Procyonid (Procyonidae) Care Manual

PROCYONID
(Procyonidae)
CARE MANUAL
CREATED BY THE
AZA Small Carnivore Taxon Advisory Group
IN ASSOCIATION WITH THE
AZA Animal Welfare Committee
Procyonid (Procyonidae) Care Manual

Published by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums in association with the AZA Animal Welfare
Committee
Formal Citation:
AZA Small Carnivore TAG 2010. Procyonid (Procyonidae) Care Manual. Association of Zoos and
Aquariums, Silver Spring, MD. p.114.
Original Completion Date:
st nd
13 August 2008, 1 revision June 2009, 2 revision May 2010
Authors and Significant contributors:
Jan Reed-Smith, M.A., Columbus Zoo and Aquarium
Celeste (Dusty) Lombardi, Columbus Zoo and Aquarium, AZA Small Carnivore TAG (SCTAG) Chair
Mike Maslanka, M.S., Smithsonian‟s National Zoo, AZA Nutrition SAG
Barbara Henry, M.S., Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden, AZA Nutrition SAG Chair
Miles Roberts, Smithsonian‟s National Zoo
Kim Schilling, Animals for Awareness
Anneke Moresco, D.V.M., Ph.D., UC Davis, University of California
See Appendix L for additional contributors to the Procyonid Care Manual.
AZA Staff Editors:
Lacey Byrnes, B.S. ACM Intern
Candice Dorsey, Ph.D., Director of Animal Conservation
Cover Photo Credits:

Liz Toth
Debbie Thompson
Cindy Colling
Reviewers:
Sue Booth-Binczik, Ph.D., Dallas Zoo
Denise Bressler, Logan & Abby‟s Fund
Kristofer Helgen, Smithsonian Institution
Kim Schilling, Animals for Awareness
Mindy Stinner, Conservators‟ Center, Inc.
Debbie Thompson, Little Rock Zoo
Rhonda Votino
Debborah Colbert Ph.D., AZA, Vice President of Animal Conservation
Paul Boyle Ph.D., AZA, Senior Vice President of Conservation and Education
Disclaimer: This manual presents a compilation of knowledge provided by recognized animal experts
based on the current science, practice, and technology of animal management. The manual assembles
basic requirements, best practices, and animal care recommendations to maximize capacity for
excellence in animal care and welfare. The manual should be considered a work in progress, since
practices continue to evolve through advances in scientific knowledge. The use of information within this
manual should be in accordance with all local, state, and federal laws and regulations concerning the
care of animals. While some government laws and regulations may be referenced in this manual, these
are not all-inclusive nor is this manual intended to serve as an evaluation tool for those agencies. The
recommendations included are not meant to be exclusive management approaches, diets, medical
treatments, or procedures, and may require adaptation to meet the specific needs of individual animals
and particular circumstances in each institution. Commercial entities and media identified are not
necessarily endorsed by AZA. The statements presented throughout the body of the manual do not
represent AZA standards of care unless specifically identified as such in clearly marked sidebar boxes.
Association of Zoos and Aquariums 2

Table of Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 5
Taxonomic Classification ...................................................................................................................... 5
Genus, Species, and Status ................................................................................................................. 5
General Information ............................................................................................................................... 5
Chapter 1. Ambient Environment ........................................................................................................ 9
1.1 Temperature and Humidity ............................................................................................................ 9
1.2 Light ................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.3 Water and Air Quality.................................................................................................................... 10
1.4 Sound and Vibration ..................................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 2. Habitat Design and Containment .................................................................................. 11
2.1 Space and Complexity.................................................................................................................. 11
2.2 Safety and Containment ............................................................................................................... 14
Chapter 3. Transport ............................................................................................................................. 17
3.1 Preparations ................................................................................................................................... 17
3.2 Protocols ......................................................................................................................................... 17
Chapter 4. Social Environment........................................................................................................... 19
4.1 Group Structure and Size ............................................................................................................ 19
4.2 Influence of Other Species and Conspecifics ........................................................................... 20
4.3 Introductions and Reintroductions .............................................................................................. 21
Chapter 5. Nutrition ............................................................................................................................... 23
5.1 Nutritional Requirements.............................................................................................................. 23
5.2 Diets ................................................................................................................................................ 26
5.3 Nutritional Evaluations .................................................................................................................. 31
Chapter 6. Veterinary Care .................................................................................................................. 33
6.1 Veterinary Services ....................................................................................................................... 33
6.2 Identification Methods ................................................................................................................... 35
6.3 Transfer Examination and Diagnostic Testing Recommendations........................................ 35
6.4 Quarantine ...................................................................................................................................... 35
6.5 Preventive Medicine...................................................................................................................... 37
6.6 Capture, Restraint, and Immobilization ...................................................................................... 41
6.7 Management of Diseases, Disorders, Injuries and/or Isolation.............................................. 42
Chapter 7. Reproduction ...................................................................................................................... 47
7.1 Reproductive Physiology and Behavior ..................................................................................... 47
7.2 Assisted Reproductive Technology ............................................................................................ 49
7.3 Pregnancy and Parturition ........................................................................................................... 49
7.4 Birthing Facilities ........................................................................................................................... 51
7.5 Assisted Rearing ........................................................................................................................... 51
7.6 Contraception................................................................................................................................. 55
Chapter 8. Behavior Management ..................................................................................................... 57
8.1 Animal Training .............................................................................................................................. 57
8.2 Environmental Enrichment ........................................................................................................... 58
8.3 Staff and Animal Interactions ...................................................................................................... 61
8.4 Staff Skills and Training................................................................................................................ 62
Chapter 9. Program Animals ............................................................................................................... 64
9.1 Program Animal Policy ................................................................................................................. 64

9.2 Institutional Program Animal Plans............................................................................................. 64

9.3 Program Evaluation ...................................................................................................................... 67
Chapter 10. Research............................................................................................................................ 68
10.1 Known Methodologies ................................................................................................................ 68
10.2 Future Research Needs ............................................................................................................. 69
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... 71
References ............................................................................................................................................... 72
Appendix A: Accreditation Standards by Chapter ........................................................................ 78
Appendix B: Acquisition/Disposition Policy................................................................................... 81
Appendix C: Recommended Quarantine Procedures .................................................................. 85
Appendix D: Program Animal Policy and Position Statement ................................................... 87
Appendix F: Description of Nutrients (U.S. National Library of Medicine) ............................. 96
Appendix G: Small Carnivore Medical Management Guidelines............................................... 99
Appendix H: Commonly Trained Behaviors for Procyonids (AAZK, Inc.) ............................ 105
Appendix I: Resources for Enrichment and Training ................................................................. 106
Appendix J: Sample Procyonid Enrichment Items and Techniques ...................................... 109
Appendix K: Reproduction in the Kinkajou (Potos flavus) ....................................................... 111
Appendix L: Significant Contributors to Procyonid Care Manual .......................................... 113
Appendix M: AZA Small Carnivore TAG Necropsy Protocol and Forms .............................. 114

