3.25
250 0.8 2.55 1.75
Table 6.4: Deflection for Aluminium: Both ends pinned
Deflection in Aluminium - Both end pinned

7
6
0
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300

End Condition: Pinned-Fixed
-250 0.47 3.4 2.93
-200 0.33 4.62 4.29
-150 0.17 5.42 5.25
-100 0.09 5.98 5.89
-50 0.07 6.2 6.13
0 0 6 6
50 0.13 5.6 5.47
100 0.23 4.87 4.64
150 0.29 3.83 3.54
200 0.52 2.61 2.09
250 0.8 1.21 0.41
Table 6.5: Deflection for Aluminium: Pinned-Fixed
Deflection in Aluminium - Pinned-fixed

7
6
0
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300

End Condition: Both fixed
-250 0.47 1.47 1
-200 0.33 2.79 2.46
-150 0.17 4.09 3.92
-100 0.09 5.15 5.06
-50 0.07 5.9 5.83
0 0 6 6
50 0.13 5.58 5.45
100 0.23 4.64 4.41
150 0.29 3.31 3.02
200 0.52 2.13 1.61
250 0.8 0.84 0.04
Table 6.6: Deflection for Aluminium: Both fixed
Deflection in Aluminium - Both Fixed

7
6
0
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
Strut Material: Steel

-250 0.21 3.05 2.84
-200 0.13 4.17 4.04
-150 0.08 5.05 4.97
-100 0.04 5.61 5.57
-50 0.01 5.78 5.77
0 0 6 6
50 0.02 5.93 5.91
100 0.10 5.65 5.55
150 0.14 5.06 4.92
200 0.24 4.3 4.06
250 0.32 3.06 2.74
Table 6.7: Deflection for Steel: Both ends pinned
Deflection in Steel - Both end pinned

7
6
0
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300

End Condition: Pinned-Fixed
-250 0.21 9.59 9.38
-200 0.13 8.23 8.1
-150 0.08 7.2 7.12
-100 0.04 6.5 6.46
-50 0.01 6.2 6.19
0 0 6 6
50 0.02 5.97 5.95
100 0.10 6.08 5.98
150 0.14 6.52 6.38
200 0.24 7.29 7.05
250 0.32 8.38 8.06
Table 6.8: Deflection for Steel: Pinned-Fixed
Deflection in Steel - Pinned-fixed

12
10
0
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
Position of Srtut for deflection (mm)

End Condition: Both fixed
-250 0.21 1.78 1.57
-200 0.13 3.05 2.92
-150 0.08 4.25 4.17
-100 0.04 4.98 4.94
-50 0.01 5.77 5.76
0 0 6 6
50 0.02 5.36 5.34
100 0.10 4.45 4.35
150 0.14 3.14 3
200 0.24 1.79 1.55
250 0.32 0.59 0.27
Table 6.9: Deflection for Steel: Both fixed
Deflection in Steel - Both Fixed

7
6
0
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
6.5 Conclusion:
By plotting graph, we see the shape of struts in different bending conditions. It is observed in
that the value of maximum deflection in both ends pinned is more than all other cases, this is
because effective length is maximum in both ends pinned condition.
7 Experiment 5: Comparing Buckling Loads with various end conditions
7.1 Aim of the experiment

• To test a strut fixed with all three end conditions and prove the relationship between the
buckling load and the end conditions.
• To help how the ‘effective length’ principle

If the load on a column is applied through the center of gravity (centroid) of its cross section,
it is called an axial load. A load at any other point in the cross section is known as an
eccentric load. A short column under the action of an axial load will fail by direct compression
before it buckles, but a long column loaded in the same manner will fail by buckling (bending),
the buckling effect being so large that the effect of the axial load may be neglected. The
intermediate-length column will fail by a combination of direct compressive stress and
bending.
In 1757, mathematician Leonhard Euler derived a formula that gives the maximum axial load
that a long, slender, ideal column can carry without buckling. An ideal column is one that is
perfectly straight, homogeneous, and free from initial stress. The maximum load, sometimes
called the critical load, causes the column to be in a state of unstable equilibrium; that is, the
introduction of the slightest lateral force will cause the column to fail by buckling. The formula
derived by Euler for columns with no consideration for lateral forces is given below. However,
if lateral forces are taken into consideration the value of critical load remains approximately
the same.
For the fixed beam considered in this experiment, we apply point load at the centre of the beam.
The beam deflection formula, for deflection between load and support points is:
Where,
= maximum or critical force (vertical load on column),
= modulus of elasticity
= area moment of inertia of the cross section of the beam,
= unsupported length of column,
= column effective length factor, whose value depends on the conditions of end support of
the column, as follows.
For both ends pinned (hinged, free to rotate), K = 1.0.
For both ends fixed, K = 0.50.
For one end fixed and the other end pinned, K ≈ 0.699.
For one end fixed and the other end free to move laterally, K = 2.0.

