Chapter 3

Problem Solving and Reasoning

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the chapter, the student is expected to:

1. make arguments using deductive and inductive reasoning

2. solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems following Polya’s
four steps
3. organize one’s methods and approaches for proving and solving problems

3.1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

In science, inductive reasoning is the process of using a series of specific

observations to support the probability of a more general conclusion.

Inductive reasoning is a logical process in which multiple premises, all believed true
or found true most of the time, are combined to obtain a specific conclusion.

Inductive reasoning is characterized by drawing a general conclusion (making a

conjecture) from repeated observations of specific examples. The conjecture may or may
not be true.

Example 1. Use inductive reasoning to determine the probable next number in

a. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, ?
b. 1, 2, 4, 8. 16, ?
c. 1, 3, 12, 52, 265, ?
Solution:

a. Beginning with the third number in the list, each number is obtained by
adding the two previous number in the list. That is 1+1=2, 1+2=3,
2+3=5, and so on. The probable next number in the list is 13+21=34.
(These are the first few terms of the famous Fibonacci sequence.)
b. It appears here that in order to obtain each number after the first, we
must double the previous number. Therefore, the most probable next
number is 16 x 2 = 32.
c. The series involves two operations: multiplication and addition of a
number by the same number. The series runs like: 1 x 2 + 2 = 3, 3 x 3
+3 = 12, 12 x 4 + 4 = 52, 52 x 5 + 5 = 265. The next number, following
this logic should be 265 x 6 + 6 = 1596.

Example 2. Identify the next number in the following series, 2, 8, 26, 62, 122, 212?

Solution: First of all, you should try to take the differences. If the first difference does not
give anything significant, you can go for the second difference: difference of the
differences.

2 8 26 62 122 212 ?

+6 +18 +36 +60 +90

43
 +12 +18 +24 +30

The first differences obviously do not contain any logic. But taking the differences among
differences in the first layer as shown above, we see that the logic becomes very clear to
us. Following the very same logic, the last addition to last number 30, should be 6, which
makes it 36. Moving backwards, we get 36 + 90 + 212 = 338, which is the correct answer
to this particular question.

Example 3. Consider the list of equations in the margin. Use the list to predict the next
multiplication fact in the list.

37 x 3 = 111
37 x 6 = 222
37 x 9 = 333
37 x 12 = 444
37 x ? = ?

Solution: In each case, the left side of the equation has two factors, the first 37 and the
second a multiple of 3, beginning with 3. The product (answer) in each case consists of
three digits, all the same, beginning with 111 for 37 x 3. For this pattern, to continue, the
next multiplication fact would be 37 x 15 = 555, which is indeed true.

Deductive Reasoning is more formal, and can be used to prove the behavior of a pattern
in other circumstances. However, it takes real thinking to use it. It goes like this: “I have
already proved that a certain set of facts are true, and I can use those to prove a new fact.”
There may be some assumptions that are stated at the beginning of the proof, that limit the
circumstances under which it can be believed.

For example, the proof that will be used talks about an even number:
anytime the number is multiplied by 2, product will always be an even.
However, one of the assumption formulating could be working on base 10.
Multiplying something by 2 may now be working base 3, 4, 5,
hexadecimal, binary and not sure that it could prove that first multiplying
number by 2 is always even but this is something that’s assumed in base
10.

The new “fact” that you are trying to prove is called a postulate, and when you have proved
it, it’s called a conclusion, or theorem. Theorems form the “old facts” that can be used to
create new proofs, if you keep the same set of assumptions that were used in their own
proofs.

Deductive reasoning is characterized by applying general principles to specific

examples.

Deductive reasoning is a logical process in which a conclusion is based on the

concordance of multiple premises that are generally assumed to be true.

Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by applying

general assumptions, procedures, or principles.

Example 1. Use deductive reasoning to make a conjecture.

x=1

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 2x + 3y – z = 5
2z = x + 5

Solution: Eliminate the equation down to one variable in order to solve it. But look at the
third equation. It has the variables z and x. True, it has two variables. Since x has a given
value which is equal to 1, you can use it to find the value of z.

