CHAPTER 1 interest and desires in ways that yield personal satisfaction while conforming

to accept standards at the same time. The absence of these opportunities can
CONCEPTS, THEORIES, AND PRINCIPLES lead to frustrations and generally negative attitudes towards people and even
OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT life in general.

Learning Objectives SIGNIFICANT FACTS ABOUT DEVELOPMENT (Gines, et al., 1998)

At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to: Early foundation are critical. Essentially, attitudes, habits, and
patterns of behaviour that have been established in the early years
of one’s life largely determine the success of individuals in
 Identify and understand different theories on human
adjusting to life as they grow older.
development;
Roles of maturation and learning in development. Maturation
 Understand how stages of personality development, from refers to the process by which an individual’s inherent traits are
infancy to adulthood or old age, affects a person’s ability to developed. Learning is the product of the exercise and effort spent
adapt to changes and his/her environment; by an individual to achieve development. In relation to this,
maturation provides the raw material for learning and determines
 Explain how these stages can either make or break a person’s the general patterns and sequences of one’s behaviour.
motivation and ability to react to certain situations.
Development follows a definite and predictable pattern.
According to previous works, there are patterns of physical, motor
speech and intellectual development, and such development
follows a pattern similar for everyone, unless there are extenuating
factors that hamper this process.
All individuals are different. No two individuals can be 100%
biologically and genetically similar, even in the case of identical
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT twins. Such difference increases as children develop from
childhood, move on to adolescence, and eventually to old age.
Human Development is a process in which a progressive series of
changes occurs as a result of maturation and experience. According in Each phase of development has a characteristic behaviour. This
Newman and Newman (2015), human development emphasizes the patterns means that every stage of development includes a set of behaviours
that can only be observed in a particular stage.
of “constancy and change across the life span” and identifies the process that
account for such patterns. They argue that development implies a process that Each phase of development has hazards. Each stage in the life
happens over time and has a specific direction. span of an individual can be associated with specific
developmental hazards – be they psychological, physical, or
DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES environmental; such hazards may involve adjustment problems.

The goal of development changes is to enable people to adapt to the Development is aided by stimulation. A large of human
environment in which they live, through a process called self-realization or development occurs as a product of maturation and
self-actualization (DeRobertis, 2008). Given that self-realization plays an environmental experiences, and in relation to this, much can be
important role in curing one’s mental well-being, individuals who make good done to aid development so that it will reach its full potential.
personality in social adjustments must seek opportunities to express their This can be achieved by stimulating development by directly
 encouraging to utilize an ability, which is in the process of throughout one’s childhood. Based on observations he recorded while
development. treating his patients, he was able to develop a theory that explained
human behavioural development in terms of a series of so-called
Development is affected by cultural change. An individual’s “psychosexual stages,” in which conflicts that arise in each
development often conforms to cultural standards; hence, developmental stage may have a lifelong influence on one’s
changes in these standards can also affect one’s developmental personality and behaviour (Cherry, 2015).
patterns.
Stages of Psychosexual Development
There are social expectations for every stage of development. All
cultural groups expect their members to familiarize themselves Stage 1: Oral stage (Birth to 18 months)
with essentials skills and acquire certain approved behavioural During this stage, an infant’s main source of interaction occurs
patterns at various ages during one’s lifetime. through the mouth, and as such, rooting and sucking are especially
important in this stage. It is said that the infant derives pleasure from
There are common traditional beliefs about people of all ages. oral stimulation by performing gratifying activities, such as sucking.
Beliefs concerning physical and psychological characteristics do The infant may also develop a sense of trust and comfort with an
affect the judgement of others and their subsequent self- adult who is providing this kind of oral stimulation (e.g., feeding the
evaluations. child).

PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Conflict occurs during the weaning process, and at this point, the
child must become less dependent upon his/her caretakers;
Let us examine various psychological theories on human otherwise, fixation may occur. If this fixation is not resolved, then
development, which can provide basic frameworks through which we can the child may grow up with issues concerning binge eating, drinking,
better understand human growth, development, and learning. It is important nail biting, or smoking. The individual may also have problems
to study these theories because, through these, we can identify the main factors related to dependency and aggression (Cherry, 2015).
or conditions that motivate human thoughts and behaviours. (Theories of
Development, 2016). Oral traits may be expressed as opposites. Hence, oral types may be
unhealthy pessimistic or healthily optimistic, gullible or suspicious,
manipulative or passive, and prone to admiration or envy, to name a
Psychoanalytic Theories few (Furnham, 2015).