Introduction
Preamble
Association of Zoos & Aquariums (AZA) accredited institutions are required to comply with all relevant
local, state, and federal wildlife laws and regulations in addition to all AZA accreditation standards.
AZA accreditation standards, relevant to the topics discussed in this manual, are highlighted in boxes
such as this throughout the document (Appendix A).
AZA accreditation standards are continuously being raised or added. Staff from AZA-accredited
institutions are required to know and comply with all AZA accreditation standards, including those most
recently listed on the AZA website (www.aza.org) which might not be included in this manual.
Taxonomic Classification
Table 1: Taxonomic classification for Procyonidae
Classification Taxonomy Additional information
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Mammalia
Order Carnivora
Suborder Caniformia
Family Procyonidae
Subfamily Potosinae Kinkajou & olingo
Procyoninae Raccoon, coati, cacomistle, ringtail
Genus, Species, and Status

Table 2: Genus, species, and status information for Procyonid species recommended for management by the AZA
SCTAG (AZA SCTAG RCP 2009).
Genus Species Common Name USA Status IUCN Status AZA Status
Potos flavus Kinkajou Not Listed Least Concern PMP
Bassariscus astutus Ringtail Not Listed Least Concern PMP
Nasua narica White-nosed Not Listed Least Concern PMP

coati
Procyon lotor Raccoon Not Listed Least Concern DERP
General Information
The information contained within this Animal Care Manual (ACM) provides a compilation of animal
care and management knowledge that has been gained from recognized species experts, including AZA
Taxon Advisory Groups (TAGs), Species Survival Plan® Programs (SSPs), biologists, veterinarians,
nutritionists, reproduction physiologists, behaviorists and researchers. They are based on the most
current science, practices, and technologies used in animal care and management and are valuable
resources that enhance animal welfare by providing information about the basic requirements needed
and best practices known for caring for ex situ procyonid populations. This ACM is considered a living
document that is updated as new information becomes available and at a minimum of every five years.
Information presented is intended solely for the education and training of zoo and aquarium personnel
at AZA-accredited institutions. Recommendations included in the ACM are not exclusive management
approaches, diets, medical treatments, or procedures, and may require adaptation to meet the specific
needs of individual animals and particular circumstances in each institution. Statements presented
throughout the body of the manuals do not represent specific AZA accreditation standards of care unless
specifically identified as such in clearly marked sidebar boxes. AZA-accredited institutions which care for
procyonids must comply with all relevant local, state, and federal wildlife laws and regulations; AZA
accreditation standards that are more stringent than these laws and regulations must be met (AZA
Accreditation Standard 1.1.1).

The ultimate goal of this ACM is to facilitate excellent

AZA Accreditation Standard
procyonids management and care, which will ensure superior
procyonids welfare at AZA-accredited institutions. Ultimately, (1.1.1) The institution must comply with all
relevant local, state, and federal wildlife
success in our procyonids management and care will allow AZA- laws and regulations. It is understood
accredited institutions to contribute to procyonids conservation, that, in some cases, AZA accreditation
and ensure that procyonids are in our future for generations to standards are more stringent than
come. existing laws and regulations. In these
cases the AZA standard must be met.
Taxa Specific Terminology: A young raccoon is called a “kit” or
“cub;” multiple young are sometimes referred to as “kittens.” Dictionary searches turn up no standard
listings for kinkajou or coati.
Regulatory Agencies: All state and federal regulations should be followed regarding the care and
transportation of these species. Institutional Registrars and curators should consult these fish and wildlife
agencies annually for any changes in pertinent regulations. Ringtails are considered a fur-bearer species;
therefore they fall under the jurisdiction of state fish and wildlife agencies if taken from the wild.
List of Species: Olingo species: Bassaricyon alleni, B beddardi, B. gabbii, B. lasius, B. pauli; Ringtail
(Bassariscus astutus), Cacomistle (B. sumichrasti); Brown-nosed or Ring tailed coati (Nasua nasua),
White-nosed coati (Nasua narica), Island coati (Nasua nelsoni), Mountain coati (Nasuella olivacea);
Kinkajou (Potos flavus); Raccoon species: Crab-eating raccoon (Procyon cancrivorus), Common raccoon
(P. lotor), Cozumel/Pygmy raccoon (P. pygmaeus).
Taxonomy: Six procyonid genera (IUCN 1995) are currently recognized (see below); the number
depends on where the Ailuridae are placed. The genera are: Bassaricyon (five species); Bassariscus (two
species; Jentinkia is now included with Bassariscus); Nasua (three species); Nasuella (one species),
Potos (one species) and Procyon (three species); the Ailuridae are no longer considered to be a
subfamily of Procyonidae and are dealt with in a separate document. All procyonids have a nearctic or
neotropical distribution (Roberts 1997).
Morphology, Ecology, and Natural History: The morphological characteristics uniting procyonids relate
primarily to adaptations for the location (sensory, anatomy, and physiology), capture (limb morphology)
and processing (dentary and masticatory anatomy) of food. The most significant common adaptations,
reduction in size and carnassialization of premolars and modifications of the molars for crushing and
chewing, are the consequence of a primarily frugivorous/omnivorous diet (Roberts 1997).
Procyonids are diverse in their ecology and behavior and are found in such diverse New World
habitats as North American temperate boreal forests (raccoon), neotropical rain forests (coati, kinkajou,
olingo, and raccoon) and semi-arid North and South American scrub forest habitats montane forests
(coati, kinkajou, olingo), and montane grasslands (coati) (Rodriguez-Bolanos et al. 2000). Locomotory
adaptations are similarly varied. Some species are essentially terrestrial (coati and raccoon), others
arboreal (kinkajou and olingo) and still others scansorial (ringtail and cacomistle). Coatis and raccoons
also spend a great deal of time in trees. Social organizations run the gamut ranging from gregarious
(coati females) to sometimes semi-gregarious (ringtail, cacomistle, and kinkajou) and solitary (raccoon,
ringtail, cacomistle, and kinkajou - the latter three are considered to be primarily solitary). Some species
exhibit mixed social systems (coati) and there appears to be considerable intra-specific social plasticity as
well (Roberts 1997).
Clearly, procyonids are an ecologically, morphologically, and behaviorally complex group about which
few gross generalizations can be made. However, there is some commonality in their feeding ecology as
most are omnivorous. As might be expected, the range of foods eaten and the means by which they are
procured differ considerably among genera. Raccoons forage for invertebrates and small vertebrates
along small bodies of water. Ringtails, cacomistles, and kinkajous are largely arboreal. Ringtails and
cacomistles search for small vertebrates. Kinkajous search for fruit in the trees. Coatis forage for
invertebrates, small vertebrates, eggs, and fruit on the forest floor and in trees. Anatomical and behavioral
adaptations for finding and processing food can be quite specialized in some species. For example,
kinkajous possess extremely long, protrusable tongues, presumably for the obtaining of food items in
crevices, and a prehensile tail that permits terminal branch feeding. Raccoons have highly prehensile
forepaws that are used to search for, manipulate, and capture prey that cannot be easily seen underwater
(Roberts 1997). Coatis (Gompper 1995; Gompper & Decker 1998) and ringtails (Trapp 1972) can reverse