2z = x + 5
2z = 1 + 5
2z = 6
z=3
Now that the value of z is given, you can now substitute the value to solve the value of y
whereas:
2x + 3y – z = 5
2 + 3y – 3 = 5
3y = 5 + 3 – 2
3y = 8 – 2
3y = 6
y=2

Now, the value of the three variables are: x = 1, y = 2, z = 3.

Example 2. Use deductive reasoning to prove that divisibility rule for 3 is valid for three-
digit numbers.

Solution:
Let abc be a 3-digit number. Assumption
abc = 100a + 10b + c Write abc in expanded form decomposing
100a and 10b into equivalent sums.
abc = 99a + a + 9b + b + c
abc + (99a + 9b) + (a + b + c) Grouped the terms that has 9 as a factor.
abc + 3(33a + 3b) + (a + b + c) abc will be divisible by 3 only when (99a +
9b) + (a + b + c) is divisible by 3.
abc will be divisible by 3 only 3(33a + 3b) is always divisible by 3
when (a + b + c) is divisible by 3. because 3 is a factor.

Example 3. Use deductive reasoning to prove the conjecture: The sum of any two odd or
any two even integers is itself even.

Solution:

A possible proof:

1. Given: Let x and y be any two integers

2. Then 2x and 2y must be even integers (Multiplying by 2 always results in an even
integer)
3. And 2x+1 and 2y+1 must be odd integers

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 2x + 2y
2(x + y) Factoring
= Even x+y could be even or odd number as long as they
are integers. Multiplying by 2, result will always be
even.

Therefore, 2x+1 and 2y+1 the

sum of any 2x+2y+2 Combining like terms two
even
numbers 2(x+y+1) Factoring (2x
and 2y) or = Even x+y+1 could be even or odd number as long as they
any two are integers. Multiplying by 2, result will always be
odd even.
numbers
(2x+1 and 2y+1) is an even number.

3.3 Problem Solving

WHAT IS PROBLEM SOLVING?

Problem solving is a process of applying previously acquired knowledge to new

and unfamiliar situations. It is a process. It requires critical thinking, ability to make
decisions, use the correct strategy to find the solution and check the result.
Classification of Problems

1. Routine Problem
2. Non-Routine Problem

Routine Problem

These problems require direct application of a specific arithmetic operation. Presents the
question to be answered and facts of a number to use. Give the students an opportunity to
think about the relationship between operations and their applications to real-life situations.

Example 1. Mother’s monthly salary is about Php 38, 000.00. If she saves 25% of her
salary monthly, how much will she be able to save in one year?

Non-routine Problem

These problems require the use of thinking skills and strategies involving some non-
algorithmic approaches. Focus on a higher level of interpretation and organization of the
problem rather than on the application of an algorithm.

Example 2. A farmer had some pigs and chickens. One day he counted 20 heads and 56
legs. How many pigs and how many chickens did he have?

3.3 Polya’s Four Steps to Problem Solving

George Polya has had an important influence on problem solving in mathematics

education. He noted that good problem solvers tend to forget the details and focus on the
structure of the problem, while poor problem solvers do the opposite.

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Four-Step Process:

1. Understand the problem (see)

2. Devise a plan (Plan)
3. Carry out the plan (Do)
4. Look back (Check)

Understand the problem.

Many students are overwhelmed just by reading a problem. At this point, group discussion
is beneficial.

Statements that may help you lead students to an understanding of the problem:

- Find the known(s) and the unknown(s); sketch a chart picture or diagram; find the
conditions that connect the unknown(s) and known(s). Do you know a definition,
formula, equation, model, algorithm, rule, law, or theorem that can help you?

Devise a plan. Use the following:

- Find the connection between the data and the unknown. You may be obliged to
consider auxiliary problems if an immediate connection cannot be found. You should
obtain eventually a plan of the solution.
- Is this problem familiar? If so, use the method you know.
- Look for a pattern. Use inductive reasoning.
- Guess, test, and revise; i.e., use trial and error.
- Solve a similar, simpler problem.
- Work backward from the known(s) to the unknown(s).
- Eliminate impossible situations.
- Use direct or indirect reasoning.
- Break the problem into parts or cases.
- Check all possibilities.
- Look for a “catch" or “trick" if an answer looks too obvious or impossible.
- Restate the problem.