As one of the most popular theories of development, Psychoanalytic Stage 2: Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years)
theory originated with the work of Sigmund Freud, who argued that
childhood experiences and unconscious desires ultimately influence During this stage, a child becomes aware of correct bowel control
our behaviours as adults. Since then, neo-Freudians have proposed and experiences pleasure in eliminating or retaining feces. Some
different theories of their own, including Erik Erikson, who parents praise and reward children who show correct behaviour in
introduced his eight-stage theory of psychosocial development. this sense. These children eventually grow up to become productive
and confident.
Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development
When a child becomes fixated in the pleasure obtained through these
The theory of psychosexual development was first proposed by the stimulants (i.e., controlling and eliminating feces), then he/she
famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. This controversial theory becomes obsessed with perfection, order, cleanliness, and control as
describes the process by which human personality is developed an adult. When a person is prone to this tendency then he/she is
called retentive, and its opposite is called anal expulsive. Compared Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
with retentive individuals, anal expulsive individuals are extremely
disorganized and chaotic (Cherry, 2015a). One of the best-known theories of personality in the field of
psychology, Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
The well-known anal traits also include stinginess, stubbornness, describes the influence of social experience on our development
meticulousness, and an unhealthy obsession with punctuality, across the whole human lifespan. A major element of this theory is
precision, and perfection (Furnham, 2015). the “ego identity”, which is the “conscious sense of self that we
develop through social interaction” (Cherry, 2015b). According to
Erikson, this ego identity constantly changes due to new information
Stage 3: Phallic stage (3 to 6 years) and experiences we accumulate through our daily interactions with
others. As we face each new stage of development, we confront a
The phallic stage is mainly characterized by a child’s focus on sexual new challenge that can help further develop or hinder the
interests, stimulation, and excitement in relation to the genital area. development of our identity.
This is an important part of the development process as it lays the
foundation of one’s gender identity. According to Freud, the patterns
of identification arising from the phallic stage primarily determine
the development of human character (McLeod, 2008). Stages in the Human Lifespan

Common phallic traits are expressed in opposites, just like in the A. Prenatal period – this period begins at conception and ends at
other stages. These traits typically include vanity versus self-hatred, birth. It occurs within about 270 to 280 days or nine calendar
brashness versus bashfulness, pride versus humility, gaiety versus months.
gloom and gregariousness versus isolation, to name a few (Furnham,
2015). B. Infancy – this period occurs from birth to the end of the second
week. It is shortest of all developmental periods and is
considered a time of extreme adjustments, thus making it a
Stage 4: Latency Stage (5 to 6 years to puberty) hazardous period.
This development stage begins around the same time when children C. Babyhood – this period occurs from the end of the second week
enter school and become more focused on their peer relationships, until the end of a child’s second year. It is said to be the period
personal interests, and hobbies, along with greater social exposure. of the true foundation of age and marks the beginning of
Hence, this is a period of exploration and plays an important role in socialization and creativity. This period is also a time of
the development of confidence as well as social and communication increased individuality, decreasing dependency, and rapid
skills (Cherry, 2015a). growth and change, making it a hazardous period as well.