hind foot posture to descend from trees headfirst. The table (Table 3) below gives generalized information
on each species.
Table 3: Morphological and ecological information on procyonid species
Social
Head-Body System
Arboreal/ Carnivore/ Noct/Diurn/
Species Length (S-solitary,
Terrestrial Omnivore Crepuscular
(centimeters) P-pair, G-
group)
Olingo 35-48cm S, P A O N
Ringtail 30.5-42cm S, P A/T C/O N
C.A. cacomistle 30-47cm S, P A O N
White-nosed coati 41-67cm G* B O D
Brown-nosed coati 49-54cm G* B O D
Island coati 74.4-78.5cm G* B O D
Mountain coati 36-39cm G* A,B O D
Kinkajou 45-75cm S, P A O N
Crab-eating raccoon 54-65cm S, G(females) B, W O N
Raccoon S,
45-65cm B, W O N
G(females)
Social System codes indicate how they have been kept in zoos, where available, or what is known of their social system in the wild.
An * is used to indicate species in which the males are primarily solitary. Arboreal/Terrestrial indicates where they spend most of
their time. Species listed as both are those that are considered terrestrial but are known to climb well. A „W‟ has been given to
species that swim well, or appear to enjoy water features in their exhibits. Carnivore/Omnivore – species are listed as carnivorous if
they predominantly eat animal protein however, they may eat some vegetation as well. An Omnivorous listing was given to those
that are known to eat vegetative matter regularly. They are given a C/O if they lean more towards carnivorous habits but are known
to regularly eat fruit, etc. Nocturnal (N), Diurnal (D), or Crepuscular (C) codes indicate their typical, peak activity periods (Nowak
1999; Rodriguez-Bolanos et al. 2000; Reed-Smith et al. 2003).
The AZA Small Carnivore TAG has designated four species of Procyonidae to be managed under the
AZA Taxon Advisory Group (2009 SCTAG Regional Collection Plan). These are the ringtail (Bassariscus
astutus), white-nosed coati (Nasua narica), kinkajou (Potos flavus) and common raccoon (Procyon lotor).
The brown-nosed coati (Nasua nasua) and Central American cacomistle (B. sumichrasti) previously
managed are currently recommended for Phase Out. The following guidelines are designed specifically
with these species in mind; however some individuals of other Procyonidae species are housed in AZA
institutions and may be used as related-species examples.
Conservation Status: The following table (Table 4) provides information on the conservation status of
procyonid species, based on CITES and IUCN lists.

Table 4: Procyonid species conservation status

Species* Common name CITES listing IUCN status
1
Bassaricyon alleni Olingo species --- ---
1
B. beddardi Olingo species --- Lower risk/near threatened***
1
B gabbii Bushtailed olingo** --- Lower risk/near threatened***
1
B lasius Harris‟ olingo** --- Endangered***
1
B pauli Chiriqui olingo** --- ---
Potos flavus Kinkajou Appendix III* ---
Bassariscus astutus Ringtail** --- ---
B. sumichrasti C. A. Cacomistle** Appendix III* Lower risk/near threatened***
Nasua narica White-nosed coati Appendix III* ---
N. nasua Brown-nosed coati Appendix III* ---
N. nelsoni Cozumel coati*** --- Endangered***
Nasuella olivacea Mountain coati** --- Data deficient***
Procyon cancrivorus Crab-eating raccoon** --- ---
P. lotor N. A. raccoon --- Least Concern
P. pygmaeus Cozumel raccoon --- Critically Endangered***
1
Many authors recognize these as one species, Bassaricyon gabbii
* Wilson & Reeder 1992.
** Corbet & Hill 1991.
*** IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2009 (www.redlist.org)

Chapter 1. Ambient Environment

1.1 Temperature and Humidity
Animal collections within AZA-accredited institutions must be
protected from weather detrimental to their health (AZA AZA Accreditation Standard
Accreditation Standard 1.5.7). Procyonids not normally exposed (1.5.7) The animal collection must be
to cold weather/water temperatures should be provided heated protected from weather detrimental to
enclosures/pool water. Likewise, protection from excessive cold their health.
weather/water temperatures should be provided to those
procyonids normally living in warmer climates/water AZA Accreditation Standard
temperatures.
(10.2.1) Critical life-support systems for
AZA institutions with exhibits which rely on climate control the animal collection, including but not
must have critical life-support systems for the animal collection limited to plumbing, heating, cooling,
and emergency backup systems available, while all mechanical aeration, and filtration, must be equipped
equipment should be included in a documented preventative with a warning mechanism, and
emergency backup systems must be
maintenance program. Special equipment should be maintained available. All mechanical equipment
under a maintenance agreement or records should indicate that should be under a preventative
staff members are trained to conduct specified maintenance (AZA maintenance program as evidenced
Accreditation Standard 10.2.1). through a record-keeping system. Special
equipment should be maintained under a
Temperature: Some species (e.g., Bassariscus, Nasua and maintenance agreement, or a training
Procyon) are indeed relatively hardy and can be housed out of record should show that staff members
are trained for specified maintenance of
doors in moderate temperate climates if provided appropriate special equipment.
nest boxes and localized heat in the winter. Coatis should not be
allowed to sleep outdoors when temperatures fall below 4.4°C (40°F); and all hammocks, nest boxes, etc.
should be removed or placed under heat lamps. Coatis are susceptible to frostbite of their tails, which can
easily suffer damage or break off (K.Schilling, personal experience).
Brooder or heat lamps as heat sources for nest boxes have been very successful, keeping
temperatures within the box at over 10°C (50°F) in sub-zero temperatures (K.Schilling, personal
experience; D. Bressler, personal communication).
The tropical and subtropical forms, Potos and Bassaricyon should be housed indoors if the
temperature is expected to fall below 15.5 °C (60 °F) for a protracted period. These genera are
physiologically adapted to stable environments found in the subtropics and tropics and can easily become
hypothermic at low temperatures. Acute vasoconstriction of the extremities at low temperatures may also
induce peripheral tissue necrosis (e.g., cacomistle) (Roberts 1997).
Temperatures below 0 ºC (32 ºF) and above ~38 ºC (100 ºF) should be avoided for ringtails and
cacomistles. If these species are exposed to these temperatures they should have access to heated
denning boxes and cooled shelters respectively (Partridge 1992). Temperatures below 4.4 °C (40 °F)
should be avoided for the coati. If housed outdoors where they will be exposed to temperatures of 4.4 °C
(40 °F) or lower, they should be provided with heated next boxes (K. Schilling, personal experience; D.
Bressler, personal communication).
Humidity: Temperate species should be maintained at a neutral humidity when housed indoors;
procyonids housed outside should be given plenty of shade to allow them some choice of ambient
temperature, even though there is no control over humidity. There are no objective data relating to
recommended humidity levels for procyonids, but a general recommendation is for relative humidity to be
between 30-70%; this may be higher for the tropical forest species (Moore 1997). Animals showing signs
of thermal stress should be given access to temperature/humidity controlled holding areas.
1.2 Light
Careful consideration should be given to the spectral, intensity, and duration of light needs for all
procyonids in the care of AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums.
Because all procyonids, except the coati, are strictly nocturnal or crepuscular, it may be difficult to
exhibit them suitably to the public under natural lighting conditions. Many species or individuals react to
public noise or movement by hiding or freezing. Exhibiting such animals behind sound dampening glass,
under reversed blue or red lighting can alleviate these problems and encourage activity during public
hours (Roberts 1997).