Carry out the plan.

The original strategy may need to be modified. Students need to understand that
not every problem will be solved in the first attempt. Cooperative learning teams can be
very beneficial at this point.

- Check each step. Is it correct? Can you prove it?

Look back. (Verify)

- Examine the solution obtained.

- Does the result make sense?
- Check it by reading it back into the statement of the problem. Can the result be
found in a different (perhaps shorter) way?

Example 1. The sum of the ages of Zharina and Kyla Mariz is 35. After five years, Kyla
Mariz will be four times as old as Zharina. How old are they now?

Step 1: Understand the problem.

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 Make sure that you read the question carefully several times. Identify all the
given information which is relevant to the defined problem.

Since you are looking for the age of Zharina and Kyla Mariz at present, so

let x−be theage of Zharina at present

(35−x)−be the age of Kyla Mariz at present
( x +5)−be the age of Zharina after 5 years
(35−x+5)−be the age of Kyla Mariz after 5 years

Step 2: Devise a plan

Decide which is the key unknown or variable.
Since, in five years, Kyla Mariz will be four times as old as Zharina, the
equation will be

x +5=4( 40− x)
Step 3. Carry out the plan
Let us solve the equation step by step.

x +5=4( 40− x) Distribute through parenthesis.

x +5=160−4 x Add 4x to both sides so variable is only on
one side.
5 x+ 5=160 Subtract 5 from both sides.
5 x=155 Divide both sides by 5.
x=31 Age of Zharina at present.
then Plug 31 in for 35-x.
35−31=4 Age of Kyla Mariz.

Step 4. Look back (Check)

Adding 31 and 4, the sum is 35, and adding 5 to both 31 and 4, the sum is 36
and 9 respectively. And, 36 is 4 times 9, so this does check.

Final Answer: The present age of Klyla Mariz is 4, while Zharina is 31.

Example 2. The sum of the first and third of three consecutive odd integers is 131 less
than three times the second integer. Find the three integers.

Step 1: Understand the problem Make sure that you read the question carefully
several times.
Using what you learned in the previous example, we

let x , x+ 2 , x +4−be three integers .

x + ( x+ 4 )−the ∑ of first∧third integers
3 ( x+ 2 )−131−is 131less than three×the second

Step 2: Devise a plan

"The sum of the first and third is 131 less than three times the second"
gives an equation of

x +(x +4 )=3(x +2)−131

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 Step 3. Carry out the plan
Let us solve the equation step by step.

x +(x +4 )=3(x +2)−131 Distribute through parenthesis.

x + x+ 4=3 x+ 6−131 Combine like terms.
2 x+ 4=3 x−125 Subtracting 2x to both sides of the eq.
4=x −125 Add 125 to both sides.
129=x the first integer.
x +2=131 the second integer.
x +4=133 the third integer.

Step 4. Look back (Check)

The sum of 129 and 133 is 131 less than 3 times 131. Then,
The final answer: 129=x the first integer.
x +2=131 the second integer.
x +4=133 the third integer.
Example 3. Danny has a single sheet of 8 ½ by 11 inches paper. He needs to measure
exactly 6 inches. Can he do it using the sheet paper.

Solution:

1. Understanding the problem.

The problem is to use only an 8 ½ by 11 inches paper to measure something of
exactly 6 inches. There are two edge lengths with which to work.

2. Devising a Plan
A natural thing to ask is what combinations of lengths can be made from the two
given lengths? We could fold to halve the lengths, but this would lead to such
fractional lengths as 4 ¼ inches, 5 ½ inches, 2 1/8 inches, and so on, that appear
unhelpful. Another idea is to consider other folds that could be used to combine 8 ½
inches and 11 inches to het 6 inches. For example, consider how to obtain 6 from 8
½ and 11.
11 – 8 ½ = 2 ½
8½-2½=6

If we could fold the paper to obtain 2 ½ inches from the two given lengths and the
“subtract” the 2 ½ from 8 ½, then we could obtain the desired result of 6. One
strategy to investigate how to obtain 2 ½ inches from the 11 inches and 8 ½ inches
lengths is to draw a diagram.