Stage 5: Genital Stage (Puberty to adulthood) D. Early Childhood – this period lasts from 2 to 6 years, and is
considered by many parents as a problematic or troublesome age.
During this period, a child undergoes the physiological maturation For educators, this is considered the preschool age.
of systems of sexual functioning and associated hormonal systems,
thus leading to intensified drives and impulses. The main objective E. Late Childhood – this period occurs from 6 to 10 or 12 years or
of this phase is the eventual separation from one’s attachment to the so-called elementary years. For parents, they consider it also
his/her parents and the achievement of mature relationships as well as a troublesome age, especially since, according to
as adult roles and duties.
 psychologists, this is the “gang” age or the time at which children DEVELOPMENT TASKS
seek conformity and become part of groups
Purposes of Developmental Tasks
F. Puberty or Preadolescence – this period lasts from 12 to 13 or Development tasks serve as guidelines that enable individuals to know
14 years. It is a short, overlapping period that is subdivided into what society expects of them at any given age. Such tasks motivate individuals
several stages, namely, prepubescent, pubescent and post- to do what their respective social groups expect them to do at certain ages
pubescent stages. This is a period of rapid growth and change during their lives. Finally, these tasks show individuals what lie ahead and the
and occurs at a variable age. corresponding expectations of what they need to do when they reach their next
stage of development.
G. Adolescence – this period occurs from 13 or 14 to 18 years. It is
an important transitional period that is characterized by Developmental Tasks during Each Stage of the Lifespan (Gines, et al,
significant change. Others consider it a problem or dreaded age, 1998)
during which the child searches for his/her identity and is about
to cross over into adulthood. 1. Babyhood and Early Childhood
 Learning to take solid foods
H. Early Adulthood – this period lasts from 18 to 40 years. This is  Learning to walk and talk
the productive age, a period of dependency for most, and a period
of emotional tension or even social isolation. In addition, it is a  Learning to control the elimination of body waste
time of commitment, a time at which one’s values change, which  Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
can lead to changes in lifestyle choices.
 Getting ready to read
 Learning to distinguish between right and wrong and
I. Middle Age – this period occurs from 40 to 60 years. Many
people dread this stage because it is a time of stress and beginning to develop a conscience.
transition. Others may feel bored with their lives at around this
age and may feel awkward or inadequate when comparing
themselves with others and evaluating their lives against them. 2. Late Childhood
 Learning physical skills that are necessary for ordinary
J. Old Age or Senescence – this period lasts from 60 years to one’s games
death. This is considered a period of decline, during which  Building a wholesome attitude towards one’s self as a
people are judged by different criteria based on prevalent growing individual
stereotypes of old people. People in this age group have varying  Learning to get along with peers with the same age
social attitudes towards old age and may feel that they are part of
 Beginning to develop appropriate social roles depending
a minority. As aging requires role changes, some may not be so
successful in making the proper adjustments. Still, the desire for on one’s gender
rejuvenation is widespread in old age.  Developing fundamentals skills in reading, writing, and
calculating
 Developing concepts and skills that are necessary for
everyday living.
  Developing a conscience, a sense of morality, and a scale 5. Middle Age
of values.  Achieving adult civic and social responsibilities
 Developing attitudes towards social groups and
institutions  Assisting teenage children to become responsible and
 Achieving personal independence happy adults
 Developing adult leisure-time activities
3. Adolescence
 Relating one’s self to one’s spouse as a person
 Achieving new and more mature relations with peers
from both sexes.  Accepting and adjusting to physiological change of
 Achieving masculine or feminine social role middle age
 Accepting one’s physique and using one’s body
 Reaching and maintaining a satisfactory performance in
effectively
 Desiring, accepting, and achieving socially responsible one’s occupation and career
behaviours  Adjusting to aging parents
 Achieving emotional independence from parents and
other adults
6. Old Age
 Preparing for an economic career
 Preparing for marriage and family life  Adjusting to decreasing physical strength
 Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide  Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
to one’s behaviour
 Adjusting to the death of a spouse
 Acquiring beliefs and a set of ideologies
 Establishing an explicit affiliation with members of
4. Early Adulthood one’s peer group
 Getting started in an occupation
 Establishing a satisfactory and safe physical living
 Selecting a partner
 Learning to live with a marriage partner arrangements.
 Starting a family  Adopting to changing or reduced social roles in a
 Rearing children flexible way
 Managing a home
 Taking on civic responsibilities
 Finding a social group with whom one shares the same
interests
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE MASTERY OF DEVELOPMENTAL
TASKS

Handicaps to Mastery
 A retarded developmental level
 Lack of opportunities to learn the developmental tasks or lack of
guidance in their mastery
 Lack of motivation
 Poor health condition
 Physical defects
 A low intellectual level

Aids to Mastery
 A normal or accelerated developmental level
 Opportunities to learn the developmental tasks and receiving
guidance in mastering them
 Strong motivation to learn and improve
 Good health and the absence of sickness
 A high level of intelligence
 A sense of creativity
 Student’s Name: 3. How can socialization create an emotional impact to a person’s
Year/Section: self-actualization?
Instructor:
School:

Review Questions:

1. How do the different stages of development affect a person’s

ability to react to situations? Explain briefly

4. Do you believe that when a person fails to manage a stage in

his/her personal development, self-actualization will not be
reached as well? Why/why not?

2. Describe briefly how self-actualization is attained during old

age.

5. How does a person’s motivation affect his/her over-all

behavioural performance?
 CHAPTER 2 Psychoanalytical - this view emphasizes unconscious motives
stemming from repressed sexual and aggressive impulses in
CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR childhood.

Humanistic – this perspective focuses on the subject’s experiences,

Learning Objectives freedom of choice, and strong motivation to achieve self-
actualization.
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
 Gain a better understanding of human behaviour, the factors Factors that Affect Human Behaviour
that affect changes in human behaviour, and how it is defined
through different perspective; Heredity – this is determined by genes, which are segments of cell
structures called chromosomes, by which parents pass on traits to
 Gain a better understanding of how a human’s personality their offspring.
develops over time through experience and how these
experiences enable a person to reach self-actualization; Environment – these factors consist of the conditions that surround and
 Become familiar with causes, conflicts, and motivations influence an individual.
affecting human behaviour;
Learning – this refers to the process by which behaviours change as a
 Identify the theories that attempt to explain human
result of experience or practice.
behaviour.
Other factors that affect or influence behaviour include the following;

HUMAN BEHAVIOR  Attitude, beliefs, emotions

 Reasoning
Human behaviour refers to a voluntary or involuntary attitude of  Culture, values, ethics, religion
a person to adopt and fit society’s values and ideas of what is right and  Authority, motivation, persuasion and coercion
wrong. It also refers to a range of actions demonstrated by humans in
conjunction with their environment, and in response to various stimuli, MOTIVATIONS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
whether conscious or subconscious, internal or external, voluntary or
involuntary, and overt or covert (Human Behaviour, n.d.). The Needs Theory of Human Motivation