It is preferable that all species be kept in situations that account for the typical seasonal light changes
that would be found in their native range (Roberts 1997). According to Poglayen-Neuwall (1995), it is
important that artificial light is added year round to indoor exhibits, particularly for the ringtail in which light
is a key factor in stimulating breeding.
Increasing winter photoperiod plays an important role in initiating reproduction for seasonally breeding
procyonids (raccoon, ringtail, and cacomistle) (Poglayen-Neuwall 1995; Roberts 1997).
1.3 Water and Air Quality
AZA-accredited institutions must have a regular program of
monitoring water quality for collections of aquatic animals and a
written record must document long-term water quality results and (1.5.9) The institution must have a regular
chemical additions (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.5.9). program of monitoring water quality for
collections of fish, pinnipeds, cetaceans,
Monitoring selected water quality parameters provides and other aquatic animals. A written
confirmation of the correct operation of filtration and disinfection record must be maintained to document
of the water supply available for the collection. Additionally, high long-term water quality results and
quality water enhances animal health programs instituted for chemical additions.
aquatic collections.
Air Quality: The number of air changes per hour needed to maintain desired temperature ranges indoors
will vary according to the volume of the enclosure. Standardized rates of change for various human-
occupied enclosures suggest that pet shops require a rate of air exchange, on non-recirculated air equal
to 1 cubic foot of air per minute per square foot of floor space in order to keep odors down to a level
acceptable by the public. Depending on size, cubbing dens may well need higher rates of air exchange in
order to maintain air quality (Anon 1981).
Water Quality: No standards have been set for non- or semi-aquatic species. Chemical residues,
bacterial counts, mineral levels, and salts should be kept as low as possible. Fecal material and food
remnants should be removed daily. The pH tolerance for procyonids is not known, but is not likely to be
vitally important for these species. Turbidity, except for isolated areas, should be kept to a minimum to
encourage use of water features.
1.4 Sound and Vibration
Consideration should be given to controlling sounds and vibrations that can be heard by procyonids in
the care of AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums. Many procyonids anecdotally show sensitivity to loud
noises, particularly during parturition and early kit rearing. Every effort should be made to reduce loud or
unusual noises and minimize continuous vibrations during these sensitive periods. Little is known about
sound or vibration sensitivity in these species and should be investigated in the future.

Chapter 2. Habitat Design and Containment

2.1 Space and Complexity
Careful consideration should be given to exhibit design so
that all areas meet the physical, social, behavioral and AZA Accreditation Standard
psychological needs of the species. Procyonids should be (1.5.2) Animals should be displayed,
displayed, whenever possible, in exhibits replicating their wild whenever possible, in exhibits replicating
habitat and in numbers sufficient to meet their social and their wild habitat and in numbers sufficient
to meet their social and behavioral needs.
behavioral needs (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.5.2). Display of single specimens should be
The same careful consideration regarding exhibit size and avoided unless biologically correct for the
complexity and its relationship to the animal‟s overall well-being species involved.
must be given to the design and size all enclosures, including
those used in exhibits, holding areas, hospital, and AZA Accreditation Standard
quarantine/isolation (AZA Accreditation Standard 10.3.3).
(10.3.3) All animal enclosures (exhibits,
Enclosure Space and Complexity: Previously published holding areas, hospital, and
minimum space requirements for procyonids appear to be quarantine/isolation) must be of a size
and complexity sufficient to provide for
based on crude body size formulations without taking into the animal‟s physical, social, and
account their modes of locomotion and high activity levels (see psychological well-being; and exhibit
Table 5 for current AZA SCTAG exhibit size considerations enclosures must include provisions for the
contributing to recommendations). Most species travel behavioral enrichment of the animals.
extensively in search of food and if locomotion is overly
constrained they may revert to stereotypy. Animals with insufficient space to exercise adequately may
become obese and are much more likely to seek for, and find a way to escape from their enclosures. As
alluded to above, enclosure complexity is as important as enclosure size in meeting locomotory
requirements of most species. Enclosures should be large enough to provide appropriate locomotory
substrates. (See Table 5)
Table 5: AZA SCTAG exhibit size recommendations for 1-2 animals.
Formula used or basis for Exhibit area (floor space) (for
Species Ave. HBL
recommendation 2 animals)*
2 2
Roberts 1997 8 m /86 ft
40.6 cm 2 2
Ringtail Formula IIIb 7.4 m /80 ft
(16 in) 2 2
Formula IVb 16.4 m /177 ft
2 2
Roberts 1997 8 m /86 ft
45.7 cm 2 2
Cacomistle Formula IIIb 8.4 m /90 ft
(18 in) 2 2
Formula IVb 21 m /225 ft
2 2
Standley 1992 (group exhibit) 70 m /753.5ft
2 2
66 cm Roberts 1997 16 m /172 ft
White-nosed coati 2 2
(26 in) Formula IIb 12.1 m /130 ft
2 2
Formula IIIb 43.6 m /469 ft
* Provide an extra 25% for each additional animal
The formulas used to determine appropriate enclosure sizes are based on three factors: 1) species
average head and body length; 2) typical home range size, daily travel distances, and activity level; and
3) professional experience with these species to date. The recommendations were then sent out for
review by the AZA SCTAG Institutional Representatives and responses were incorporated. The exhibit
size formulas below are based on HBL (head and body length) and are given in inches:
 Formula I – (HBL/12 x X) (with a large home range/daily travel distance). Seven to eight feet
2
vertical space should be allowed for more arboreal species. For highly terrestrial social species,
go up one size group.
2 2
o Small animals: 10-15 inches – (HBL/12 x 6) = # feet
2 2
o Medium animals: 15-30 inches – (HBL/12 x 10) = # feet
2 2
o Large animals: over 30 inches – (HBL/12 x 12) = # feet