3. Carrying out the Plan

By folding the paper as shown by the arrows in figure below, we can obtain a length
of 6 inches.

8 ½ in. 8 ½ in.

11-8 ½ or 2½

11 in. 11 in. 11 in.

8 ½ in. 2 ½ in. 2 ½ in.
8 ½ in.
8 ½ in.

a) b) c) 8 ½ in - 2½ in. = 6 in.

d)

49
 With the fold figure, we obtain a length of 11 – 8 ½, or 2 ½, inches. With the fold
figure c), we obtain 8 ½ - 2 ½ or 6 inches.

4. Look Back (Check)

Though there are other ways to solve this problem, drawing a diagram showing the
folds of the paper combines notions of geometry and gives a way to fold a square
from a rectangle. An entirely different way to solve the problem is possible if have
more than one sheet of paper. Other than that, we can also can act it out and fold
the paper.

Example 4. In a small town, three children deliver all newspapers. Sol delivers three times
as many papers as Mari, and Ken delivers more than Sol. If the three children delivered
total of 496 papers, how many papers does each deliver?

Solution:

1. Understanding the problem.

The problem asks for the number of papers that each child delivers. It gives
information that compares the number of papers that each child delivers as well as
the total numbers of papers delivered in town.

2. Devising a Plan
Let a, b, and c is the number of papers delivered by Sol, Mari and Ken respectively.
We translate the given information into equations as follow:

Sol delivers three times as many papers as Mari : a = 3b

Ken delivers 13 more papers than Sol : c = a + 13
Total delivery is 496 : a + b + c = 496

To reduce the number of variables, substitute 3b for a in the second and third
equations:

c = a + 13 becomes c = 3b + 13
a + b + c = 496 becomes 3b + b + c = 496

Next, make an equation in one variable, b, by substituting 3b + 13 for c in the

equation 3b + b + c = 496, solve for b, and then find a and c.

3. Carrying out the Plan

3b + b + 3b + 13 = 496
7b + 13 = 496
7b = 483
b = 69

Thus a = 3b = (3 x 69) = 207

Also, c = a + 13 = 207 + 13 = 220
So, Sol delivers 207 papers, Mari delivers 69 papers, and Ken delivers 220 papers.

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 4. Looking Back
To check the answers, follow the original information, by using making a sentence,
start by using
a = 207, b = 69, and c = 220

The information in the first sentence, “Sol delivers three times as many as papers
as Mari” checks, since 207 = 3 x 69. The second sentence, “Ken delivers 13 more
papers than Sol” is true because 220 = 207 + 13. The information on the total
delivery checks, since 207 + 69 + 220 = 496.

Example 4. A farmer had some cows and ducks. One day he counted 20 heads and 56
legs. How many cows and ducks did he have?

1. Understanding the Problem.

How many cows and ducks does the farmer have?
 Cows has four legs
 Ducks have two legs
2. Devising a Plan
We make a plan to show various combination of 20 ducks and cows and how many
they have altogether. We use guess and checks strategy.

3. Carrying out a Plan

Number of Cows Number of Ducks Number of Legs

12 12 80 + 24 = 104
11 9 44 + 18 = 62
10 10 40 + 20 = 60
9 11 36 + 22 = 58
8 12 32 + 24 = 56

4. Looking Back (Check)

Check the answers by using a variable:

Let a = duck, b = cow

2a + 4b = 56-------------------------------(i)
a + b = 20----------------------------------(ii)
from (ii),
a = 20 – b---------------------------------(iii)

Replace (iii) into (i),

2(20-b)+4b = 56
40b-2b+4b = 56
2b = 16
b=8

Replace b = 8 into (iii)

a = 20 – 8
a = 12

Therefore, the answer 8 cows and 12 ducks are correct.