Common Perspective in the Study of Human Behaviour This theory states that throughout one’s life, desires, wishes, and drives
that are collectively called “needs”, motivate every individual. When not
Neurological – this perspective emphasizes human actions in relation fulfilled, these needs places an individual under stress. Thus, to relive the
to events that take place inside the body, especially the brain and tensions created, one has to strive for appropriate satisfaction of these needs.
the nervous system. According to Abraham Maslow, human needs are arranged in a hierarchy:

Behavioural – this view focuses on the external activities that can be “It is quite true that man lives by bread alone – when there is no bread. But
observed and measured what happens to man’s desires when there is plenty of bread and when his
belly is chronically filled? At once other (and “higher”) needs emerge and
Cognitive – this perspective studies how the brain processes and these, rather than physiological hungers, dominate the organism. And when
transforms information in various ways. these in turn are satisfied, again new (and still “higher”) needs emerge and so
 on. This is what we mean by saying that the basic human needs are organized The Psychodynamics of Human Motivation
into a hierarchy of relative prepotency” (Maslow, 1943, p. 375).
Psychodynamics, which literally means “motivation to actions”, defines
The Five-Stage Pyramid according to Maslow’s Theory human behaviour in terms of the personality of the inner self. It also refers to
the concept of subjective life and inner forces within, which are called “mental
personality”.
Self-Actualization
Sigmund Freud first proposed a psychodynamic theory in the early 20th
century. According to this theory, the mind has three levels by which its
Esteem Needs psychic forces operate, namely, the Id, Ego and Super Ego. In psychology, the
psychodynamic view is used to explain human personality and behaviour in
terms of conscious and unconscious forces, such as unconscious desires and
Love and Belonging Needs beliefs. Psychodynamic theories generally argue that one’s childhood
experiences shape personality (Definition of Psychodynamic Theory, n.d.)

CAUSES OF CONFLICTS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR

Safety Needs
Physical Causes – these refers to natural causes, like typhoon, and
earthquake, fire, flood, and storm.
Psychological Needs
Social Conflicts – these are restrictions or rules in the home, school,
workplace, and community.

Source: (MeLeod citing Maslow, 2014). Economic Conflicts – these results from one’s inability to acquire
material things because of poverty or other financial
1. Biological and physiological needs: food, drink air, shelter, warmth, obligations.

sex, sleep Two Basic Types of Human Behaviour

2. Safety needs: security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear,
Type Concept Examples
protection from the elements 1. Inherited Behavioural response or reflex Breathing, ingesting
3. Love and belongingness needs: affection and love from work group, Behaviour that is exhibited by people food, avoiding waste,
based on their genetic mating, and
family, friends, peers; romantic relationships; friendships; intimacy endowment or the process of defending one’s self.
4. Esteem needs: achievement, independence, mastery, status, natural selection.
2. Learned Involves cognitive adaptation Verbal
dominance, self-respect, prestige and the respect from others Behaviour that enhances the human communication,
5. Self-actualization needs: realization of one’s personal potential and being’s abilities to cope with logical problem-
environmental changes and solving techniques,
self-fulfilment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. manipulate the environment to job, and skills, etc.
improve one’s existence.
 Other Types of Behaviours Characteristic of Behaviour

Types Behaviour 1. Human behaviours are primarily native or learned

1. Habitual Motor, emotional, language 2. Evoked by external stimuli or internal needs
2. Instinctive Unlearned behaviour 3. Automatic, voluntary, conscious motor, or intentional
3. Symbolic Substitute behaviour
Two or more habitual behaviours that occur in one Personality Dimensions that affect Human Behaviour
4. Complex
situation Types Characteristics Effects
1. Extraversion Frequently seeks Gets people in trouble,
STIMULANTS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR stimulation, excitement, has the greatest role in
and thrills crime and delinquency
Sensations – these are feelings or impressions of stimuli that may be delivered
via the following sources: 2. Neuroticism Intensely reacts to Enhances habits and
stress, generally moody, influences the individual
 Olfactory – smell touchy, sensitive to to behave in ways that
 Cutaneous – touch slights and anxious or are considered anti-
nervous social
 Auditory – hearing
 Gustatory – taste 3. Psychoticism Cold, cruel, social Impulse aggressive
 Visual – sight insensitivity, disregard individual without
for danger, troublesome appreciable conscience
Perception – this refers to one’s knowledge of various stimuli from the behaviour, dislike of or sense of morals
environment or external sources. others, attraction
towards the unusual
Awareness – this is a psychological activity that occurs in accordance with the
interpretation and experience of various stimuli.

ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR
Attributes of Human Behaviour
Abnormal behaviour – this is a kind of behaviour that falls to meet the
Duration – how long it occurs in terms of functions of time characteristics of a normal person and includes inabilities in the following
areas:
Extensity – spatial characteristics
Intensity – magnitude or level 1. Free expression of personality
Quantity – normal pr abnormal, un/acceptability 2. Adequate security feeling
 3. Efficient contact with reality Neuroses
4. Adaptability to group norms
Neuroses or psychoneuroses are behavioural disorders that are brought
5. Emotional maturity about by emotional tension resulting conflicts, repression, frustration, or
insecurity. Neurotic individuals compromise with reality by developing
6. Adequate self-knowledge
imaginary ailments, obsessions, phobias, compulsion, depression or
7. Integrated and consistent personality anxiety.