i. Connect and switch on the Load Display. Allow a few minutes for the display and the
load cell of the measuring end to warm up. Tap the load measuring end to remove any
effects of friction, then zero the display.
ii. Find the 600 mm steel strut (number 5). Measure its dimensions accurately and find its
second moment of area. Fit it in the pinned ends condition.
iii. Use the large hand wheel to load the strut slowly. As you turn the hand wheel, watch
the load reading and the deflection of the strut. When you see that the load does not
increase, but the strut is still deflecting, the strut has buckled. Record the ‘peak load’,
shown in the Load Display. Release the load.
iv. Apply a light load, and gently push the strut to make it buckle the opposite way to your
last test. Increase the load until the strut buckles, and record the peak load.
v. Release the load and remove the strut.
vi. Now find and fit strut number 4 in the fixed - pinned condition. Use the loading end as
the fixed end. This strut is 25 mm longer than strut number 3, to allow for the length
lost in one fixing. This gives a constant test length for correct comparisons.
Repeat the test for strut number 3 in the fixed-fixed end condition. Again, the length of this
strut allows for the length lost in the fixings, to give a fair comparison
7.4 Observation table

Table 8.1, 8.2 and 8.3 shows the variation of the effective length ratio of the brass, Aluminium
and steel beams respectively.
End Strut Peak Peak load 2 Average Effective Length
Condition load 1 Load Ratio
Fixed - Fixed 7 1312 1350 1331 0.976389
Fixed - Fixed 8 904 930 917 0.682502
Fixed - Fixed 9 2158 2162 2160 0.483164
Table 8.1: Data obtained while measuring Buckling load with fixed-fixed end condition
End Strut Peak Peak load 2 Average Effective Length

Condition load 1 Load Ratio
Pinned - 7 648 664 656
Fixed 0.976389
Pinned - 8 439 469 454
Fixed 0.682502
Pinned - 9 1036 1120 1128
Fixed 0.483164
Table 8.1: Data obtained while measuring Buckling load with pinned-fixed end condition
End Condition Strut Peak Peak load 2 Average Effective Length

load 1 Load Ratio
Pinned - 7 299 324 312.5
Pinned 0.976389
Pinned - 8 208 217 212.5
Pinned 0.682502
Pinned - 9 502 546 524
Pinned 0.483164
Table 8.1: Data obtained while measuring Buckling load with pinned-pinned end condition
7.5 Simulation results

Simulation of Aluminium pinned at both ends.
7.6 Conclusion:
In the lab session we verified buckling conditions for various material and in three different
end conditions as fixed-fixed, pinned-fixed and pinned-pinned. We have calculated and
verified the young modulus of material with experimental and theoretical data and explained
various reasons for the error. Plotting data, we have seen the deflection of values from the
theoretical ones and also verified the theoretical shape of buckling for different end condition.
In last experiment, using peak load formula we found effective length of struts in all three
buckling end conditions and compared with the theoretical ones.
8 References
1 http://www.continuummechanics.org/columnbuckling.html
2 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckling
3 modules of the experiment.

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LOADING AND BUCKLING OF STRUTS

DESIGN LAB (ME205) LABORATORY REPORT

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Experiment Performed on: 4-02-2019 and 11-02-2019

2 Apparatus and Equipment Required

Main Frame with load cell

Deflection meter in different positions

4 Experiment 1: Deflection of a simply supported beam

4.1 Aim of Experiment

4.2 Theory related to the experiment

4.3 Experimental Procedure

Beam Material: Steel Second moment of Inertia (I) = 1.43*10-10 m4

4.5 Calculations and Graphs

5 Experiment 2: Stiffness of Strut Materials

5.1 Aim of Experiment

5.2 Theory related to the experiment

5.3 Experimental Procedure

Beam Material: Aluminium Second moment of Inertia (I) = 1.71*10-10 m4

Beam Material: Steel Second moment of Inertia (I) = 1.43*10-10 m4

5.5 Calculations and Graphs

5.6 Conclusions and Results

6 Experiment 3: Shape of deflected strut

6.1 Aim of Experiment

6.2 Theory related to the experiment

Fig. 6.1: Strut deflection in fixed-fixed condition

Fig. 6.2: Strut deflection in pinned-pinned condition

Fig. 6.3: Strut deflection in fixed-pinned condition

6.3 Experimental Procedure

Strut Material: Brass

Table 6.1: Deflection for Brass: Both ends fixed

Deflection in Brass - Both Fixed

Strut Material: Brass

Table 6.2: Deflection for Brass: Fixed-Pinned

Deflection in Brass - Pinned-fixed

Strut Material: Brass

Table 6.3: Deflection for Brass: Both ends pinned

Deflection in Brass - Both end pinned

Strut Material: Aluminium

Deflection in Aluminium - Both end pinned

Strut Material: Aluminium

Deflection in Aluminium - Pinned-fixed

Strut Material: Aluminium

Deflection in Aluminium - Both Fixed

Strut Material: Steel

Deflection in Steel - Both end pinned

Strut Material: Steel

Deflection in Steel - Pinned-fixed

Strut Material: Steel

Deflection in Steel - Both Fixed

7 Experiment 5: Comparing Buckling Loads with various end conditions

7.1 Aim of the experiment

7.2 Theory related to the experiment

7.3 Experimental Procedure

7.4 Observation table

End Strut Peak Peak load 2 Average Effective Length

End Condition Strut Peak Peak load 2 Average Effective Length

7.5 Simulation results

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