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Exercises:

1. In each of the following, determine whether it is an example of inductive reasoning

or deductive reasoning.

a. Carla is calculating her income taxes to determine if she will get a refund this
year.
b. You tell your friend Jay to be ready 15 minutes before you actually intend to
pick him up because Jay is always running late.
c. Luis has noticed that the stock market has gone up on the Friday before each
of the last three national holidays. He decides to buy stock on the Friday
before Labor Day to cash in on this trend.

2. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next two terms in each given sequence of
numbers.
a. 3, 6, 12, 24, _________, __________
b. ½, 3/5, 5/8, 7/11, _________, __________
c. 0.1, 0.10, 0.101, 0.1010, ________, __________

3. Use inductive reasoning to find the ones digit of the number 250.

3.4 Problem Solving Strategies

3.5 Mathematical Problems Involving Patterns

3.6 Recreational Problems Using Mathematics

Solve a Logic Puzzle

There are two hard rules to always remember in logic puzzles:

1. Every item in the puzzle is matched to one, and only one, other item in each
category.
2. No two items in the same category will ever be matched to the same item in
another category.

As you progress through each clue, your task is to translate the relationships
described there into TRUE or FALSE markers on the grid. As you proceed through the
puzzle, more and more of the grid will be filled in, until all the top subgrids are completely
filled in with Clue markers (X1 for clue1, X2 for clue2, etc.). At that point, you have
successfully revealed the relationships between each and every item on the grid, and
puzzle is solved.

Example: Solve the following logic puzzle.

Each of the four friends Donna, Sarah, Nikkie and Xhanelle, has a different
pet (fish, cat, dog, and snake). From the following clues, determine the pet of each
individual.

1. Sarah is older than her friend who owns the cat and younger than her friend
who owns the dog.
2. Nikkie and her friend who owns the snake are both of the same age and they
are the youngest members of their group.

52
 3. Donna is older than her friend who owns the fish.

Solution
From clue 1, Sarah is not the owner of the cat nor the dog. In the following
chart, write X1 (which stands for “ruled out by clue 1”) in the Cat and the Dog
columns of Sarah's row.

Fish Cat Dog Snake

Donna
Sarah X1 X1
Nikkie
Xhanelle

From clue 2, Nikkie is not the owner of the snake. Since Sarah is not one of the
youngest member of the group from clue 1, then, she also doesn't own the snake. From
Clue 1, the dog is not owned by the youngest friend, thus, Nikkie doesn't own the dog.
Therefore, Sarah, owns the Fish and consequently, Donna, Nikkie, and Xhanelle do not own
the Fish.

Fish Cat Dog Snake

Donna X2 X3
Sarah ✔️ X1 X1 X2
Nikkie X2 X2 X2
Xhanelle X2

From clue 3, Donna is older than Sarah, therefore she is not the owner of the snake and the cat.
Hence, she owns the Dog. That means Xhanelle owns the snake and Nikkie owns the cat.

Fish Cat Dog Snake

Donna X2 X3 ✔️ X3
Sarah ✔️ X1 X1 X2
Nikkie X2 ✔️ X2 X2
Xhanelle X2 X3 X3 ✔️

=> Donna owns the dog, Sarah owns the fish, Nikkie owns the cat, and Xhanelle owns the snake.

Exercise 3-
Solve the following Logic Puzzle and check whether you get the same answer shown
below.
Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has a different occupation (editor,
banker, chef, or dentist). From the following clues, determine the occupation of each
neighbor.
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
4. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
5. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
6. The banker lives next door to Brian.
Solution: Sean is the banker, Maria is the editor, Sarah is the chef, and Brian is the dentist.

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Example: Solve the following KenKen Puzzle.
60x 40x 5+

10+ 4+

4x 36x 14+

60x 40x 5+

Solution 3
3
10+ 4+
1. Since this is a 5x5 grid, then rows and columns should only
4x 36x 14+
contain the number 1-5. Now, check if there are single box
cage.