Behavioural Characteristics of Individuals Displaying Neurotic Reactions

Criminal Psychology – this is a branch of knowledge that studies various
aspects of criminal behaviour. Specifically, it refers to “the study of the mind 1. Inability to function at the normal capacity level
and its workings in relation to crime (Criminal Psychology, n.d.).
2. Presence of anxiety
3. Rigid or repetitive behaviour
TYPES OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR
4. Somatic complaints
Personality Disorder 5. Immaturity
6. Hypersensitivity
This kind of disorder originates during the early development process,
and leads to maladaptive behaviour. 7. Egocentricity
8. Unhappiness
Classification of Personality Disorder 9. A great deal of unconsciously motivated behaviour

Classification Characteristics
1. Passive- Passively dependent and aggressive due to Understanding the Causes of Neuroses
Aggressive overindulgence As we have learned earlier, human behaviours are influenced by different
2. Hysterical Easily excitable, emotional instability, dramatic need factors. The following factors may be considered important
Personality for attention, immature, tendency to sexualize contacts considerations when evaluating an individual suffering from neurosis:
Disorder with the opposite sex
1. Predisposing or constitutional factors
3. Compulsive Excessive concern for conformity, perfection, and
Personality order 2. One’s immediate life situation
Disorder 3. Childhood development patterns
4. Paranoid Hypersensitive, unwarranted suspicion, jealousy, envy
4. Important cultural factors
Personality and feelings of excessive importance
Classification of Neuroses According to the Most Striking Symptoms C. Somnambulism – this is a dreamlike state in which the person walks
about and carries on certain activities that he eventually fails to
1. Anxiety Reaction – these are mainly manifested in consciously experienced remember when he wakes up.
feelings of anxiety and apprehension, for which there are no specific bases in
actual life. Psychastenia

Hysteria This is a psychoneurotic condition that is accompanied by a vast range

of mental and emotional symptoms that cannot be controlled. The person is
This disorder is a type of anxiety reaction, in which the individual fear-ridden by obsessions, compulsions, or unreasonable dread or phobia.
manifests one or more symptoms that are often associated with organic Other symptoms of Psychastenia are unreasonable elation, over inhibition, or
disease. Disabilities that may develop from this disorder include paralysis of constant depression.
the limbs, deafness, blindness, intense aches and pains, continuous vomiting,
loss of voice, and head or hand tremors. Form of Psychastenia

Forms of Hysteria A. Phobia –this refers to an irrational or exaggerated fear of an object,

person, act or situation. This is characterized by the following:
A. Amnesia – this is a disorder wherein the individual cannot recall his  Reasons for the fear to make sense
or her name and remembers little or nothing about the past in varying
levels of intensity.  One’s fear paralyzes instead of enhances one’s ability to deal
with a problem
Types of Hysteria
 The fear seems to be caused by the threat of self-destructive

Anterograde – this is the inability to retain information, aggressions that may take place.

which has just been seen or read.

Retrograde – this refers to the inability to recall any event Examples of Phobias

(and details thereof) that took place during a certain  Arachnophobia – the fear of spiders
period.  Ophidiophobia – the fear of snakes
Localized – the inability to recall events and details that are  Acrophobia – the fear of heights
related to a particular situations.  Agoraphobia – the fear of open or crowded spaces
 Cynophobia – the fear of dogs
B. Fugue – this is a type of amnesia wherein one wanders away
 Astraphobia – the fear of thunder and lightning
from his or her home or usual surroundings; often, the person has
no recollection as to how he/she came to be there when  Claustrophobia – the fear of small spaces
awareness sets in.
 Mysophobia – the fear of germs
Multiple Personality – this is a dramatic from of hysteria, in which  Aerophobia – the fear of flying
the patient develops two or more separated and very distinct
personalities.  Trypophobia – the fear of holes
 B. Obsession – this refers to an idea or series of ideas that recur very Classification of Psychoses
frequently that they interfere with the ability of an individual to think
and/or function normally. 1. Organic/Somatogenic