 Formula II – (HBL/12 x X) x given dimension for depth (with a small home range/daily travel
distance). Seven to eight feet vertical space should be allowed for more arboreal species. For
highly terrestrial social species go up one size group.
2
o Small animals: 10-15 inches – (HBL x 6)/12 x 3 feet = # feet
2
o Medium animals: 15-30 inches – (HBL x 10)/12 x 6 feet = # feet
2
o Large animals: over 30 inches – (HBL x 12)/12 x 10 feet = # feet
 Formula III – A minimum of 8-10 feet vertical useable space and Formula II floor space.
 Formula IV – A minimum of 8-10 feet vertical useable space and Formula I floor space.
2 2
Previous authors have suggested a minimum of 8 m (86 ft ) floor area and 2.5 m (8.2 ft) enclosure
height for 1-2 kinkajou, olingo, ringtail, or cacomistle; this space should be provided with climbing
apparatuses and nest boxes (see below for species specific information and current recommendations).
Cacomistle and ringtail: Ringtail and cacomistle engage in ricocheting, chimney stemming, and power
leaping locomotion (Trapp 1972). As these colorful descriptions imply, such species may require special
containment measures. Therefore, the AZA SCTAG suggests that these species be housed in completely
contained exhibits (i.e., roofed) with 3.05-3.66 m (10-12 ft) of useable vertical space. The current AZA
2 2 2
SCTAG recommendations call for a minimum exhibit size of 16.4 m (177 ft ) for two ringtails and 21 m
2
(225 ft ) for two cacomistles (AZA Small Carnivore TAG unpublished recommendation 2005). Water
moats can be used for ringtail and cacomistle (Roberts 1997). Studying ringtail in Texas, Ackerson and
2
Harveson (2006) determined a mean summer home range size of 0.28 +/- 0.163 km and mean winter
2
home range size of 0.63 +/- 0.219 km ; 80.6% of dens found were located on slopes between 30-60°.
Coati and raccoon: Roberts (1997) states that the larger size and greater terrestriality of the raccoons and
2 2
coatis dictate a floor area of at least 16 m (172 ft ) for one to two animals. Due to their tendency to spend
a fair amount of time in the trees, the AZA SCTAG recommends an enclosure height of at least 3.66 m
(12 ft) of useable space (AZA Small Carnivore TAG recommendation 2005). Standley (1992) suggested
2 2
larger group enclosures offering an example of a 70 m (753.5 ft ) moated exhibit. The AZA SCTAG is
2 2
recommending a minimum exhibit floor space of at least 43.6 m (469 ft ) for two animals with an increase
of 25% for each additional animal (AZA Small Carnivore TAG recommendation 2005). Outdoor, moated
enclosures are ideal for raccoons and coatis as long as the perimeters are secured to prevent escape
through climbing, jumping, or digging. Any enclosures with scalable walls (e.g., wire mesh or roughly
textured surfaces) should be completely contained to prevent escape (Roberts 1997). Exhibits should
have escape-proof substrates, hard surfaces, or a subsoil barrier of some kind (Standley 1992). Water
moats can be used for coatis (Roberts 1997).
Hass (2002) quantified home-range size and overlap among white-nosed coati matriarchal troops and
2
solitary males during a 4 year study in southeastern Arizona. “Home ranges of coatis averaged 13.57 km
2
± 1.72 SE for troops (n=9) and 6.11 ± 1.42 km for solitary males (n=7; kernel-density estimator).” She
also documented an overlap of male home-ranges of ~61%, home-ranges of troops overlapped ~ 80%,
and home ranges of males overlapped those of troops ~67% (Hass 2002 abstract).
2 2
Kinkajou: Roberts (1997) recommended 16 m (172 ft ) exhibit space for one to two animals. The AZA
SCTAG agrees with this recommendation. This species should be provided with at least 3.05-3.66 m (10-
12 ft) of useable, complex vertical space.
Enclosure Design: For management purposes, all procyonids should be considered partly arboreal and
be provided with ample climbing apparatuses as well as arboreal and terrestrial nesting/sleeping areas.
Enclosure furnishings should enable animals to execute a full range of normal locomotor functions and
provide visual isolation from the public and conspecifics. Logs and shrubs on enclosure floors, branches
and hollows of various diameters set at different heights and angles in the upper reaches of the enclosure
are ideal for most species. Rope hawsers suspended throughout the enclosure and sandboxes and
mulch piles for digging are enriching additions to enclosures (Roberts 1997). The placement of ropes
should be done with care to ensure there are no loops that an animal can become caught in, or entangle
itself in (coatis have been known to become entangled in loops of ropes) (D. Bressler, personal
communication).
The intimate association between locomotory and feeding behaviors in procyonids should be kept in
mind when designing enclosure furniture. For example, kinkajous with their prehensile tails and highly
flexible axial and appendicular skeletons are well suited for arboreal food acquisition (e.g., terminal

branch feeding) - their movements more closely resemble those of cebids than other carnivores.
Enclosure furniture and feeding stations should be designed and located accordingly.
Coatis and raccoons find most of their food on the ground, and their limb morphologies and
locomotory behaviors reflect this. Coatis are excellent diggers and probers and are viewed by many zoo
and aquarium caregivers as having fine digital control equal to that of raccoons (K.Schilling, personal
experience; D.Bressler, personal communication). Shilling (personal communication) reports coati are
capable of turning round door knobs to open doors. Associated anatomical adaptations may also limit
arboreal locomotion and preclude terminal branch feeding as seen in kinkajous. Raccoons have semi-
digitigrade forelimbs, the locomotory postures, and fine digit control, but lack the convergent grip of
kinkajous precluding locomotion on narrow supports (such as those traversed by kinkajous). Enclosure
design should reflect these specific differences in each species‟ locomotory, social, and feeding biology
(Roberts 1997).
As with all species, exhibit “furniture” should be changed periodically (at least twice a year), but not all
at the same time. These changes can include repositioning features (e.g., moving deadfall) or bringing in
new items. If nesting/sleeping/hiding areas are altered, at least one should be left the same, and scents
should not be removed from those that are moved (Reed-Smith et al. 2003).
Animals housed indoors should be protected as much as possible from disturbance by the visiting
public. Noise from environmental systems should be kept at a low level and parturient females should be
housed away from loud noises and high traffic areas. Animals should always be provided with an area in
their exhibit where they can retreat and feel safe when disturbed by loud noise, bright lights, or any other
sudden disturbance.
Water features: Some of the procyonid species may benefit from a small pool or stream located in their
exhibits. Misters and waterfalls also provide opportunities for the animals to cool off and explore other
dimensions of their surroundings. All water features should be constructed in such a way to allow for easy
cleaning. Space dedicated to pools/streams, etc. should be deducted from the usable floor-space
calculations (Carnio 1996). Water features should have a variety of shallow depths, particularly for
raccoon and coati that may benefit from an ability to explore shallows for enrichment items.
 Ringtail: In the wild, ringtails are seldom found more than 0.8 km (0.5 mi) from water, preferring
habitats that include dense riparian growth, chaparral, and rocky hillsides (Trapp 1972).
Substrates and bedding: Natural substrates are recommended for all of the procyonid species (AZA Small
Carnivore TAG recommendation 2005). Recommended surfaces include: dry sphagnum moss, hay, soil,
sod, pine needles, leaves, pebbles, sand, wood shavings, wood wool, straw, small sticks, river rock,
pebbles, or something similar. Bedding materials of all types can be used as long as caution is exercised
that the animals do not 1) eat it, 2) chew it up, and 3) show an allergic reaction to it. Some wood shavings
(e.g., conifers, some pine or fir) contain residues that can strip the water proofing/oils from their coats,
and/or may cause sneezing. Cedar contains aromatic phenols, which are irritating to the skin and
respiratory system. Several studies indicated that close, chronic contact with cedar shavings contributed
to infant mortality (Burkhart & Robinson 1978), respiratory disease (Ayars et al. 1989), and liver damage
(Vesell 1967) in rodents. Caution also should be exercised if using bedding such as towels because some
individuals will eat the fabric (D. Bressler, personal communication; K. Schilling, personal experience).
Species-appropriate Behaviors: Forest species such as the kinkajou and olingo should be provided
with good vertical and ground cover to mimic their natural forest habitat. More terrestrial species such as
the coatis and raccoons should be provided with some vertical space, ground cover, and open areas
(Roberts 1997). Arboreal species should be provided with extensive branching to allow for movement
from one part of the exhibit to another without having to descend to the ground. These arboreal pathways
should be of varying sizes and stability. Branches, vines, etc. should all be secured against falling, but not
all should be fixed in place. Instead, some should be allowed to sway with the animal‟s weight (Roberts
1997).
All of the procyonid species will benefit from complex, well-furnished exhibits. Exhibits should include
natural substrates such as soil, sand, river rock, and leaf litter. These can be placed on artificial surfaces
making it easier to change them when they become soiled. Placement on artificial surfaces also will
provide added security against escape due to the tendency of some of these species (e.g., coatis) to dig.
Exhibits also should be provided with non-toxic (pre-approved by the veterinarian and horticultural staff)
vegetation (trees, bushes, and grass), hollow logs, climbing ropes (caution should be used with ropes as