60x 40x 5+
2
3
3 2 1
10+ 4+
1. See if you can find a cage whose solution is quite unique. One
4x 36x 14+
case is the 5+ operation in the upper right corner with 3-square
cage whose solution is 2+2+1=5. Since the numbers should not
be repeated in a row or column, then we can place one "2" in
60x 40x 5+
the upper right corner, and the other "2" in the 4th column. 5
3 2
3
4 3 2 1
10+ 4+

2. Another cage whose solution is quite unique is the one on the

4x 36x 14+
upper left corner with 3-square cage whose solution is
5x4x3=60. Since the numbers should not be repeated in a row
or column, then we can place "3" in the upper left corner. We
60x 40x 5+
can place the other two number temporarily on the 2 other 3 5 1 4 2
cages. 4
3
5 2 1
3
10+ 4+
2
4x 36x 14+
3
3. Now, let us look at the cage whose numeral is 40 under 4 3
multiplication operation in a 4-square cage. It has the solution

54
 60x 40x 5+
3 5 1 4 2
5x4x2x1=40. In the 2nd row, we can place "5", then "1" and "4" 3
in the 1st row and "2" in the 3rd row temporarily. 4 3 5 2 1
10+ 4+
2
4x 36x 14+
3
4. We can continue to look at the cage whose numeral is 36
60x 40x 4 5+ 3
under multiplication operation in a 3-square cage. It has 3 5 1 4 2
the solution 3x4x3=36. Since we can not repeat the same 4
60x
3
55
40x
21 14
5+
33 2
number in a row or column, then we can place "4" in the 10+ 3 4+
5 44 23 15 32 1
middle, i.e. 3rd column 5th row, and the "3" in the
4x 10+ 36x 14+ 4+
remaining cages. 2 1 3 52 4
4x 36x 14+
1 2 4 3 5
2 3
1 2 4 3
60x 40x 5+
3 5 1 4 2
3
4 3 5 2 1
10+ 4+
5 4 2
4x 36x 14+
2 1 3
5. Next, we check the cage with 4x whose solution is 2x2x1. Since 1 2 4 3
we cannot repeat the same number in a row or column, then we
60x 40x 5+
can place "1" in the middle, i.e. 1st column 5th row, and the "2" in 5 4
3 1 2
the remaining cages. 3
4 3 5 2 1
10+ 4+
5 4 2 1 3
4x 36x 14+
2 1 3
6. Now, the first column has only one missing number which is 5,
therefore the solution for the 10+ cage is 5+4+1, since for column 1 2 4 3
2, the only missing numbers are 4 and 1.

7. The 3rd row has only two missing numbers, 3 and 1 which is a solution for 4+ cage,
therefore "1" will be placed in the 4th column since the 5th column had that number
already and "3" will be placed in the 5th column

55
8. Finally, the missing numbers all fit as the solution for the last cage as shown in the
solved puzzle below.

Self-Study Exercise
Solve the following Kenken Puzzle.

56
 Magic Square - arrangement of numbers in a square such that the sum of the n numbers
in each row, column, and diagonal is the same number.

Example: Solve the following magic square of order 5. Use deductive reasoning to
determine the missing numbers in the magic square.

11 7 3

4 8 16

5 13

10 18 1 22

23 6 2 15

Solution
1. Since the diagonal is complete, then we can get the sum of the diagonal numbers, in
this case, its 65, thus, each row and each column should sum up to 65.

9. Look for a row or column where there's only one missing number and subtract the sum
of the given numbers from 65 to fill in the missing number. These are highlighted in
blue.

11 7 3

4 8 16

17 5 13 9

10 18 1 14 22
23 6 19 2 15

10.

57
11. Check again if there's only one missing number in a row and column. If so, subtract the
sum of the given numbers from 65 to fill in the missing number. These are highlighted in
pink.

11 7 3

4 8 16

17 5 13 21 9
10 18 1 14 22
23 6 19 2 15

12.

13. Do steps 2 and 3 until gaps are filled in.

11 24 7 20 3
4 12 25 8 16
17 5 13 21 9
10 18 1 14 22
23 6 19 2 15

14.

15. Check whether each row and columns sums up to 65 and you're done!

11 24 7 20 3 **
Ex
pre
ssi
on
is
fau
lty
**
4 12 25 8 16 **
Ex
pre
ssi
on
is
fau
lty
**
17 5 13 21 9 **
Ex
pre

58