C. Compulsion – this is an irresistible tendency to perform an act or Organic or somatogenic psychoses are due to a wide variety of causes;
ritual, which an individual feels compelled to carry out although it is however, damage or injury to the brain or other parts of the central nervous
recognized as irrational; a person must perform an act and give in to system is always involved.
the urge in order to reduce the tension.
Symptoms of Organic Psychoses
Examples of Compulsion  Emotional instability, which is manifested by general irritability
 Suicidal mania – the impulse to take one’s life or violent mood swings without a clear cause
 Homicidal mania – the impulse to kill  Impairment of normal, intellectual functions
 Dipsomania – the impulse to drink liquor  Inappropriate behaviour and changes in general behaviours,
 Megalomania – the impulse to amass great fame or power including neglect of responsibilities, lack of interest in personal
appearance, and an anti-social tendency.
 Kleptomania – the impulse to steal
 Pyromania – the impulse to set things on fire
Types of Organic Psychoses
 Arithmomania – the impulse to count everything  Psychoses associated with toxins
 Psychoses associated with infectious disease
Traumatic Neuroses – these are manifested in situations, in which the  Psychoses associated with old age
individual fears for his/her safety.  Psychoses associated with head injuries

Operational Fatigue – otherwise known as war neuroses, this is

manifested in response to a battle environment. 2. Functional Psychosis

Functional psychosis refers to a serious mental disorder involving the

Psychoses total personality with no observable tissue damage. Hence, with no organic
basis. These ailments are believed to result from years of living under
Psychoses are serious mental illnesses that are characterized by
unpredictable behaviour. Psychotic persons have a largely unrealistic emotional stress. As a severe emotional disorder, functional psychosis is
interpretation of the self and the life around them. In this case, their ego has characterized by personality derangement and complete loss of the ability to
lost control over their personality. In addition, people with psychoses have function in reality, “but without evidence that the disorder is related to the
great mood swings that range from extreme exaltation to extreme depression. physical process of the brain” (Functional Psychosis, n.d.). It can also relate to
They are also quiet and docile at one moment and hyperactive the next. Owing an obsolete term “once used to denote schizophrenia and other severe mental
to such an imbalance, they are often socially inept and unable to fit in with the disorders before modern science discovered a biological component to some
normal society.
aspects of each of the disorders” (Functional Psychosis, n.d.)
Forms of Functional Psychosis Types of Schizophrenia

A. Schizophrenic Disorder Simple Schizophrenia – this manifests in a gradual decline of interest

and ambition. The person withdraws from almost all social contacts and
Schizophrenia is a psychotic condition that is characterized by one’s
withdrawal from reality, indifference towards daily problems, and the becomes increasingly irritable and inattentive.
tendency to live in a world of fantasy. The word “schizophrenia” comes
from the Greek words “schizo” (split) and “phrene” (mind); hence, the term Hebephrenic Schizophrenia – it usually begins in early adolescence and
is used to describe the fragmented state of mind of people suffering from develops gradually in time. The person may be prone to fits of laughter or
such a disorder. The disease was first identified in 1887 by Dr. Emile childish giggling and grimacing for hours without apparent reasons
Kraepelin, who considered this disease as a discrete mental illness. Dr.
Kraeplin was also the first to classify varied mental disorders into
Catatonic Schizophrenia – this is marked by cycles of psychomotor
categories (History of Schizophrenia, n.d).
Initially, Dr. Kraeplin used the term “dementia praecox”. However, in reactions in stupor (partial or complete loss of consciousness) and
1911, the Swiss psychiatrist, Eugen Bleuler coined the term excitement phases.
“schizophrenia” to describe the condition of individuals who showed
symptoms of the disease. Bleuler was also the first to describe the Paranoid Schizophrenia – this is marked by hallucinations and
symptoms as either “positive” or “negative” (History of Schizophrenia, delusions that are illogical and loosely organized, as well as grandiose
n.d). and/or persecutory in nature.

Symptoms of Schizophrenia B. Affective Disorder

 Disorganized patterns of feeling and thinking, where there is no Affective reactions of maniac-depressive psychosis are often
characterized by periods of depression or elation or both. Affective disorders
logic or reason in thoughts and expressed feelings
refer to a set of psychiatric diseases, the symptoms for which may vary
 Apathy or absence of feeling s and emotions in situations that call depending on each individual. Symptoms typically affect one’s mood, hence
for such reactions. affective disorders are also called mood disorders that can be anywhere from
mild to severe.
 Bizarre actions, including absurd and eccentric gestures, or such
An affective disorder can be diagnosed by a psychiatrist or other trained
activities as hoarding, among others. mental health professional, usually through a psychiatric evaluation. Although
 Shunning others, reclusiveness, or narrowing of interests and social affective disorders can disrupt daily lives, there are effective medication and
contacts psychotherapy treatments for this (Ellis, 2013).