animals can become entangled in them), deadfall, rock piles, streams, pools, etc. All of the procyonids,
particularly the coatis (Standley 1992), may benefit from decomposing logs that provide an opportunity for
them to engage in natural foraging behaviors.
Nest boxes, feeding stations, waterers, and covered
sleeping/hiding spots should be located in the trees
(e.g., kinkajou, olingo; see photo at right by A. Moresco)
or on the ground and elevated (e.g., raccoon) as
appropriate for their species-typical behavioral pattern
(i.e., arboreal or terrestrial) (M. Dulaney, personal
communication). Nest box choices for raccoons and
coatis should be placed terrestrially and arboreally. At
least one sheltered resting area per animal should be
provided with at least one location large enough to allow
all animals to sleep together if they choose.
Coati: Coatis should be provided with complex climbing
structures offering secured, swaying limbs and trunks
large enough (able to hold their weight) for them to
exhibit their ability to climb down headfirst. They also
should be offered heated nest boxes or kept inside at temperatures of 4.4°C (40°F) or below because
their tails suffer quickly from frostbite. A coati group should be provided multiple nest boxes or sleeping
areas.
Ringtail: At least two nest boxes should be provided for singletons or pairs, more for a family group.
Ringtails are known to use one box as a latrine and the other as a den. If they are not provided with
enough boxes to accommodate this behavior they frequently use their den box for urination and
defecation causing unhealthy conditions (D. Bressler, personal communication).
Enclosure Cleaning: Because many of the procyonid species are known to mark their environments with
urine or other scents (e.g., ringtail, cacomistle, coati, and kinkajou) (IUCN 1995), furnishings in an exhibit
should not all be cleaned at the same time. Instead, they should be cleaned as needed on a rotating
basis. Fecal material and leftover food should be removed daily with the associated substrate cleaned or
removed (Partridge 1992).
Ringtail: In the wild, ringtails mark their territory by urinating on rocks and branches (Grizmek 1972;
Poglayen-Neuwall 1973). Latrine areas with accumulations of feces also have been found (Mead & Van
Devender 1981; Thompson 2003).
2.2 Safety and Containment AZA Accreditation Standard
Procyonids housed in free-ranging environments should be (11.3.3) Special attention must be given
carefully selected, monitored and treated humanely so that the to free-ranging animals so that no undue
safety of these animals and persons viewing them is ensured threat is posed to the animal collection,
free-ranging animals, or the visiting
(AZA Accreditation Standard 11.3.3). public. Animals maintained where they
Procyonid exhibits and holding areas in all AZA-accredited will be in contact with the visiting public
institutions must be secured to prevent unintentional animal must be carefully selected, monitored,
egress (AZA Accreditation Standard 11.3.1). Exhibit design and treated humanely at all times.
should be considered carefully to ensure that all areas are secure
and particular attention should be given to shift doors, gates, AZA Accreditation Standard
keeper access doors, locking mechanisms and exhibit barrier (11.3.1) All animal exhibits and holding
dimensions and construction. areas must be secured to prevent
Exhibits in which the visiting public may have contact with unintentional animal egress.
procyonids must have a guardrail/barrier that separates the two AZA Accreditation Standard
(AZA Accreditation Standard 11.3.6).
All emergency safety procedures must be clearly written, (11.3.6) Guardrails/barriers must be
constructed in all areas where the visiting
provided to appropriate staff and volunteers, and readily available public could have contact with other than
for reference in the event of an actual emergency (AZA handleable animals.

Staff training for emergencies must be undertaken and

records of such training maintained. Security personnel must be AZA Accreditation Standard
trained to handle all emergencies in full accordance with the (11.2.3) All emergency procedures must
policies and procedures of the institution and in some cases, may be written and provided to staff and,
be in charge of the respective emergency (AZA Accreditation where appropriate, to volunteers.
Appropriate emergency procedures must
Standard 11.6.2). be readily available for reference in the
Emergency drills should be conducted at least once annually event of an actual emergency. These
for each basic type of emergency to ensure all staff is aware of procedures should deal with four basic
emergency procedures and to identify potential problematic areas types of emergencies: fire,
weather/environment; injury to staff or a
that may require adjustment. These drills should be recorded and visitor; animal escape.
evaluated to ensure that procedures are being followed, that staff
training is effective and that what is learned is used to correct AZA Accreditation Standard
and/or improve the emergency procedures. Records of these (11.6.2) Security personnel, whether staff
drills should be maintained and improvements in the procedures of the institution, or a provided and/or
duly noted whenever such are identified. AZA-accredited contracted service, must be trained to
handle all emergencies in full accordance
institutions must have a communication system that can be with the policies and procedures of the
quickly accessed in case of an emergency (AZA Accreditation institution. In some cases, it is recognized
Standard 11.2.4). that Security personnel may be in charge
AZA-accredited institutions must also ensure that written of the respective emergency (i.e.,
shooting teams).
protocols define how and when local police or other emergency
agencies are contacted and specify response times to AZA Accreditation Standard
emergencies (AZA Accreditation Standard 11.2.5).
(11.2.4) The institution must have a
AZA-accredited institutions which care for potentially communication system that can be
dangerous procyonids must have appropriate safety procedures quickly accessed in case of an
in place to prevent attacks and injuries by these animals (11.5.3). emergency.
Animal attack emergency response procedures must be
defined and personnel must be trained for these protocols (AZA
Accreditation Standard 11.5.3). (11.2.5) A written protocol should be
Animal attack emergency drills should be conducted at least developed involving local police or other
emergency agencies and include
once annually to ensure that the institution‟s staff know their response times to emergencies.
duties and responsibilities and know how to handle emergencies
properly when they occur. All drills need to be recorded and AZA Accreditation Standard
evaluated to ensure that procedures are being followed, that staff (11.5.3) Institutions maintaining
training is effective, and that what is learned is used to correct potentially dangerous animals (sharks,
and/or improve the emergency procedures. Records of these whales, tigers, bears, etc.) must have
drills must be maintained and improvements in the procedures appropriate safety procedures in place to
prevent attacks and injuries by these
duly noted whenever such are identified (AZA Accreditation animals. Appropriate response
Standard 11.5.3). procedures must also be in place to deal
If an animal attack occurs and injuries result from the with an attack resulting in an injury. These
incident, a written account outlining the cause of the incident, procedures must be practiced routinely
per the emergency drill requirements
how the injury was handled, and a description of any resulting contained in these standards. Whenever
changes to either the safety procedures or the physical facility injuries result from these incidents, a
must be prepared and maintained for five years from the date of written account outlining the cause of the
the incident (AZA Accreditation Standard 11.5.3). incident, how the injury was handled, and
a description of any resulting changes to
AZA SCTAG Recommendations: Many procyonid species are either the safety procedures or the
expert escape artists and care should be taken to prevent them physical facility must be prepared and
maintained for five years from the date of
from digging, jumping, climbing, or swimming out of enclosures. It the incident.
is recommended that open air exhibits be completely enclosed
(ringtail, cacomistle, kinkajou) or have containment perimeters
with inward facing overhangs at the top, unless they are smooth and are of a height that precludes an
animal jumping over (AZA Small Carnivore TAG recommendation 2005). If an overhang is used, it should
be made from a non-climbable material and protected with hot-wire as most procyonids (e.g. raccoons
and coatis) are capable of climbing even inward-sloping overhangs if they can get their claws or feet in to
it (as with chain link).