 Disorganized speech patterns Types of Affective Disorders

 Delusions and hallucinations (usually auditory)
The three main types of affective disorders are as follows: depression,
 Deterioration of conduct and personal habits
bipolar disorder, and anxiety disorder, and these vary from one another in
terms of severity (Ellis, 2013).
Depression – this is often characterized by feelings of extreme Anxiety Disorders – the different types of anxiety disorders are all
hopelessness and sadness. These episodes may last anywhere from several characterized by feelings of anxiety, fear, and nervousness. The symptoms of
days or even weeks. Its symptoms include the following: affective disorders include the following:

 Suicidal thoughts  Constant worrying

 Irritability or anxiety  Irritability
 Prolonged sadness  Obsessive thoughts
 Lack of interest in normal activities  Restlessness and trouble concentrating
 Lethargy and lack of energy  Trembling, sweating, shortness of breath and rapid heart rate
 Major changes in eating and sleeping habits  Difficulty sleeping
 Feelings of guilt  Nausea
 Difficulty concentrating
C. Paranoia
 Aches and pains that have no physical explanation
This is another type of psychotic reaction, the main symptom of which is
Bipolar disorder – this refers to a state wherein the person experiences characterized by suspicion.
alternating periods of depression and periods of mania, which is the feeling of
being extremely positive and active. A person may have bipolar disorder if Types of Paranoia
he/she has the following symptoms:
 Persecutory Paranoia – this refers to having delusions or persecution.
 Chronic mood swings The person believes that some people are plotting to harm him/her in
 During depression, symptoms similar to those for major some way.
depressive disorder  Litigious Paranoia – this refers to having delusions of both persecution
 During mania, less sleep and feelings of exaggerated self- and grandeur, a person may go to great lengths to bring alleged
confidence persecutors to court.
 Irritability or aggression  Erotic Paranoia – also called amorous paranoia, this refers to having
 Feeling of self-importance delusions that a certain person is in love with him/her
 Impulsiveness and recklessness  Exalted Paranoia – having grandiose delusions and believes
 Delusions or hallucinations himself/herself as someone with great power or importance, usually a
social reformer or religious crusader
 Jealous Paranoia – the state of having extreme and irrational jealousy.
 5. Psychoses Display of guns, force and restraints should be avoided
D. Anti-Social Personality unless there is a manifestation of danger to one’s life,
send the patient to a hospital. If he/she desires, be firm.
A person with an anti-social personality is a mentally-disturbed person
6. Psychopathy 1. Review arrest records
who is opposed to the Normal Principles upon which a society is based.
2. Recognize can man/woman’s manipulative
Characteristics of Anti-Social Personality conversation
3. Don’t bluff he/she is a master of this and certainly
Sociopath – refers to a person who dislikes any sense of social or moral better than anybody
responsibility due to mental illness. 4. Interview him/her after knowing every detail of a
case.
Psychopath – refers to a person with a personality disorder that is
characterized by anti-social behaviour, indifference to immorality, and 5. A psychopath can beat lie detectors he/she is immune
abnormal changes in mood or activity. A psychopath is a classic to anxiety unless placed under stress
manipulator or con artist. 6. Be firm and clear
7. A psychopath may be charming but can also become
very angry and may manipulate others, thus violating
One of the major significant characteristics of a psychopath is the absence their rights.
of a conscience or any guilty feeling after committing grievous acts against
7. Drug – 1. Be patient, but firm – the person is not himself
others. This means that the person has not incorporated the moral values of
society into his life. In addition, the psychopath is selfish and strives for Dependent 2. Keep him/her talking to relieve the stress;
physical pleasure. Hence, most of his pursuits revolve around manipulating Behaviour 3. Refer him/her to the appropriate hospital, medical
people to acquire personal gains. A chronic liar, a psychopath is often facility or medical institution.
impulsive and demands immediate satisfaction, thus unable to learn from past 8. Paranoid 1. By understanding; never give the impression that
experiences. Behaviour he/she is crazy
2. Friendliness and neutrality is usually the best
Dealing with Different Abnormal and Deviant Behaviours approach
3. Do not heighten the patient’s anxieties; do not
Abnormal provoke him/her, or ignite violent reactions
Proper Handling and Hints 4. Assure the paranoid patient that your presence is to
Behaviour
help and protect him/her.
1. Anxiety Reassurance 5. Do not frighten a paranoid patient with weapon; him
2. Depressed Put yourself in the shoes of the sufferer; be on the /her panic and react violently. However, do not let your
guards down. Remember, a paranoid patient may be
alert for possible suicide
suicidal and/or homicidal.
3. Obsessive- Understand that the sufferer is disturbed and not
Compulsive crazy; refer to the appropriate facility
4. Phobia Supportive intervention
SEXUAL DEVIANCY 2. As to Instinctual Sexual Urge

Sexuality – the behaviour associated with the relation between sexes and Types Characteristics
their respective reproductive organs.
1. Satyriasis Excessive sexual desire of men to perform
intercourse
Normal Sexuality – sexual completion that leads to mature and well-
adjusted individual, capable of entering relationships with a member of 2. Nymphomania Strong sexual feeling of a woman
the opposite sex, and who is physically and mentally stable and satisfying 3. Sexual Absence of sexual desire or arousal during
heterosexual needs.
Anaesthesia sexual act in women
4. Dyspareunia Painful sexual act in women
Abnormal Sexuality/Sexual Deviancy – a kind of sexual behaviour that
seeks stimulation and gratification by means other than normal, 5. Vaginisimus Painful spasm of the vagina during sexual act
heterosexual norms.