Coati: The AZA SCTAG recommends containment walls for open-top exhibits are at least 2-2.44 m (6.6-8
ft) high with an inward facing overhang, of non-climbable material, at least 31-61 cm (1-2 ft) (AZA Small
Carnivore TAG recommendation 2005). While water moats (3 m/10 ft wide at one facility) are used
successfully, this species swims well and there should still be a low barrier with a 61 cm (2 ft) inward-
facing overhang around water moats.
In open exhibits, trees, bushes, and other exhibit furniture should be placed away from the perimeter
so they cannot be used as a means of escape. Coatis have been reported jumping across a distance of
(~1.22 m (4 ft) landing on a surface roughly 15.25 cm (6 in) higher than the surface they started from (K.
Kimble, personal experience). Outdoor exhibits should have security entrances with a secondary catch
area for animals that sneak through the door. Security doors should be provided with snap hooks or
padlocks because coatis and raccoons are capable of manipulating common gate latches and opening
them (K. Schilling, personal experience).
Animals housed indoors should be maintained in exhibits that have been checked to insure there are
no escape holes. Smaller coatis (adults and juveniles) are capable of squeezing through openings as
small as 7.6 cm (3 in) (K. Schilling, personal experience).
Raccoon: This species has been maintained in open-air exhibits contained by smooth concrete walls
1.12-1.8 m (3.8-5.6 ft) high, with an 46 cm (18 in) inward overhang topped with a 31 cm (12 in) electrified
fence on the top of the containment wall (A. Dosch, personal communication). Ideally this species should
be kept in enclosed exhibits to prevent escape and ingress by wild raccoons.
Ringtail: This species should be kept in completely contained exhibits as they have been reported
capable of ascending or descending steep or vertical surfaces. One animal was observed walking upside
down sloth-like on a 0.5 cm (0.2 in) cord strung between two supports, and another walking upside down
along a board in the ceiling of its exhibit (Trapp 1972). The ringtail is capable of rotating its hind foot 180°,
allowing them to climb downward like a tree squirrel (Trapp 1972).

Chapter 3. Transport
3.1 Preparations
Animal transportation must be conducted in a manner that
adheres to all laws, is safe, and minimizes risk to the animal(s), AZA Accreditation Standard
employees, and general public (AZA Accreditation Standard (1.5.11) Animal transportation must be
1.5.11). Safe animal transport requires the use of appropriate conducted in a manner that is safe, well-
planned and coordinated, and minimizes
conveyance and equipment that is in good working order.
risk to the animal(s), employees, and
The equipment should provide for the adequate containment, general public. All applicable local, state,
life support, comfort, temperature control, food/water, and safety and federal laws must be adhered to.
of the animal(s).
Safe transport also requires the assignment of an adequate number of appropriately trained
personnel (by institution or contractor) who are equipped and prepared to handle contingencies and/or
emergencies that may occur in the course of transport. Planning and coordination for animal transport
requires good communication among all affected parties, plans for a variety of emergencies and
contingencies that may arise, and timely execution of the transport. At no time should the animal(s) or
people be subjected to unnecessary risk or danger.
When transporting procyonids there should always be at least two people present; if animals have
been anesthetized the veterinarian should always be present. Staff involved in transports should
understand their duties and have a clear idea of the institution‟s policies regarding transports. The AZA
SCTAG has no specific recommendations regarding staff roles in transports, but does recommend
procedures and policies be clearly defined and understood in advance by all participating staff.
AZA SCTAG Recommendations: All possible relevant regulatory agencies should always be checked
for shipping, health, and permit requirements before transporting animals (USF&W, State, CITES, etc.).
The International Air Transport Association (IATA) publishes specific guidelines for transport containers
used for animal shipments. These guidelines are available from the Publication Assistant, IATA, 2000
Peel Street, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, H3A 2R4 (Ott Joslin & Collins 1999). An alternate address for
IATA is: International Air Transport Association, 800 Place Victoria, P.O. Box 113, Montreal, Quebec,
Canada, H4Z 1M1. The Live Animals Regulations document is available in print or CD ROM format and
can be ordered from [email protected].
Transport Container: In general, the following crate design guidelines are true for all species and
required by IATA (IATA 2009): 1) “Crates must be able to withstand external damage from other freight
and any internal damage caused by the animal.” 2) “Crate doors must not come open accidentally, but,
must be securely fastened.” 3) “All shipping crates must allow for adequate ventilation.” 4) “Ventilation
apertures must be small enough to prevent the escape of the animal and small enough that the animal
cannot get any part of its body through the opening.” 5) “Crates must be large enough to allow the animal
to stand up and turn around” (IATA 2009).
Coatis & Raccoons: Crates used for coatis and raccoons should be additionally secured where the top
meets the bottom (when using two-piece air-kennel type crates). This will prevent the animal from using
force to physically separate the crate (K.Schilling, personal communication; D.Bressler, personal
communication).
3.2 Protocols
Transport protocols should be well defined and clear to all animal care staff. All materials required for
a successful transport should be gathered in advance. The SCTAG recommends maintaining a transport
protocol book for every species.
Procyonids should always be shipped individually. Pregnant or lactating females should not be
shipped. The only exception to this would be the shipment of very young littermates that may fare better
when shipped in pairs or groups (D.Bressler, personal communication).
Food and Water: While generally not required, or advised, “…the crate must allow for feeding and
watering of the animal if needed” (IATA 2009). “The food and water ports should be clearly marked on the
outside of the crate. Food/water dishes must be securely attached for shipping (IATA 2009) or animals

may remove them.” On long flights, provisions should be made for feeding in transit (this may necessitate
shipping food with the animal).
In general, the Procyonid species should be fine for 24 hours without food and water. However, if long
layovers or temperatures over 21.1°C (70ºF) will be encountered, the need for provision of water should
be considered (Roberts 1997). Water-heavy fruits, such as apples (or oranges for coatis) (Valenzuela
1998), are good sources of hydration during transportation and should be placed in the crate for all
shipments of long duration (K.Schilling, personal experience).
Shipments requiring more than 24 hours should be accompanied with food and watering instructions.
In these cases it may be necessary to make arrangements with a zoological facility close to one of the
layover points.
Bedding and Substrate: The crate bottom should be leak-proof and bedded with some form of
absorbent material. Some air carriers prohibit certain bedding materials, therefore in the case of air
shipments the selected carrier should be consulted first for any specific restrictions.
Temperature, Light, and Sound: USFW and IATA regulations for shipments to the United States
indicate that temperatures in the holding area, cargo, or terminal should be at least 12.8 ºC (55 ºF) and no
higher than 26.7 ºC (80 ºF). Also, if ambient temperatures are higher than 23.9 ºC (75 ºF), ancillary
ventilation should be provided (Ott Joslin & Collins 1999).
For shipments within the United States, the AWA requires that ambient temperatures in the holding
area should not be less than 7.2 ºC (45 ºF) or more than 29.5 ºC (85 ºF) for more than four consecutive
hours. Animals being transported between holding areas to the aircraft should not be exposed to ambient
temperatures higher than 29.5 ºC (85 ºF) or colder than 7.2 ºC (45 ºF) for more than 45 minutes (Ott
Joslin & Collins 1999). These guidelines are suitable for the procyonid species, but whenever possible
shipments should be planned to avoid temperatures at either extreme, particularly at the high end for the
raccoon species and the low end for the more tropical olingo, kinkajou, or cacomistle.
Mesh doors or side windows (as in air kennels) should be covered with a breathable, opaque material
to allow for ventilation and privacy for the animal (Ott Joslin & Collins 1999), as well as preventing
unauthorized personnel from making physical contact with the crated animal.
All openings should be covered with 1.27 cm (0.5 in) wire mesh. This should then be covered with air-
permeable material that will help provide a sense of security for animals being shipped. All pieces of the
crate should then be secured with wire or cable ties to prevent escapes during transit. Polite requests to
the airline staff to place live animals in locations where loud noises are at a minimum during layovers and
away from any other live animal shipments in the cargo hold are advised.
Animal Monitoring: Most small carnivores will not require anesthesia for crating. In the event that
anesthesia is required, the animal should be fully recovered (standing and stable) prior to shipping.
Ideally, an inhalant or reversible anesthetic should be used in these cases.
Transport periods greater than 24 hours in length should be accompanied with food and water
instructions specific to the species. In these cases, it may be necessary to make arrangements with a
zoological facility close to the lay-over points prior to shipping for food and water provisions. A contact
number for the closest zoological facility should be provided, and after 24 hours (or less in some cases)
the animals should be checked on by trained professionals from this facility; if needed, water and food
should be provided. There is no definitive information available at this time as to whether there should be
a maximum duration of transport for procyonids.
Post-transport Release: Shipping crates should be placed directly into the quarantine space and the
animals allowed to exit on their own volition and at their own pace. It is recommended that all animals be
weighed at this time. The crate and animal can be weighed first and the crate weighed again after the
animal has exited.