3. As to the Mode of Sexual Expressions or Way of Sexual Satisfaction

Classification of Sexual Abnormalities
Types Characteristics
1. As to Choice of Sexual Partner
1. Oralism The use of the mouth as a way of sexual
Types of (Irrumation) gratification, such as fellatio, cunnilingus,
Characteristics
Abnormality and anilingus
1. Infantisexual Sexual desire towards an immature person 2. Sado-Masochism Pain or cruel acts as a factor for gratification,
2. Bestosexual Sexual desire towards animals (Alolagnia) such as sadism and masochism
3. Autosexual A form of self-abuse or solitary vice carried out 3. Fetishism A form of sexual perversion, in which the
without the cooperation of another person real or fantasized presence of an object or
4. Gerontophilia Sexual desire towards an elder person bodily part is necessary for sexual
5. Necrophilia Sexual perversion that is characterized by erotic stimulation or gratification.
desire or actual sexual intercourse with a corpse
6. Incest Sexual relations between persons who, by reason Examples: anatomic, clothing, necrophilia,
of blood relationship, cannot legally marry and odour, etc.
4. As to the Parts of the Body 2. Pluralism A form of sexual deviation, in which a group
of persons participate in the sexual orgy
Types Characteristics
(sexual-festival)
1. Sodomy Sexual act through the anus of another human being
2. Uranism An act in which sexual gratification is attained by
7. Other Sexual Deviations
fingering, fondling the breast, licking parts of the
Types Characteristics
body, etc.
1. Corpolalia A form of sexual deviation that is
3. Frottage A form of sexual gratification that is characterized by
characterized by the need to use obscene
the compulsive desire of a person to rub his sexual
language to obtain orgasm
organ against the body parts of another person
2. Don Juanism A form of sexual deviation that is
4. Pantialism A form of sexual deviation, in which a person has a
characterized by promiscuity and seduction
special affinity to certain parts of the female body
of many women as part of a male’s sexual
5. As to Visual Stimulus career.
3. Indecent Exposure Wilful exposure of one’s genital organs in
Types Characteristics
(Exhibitionism) public places and in the presence of other
1. Voyeurism A form of sexual perversion that is
persons, usually those of the opposite sex
characterized by a compulsion to covertly
look at a person undress or perform other
Coping Strategies, Mechanisms of Skills
activities.
Psychological coping mechanisms refer to constructive coping
2. Mixoscopia Sexual perversion wherein sexual pleasure is strategies that an individual invests in to address stress and conflict, be it
(Scoptophilia) attained by watching a couple undress or internal or external. At times, coping strategies are mistakenly referred to as
defense mechanisms. This is not accurate. Cramer (1998) outlines the
during their acts of sexual intimacy difference between the two. Coping mechanisms are conscious and purposeful
effort to address the sources of stress and anxiety while defense mechanisms
are processes that occur without conscious effort and awareness. Cramer goes
6. As to Number on to state that coping mechanisms involve a conscious effort to solve the
problematic situation while defense mechanisms only seek to alter the person’s
Types Characteristics internal psychological makeup but does not address the external reality that
caused the problem in the first place. Simply put, coping mechanisms
1. Froilism A form of sexual perversion, in which three address the problem face on while defense mechanisms aim to stay from
persons participate in the sexual orgy the problem by distorting one’s perception of reality.
(Suixante-neve)
 Student’s Name: 3. According to Maslow’s theory, explain how a human’s personality
Year/Section: develops over time through experience and how these experiences
Instructor: enable to a person to reach self-actualization?
School:

Review Questions:

1. How human behaviour is defines by several perspective and theories?

4. Choose two theories discusses here and describe how they explain the
development of human behaviour.
2. What are the factors that affect human behaviour?
 CHAPTER 3

CRISIS MANAGEMENT

Learning Objectives

At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:

 Define “crisis management” and identify the main

principles, objectives, and theories on crisis management;
 Understand the essential elements of crisis management;
 Gain a better understanding of the legal measures used to
deal with crisis management; and
 Understand how the police handles a hostage situation as a
main example of crisis management.

This chapter deals with crisis management. A set of definition is provided,

after which the major factors to be considered in dealing with crisis
management are discussed. Hostage-taking, a major example of a “crisis” is
also discussed extensively in this chapter.

DEFINITIONS

Crisis – this term came from the Greek word “krisis” which means to
“decide”. A crisis is a turning point in the progress of an affair or a series
of events.

Emergency – this term came from the Latin word “emergentia”, which
means “dipping” or “plunging”. An emergency is a sudden condition or
state of affairs calling for immediate action.

If the situation is still controllable and the response given for the purpose
of containing the situation and prevent it from getting out of control then
it is just an emergency. If the situation is already beyond normal control,
what is happening is already a crisis. However, if the effects of the crisis
can no longer be controlled even by its main instigator, then it is already
a disaster.