Chapter 4. Social Environment

4.1 Group Structure and Size
Careful consideration should be given to ensure that procyonid group structures and sizes meet the
social, physical, and psychological well-being of those animals and facilitate species-appropriate
behaviors.
Group Structure: Procyonids exhibit a wide range of social organizations and even intra-specific social
plasticity.
Raccoon: The raccoon tends to be solitary in the wild with the primary social unit being a mother and
attendant young. During the mating season, males and females may assume temporary consortships, but
this does not persist and no male parental care is known.
In zoos and aquariums, raccoons are known to be socially tolerant, except during the breeding
season when levels of aggression can be elevated in non-neutered individuals. Generally, raccoons
prefer denning together when housed as non-breeding groups (K. Schilling, personal experience). The
past tendency to overpopulate raccoon enclosures should be strictly avoided. Overcrowded conditions
inevitably lead first to social tensions and ultimately to medical difficulties stemming either from direct
injury or social exclusion from food, nest sites, etc.
Coati: In the wild, the coati has a matriarchal social system in which up to 20 or more related females and
juvenile males live in loose bands, which periodically break up and reform (e.g., during birthing season
and when group size reaches some environmentally or socially mediated threshold). In the wild, adult
males are solitary and join female bands briefly during the breeding season. Males remain subordinate to
females during this association.
In zoos and aquariums, however, single adult males usually will be tolerated in female groups
although they are subordinate and therefore the most likely to be injured during intra-group social
disputes. Female coatis tend to isolate themselves from the group for parturition. Group enclosures
should be provided with refugia (e.g., defensible retreats or adjacent enclosure modules) to
accommodate subordinate males and reclusive mothers. Separate enclosures for males, which have
been ostracized from the group also are advisable.
Coatis do well in group settings of one male and several females. Coati exhibits should be large
enough to allow the male to remain separate from the females when he wishes (ideally a separate
holding space for him should be provided especially when females have young) and to provide enough
space for females so that they do not feel over-crowded. Each animal should be provided with its own
nest/sleeping box (Campbell 2001). At least one sleeping site should be large enough to accommodate
all the animals in the exhibit; others should allow room for bedding and an individual animal room to turn
around. Multiple-male and non-breeding (neutered) mixed-gender groups also do well (K. Schilling,
personal experience).
Multi-generational groups of female coatis can be maintained; multi-generational groups of males
also can be maintained but success is higher if the animals are neutered (K. Schilling, personal
communication; D. Bressler, personal communication). Non-breeding (neutered) mixed gender groups
also do well. In these mixed gender groups, even with neutered animals, hierarchies (intra and inter-sex)
will develop. Females will almost always be dominant within an enclosure. There are examples of
subordinate females joining and denning with the male band in the exhibit. Micro-territories may develop
within an enclosure, which are defended by the two bands (male and female) (K. Schilling, personal
experience).
A hierarchy within an ex situ group of males will always form with an alpha animal clearly showing
more dominance. While squabbling and wrestling may be witnessed, serious physical harm to members
of the group is rare (K. Schilling, personal experience).
Ringtail and cacomistle: The social systems of ringtails and cacomistles may be intermediate between
those of the raccoon and coati. The social affiliation of mated pairs may persist outside the mating
season, but it is not known whether this is an exclusive pair bond or temporary association of individuals
with overlapping home ranges.
In zoos and aquariums, female ringtails will not always accept a male. Some prefer a choice of males.
Whenever possible, allow females a choice of mates; this will increase the likelihood of successful

breeding. While males also can be choosey, they will usually accept the female paired with them
(Poglayen-Neuwall 1995). Although it is rare, male ringtails have been known to be overly aggressive
during introductions to females or during breeding season. A few of these cases have resulted in the
death of the female. The larger the enclosure, the less likely this is to occur. Keepers should monitor all
interactions and be aware of unusually aggressive behavior (K. Schilling, personal experience). However,
in general, adults may live together amicably in the same enclosure and even sleep peacefully together in
the same nest box regardless of sex or season. Males apparently provide no direct parental care to
infants.
Young from the previous litter can be kept with an adult pair until the onset of the next breeding cycle
at which time they should be removed to eliminate the possibility of fighting and other interferences with
reproduction.
Ringtails and cacomistles can be housed as heterosexual pairs or as one male/two female (1.2) trios
(Partridge 1992). In the case of pairs, they can be introduced at any time during the year. Trios should all
be introduced into the exhibit at the same time (Partridge 1992). Keepers should observe all interactions
between new pairs/trios and monitor closely an unusually aggressive behavior.
Kinkajou: The social organizations of olingos and kinkajous are less well known. In the wild, kinkajous
have been observed in aggregations around clumped resources, although solitary individuals are most
commonly seen. In zoos and aquariums, kinkajous are socially tolerant although clear dominance
hierarchies develop among individuals. Care should be taken to avoid overcrowding enclosures because
overt aggression is not readily apparent. Kinkajous do well as pairs or trios. Introducing a second female
to a pair can be done at any time with little to no tension between the individuals. Each animal should
have separate sleeping quarters available should they choose to sleep alone (K. Schilling, personal
communication; D. Bressler, personal communication).The following is a summary of a behavioral study
conducted by Kays and Gittleman (2001):
“The social organization of the kinkajou Potos flavus is described from 380 hours of observations
on habituated, free-ranging animals. Individuals were most often alone while feeding at night, yet
they regularly interacted in stable social groups. Four social groups were observed, each
consisting of a single adult female, two adult males, one sub-adult and one juvenile. At least one
breeding female was solitary and did not reside within a group. Social groups were consolidated
primarily at denning sites and large fruiting trees by group feeding, allogrooming and scent
marking. However, kinkajous were most often observed solitarily, as social feeding only occurred
in 19.6 of total feeding bouts (mainly among males) and individuals rarely travelled together.
Although the composition of social groups was polyandrous, males also copulated with non-group
females which suggests a promiscuous mating system. Female-biased dispersal and patterns of
male association seem to be patrilineal and based on resource defense.”
4.2 Influence of Other Species and Conspecifics
Mixed-species Enclosures: Before any mixed exhibits are
considered, the potential for inter-species aggression or
disease transmission should be evaluated. Species
appropriate sleeping platforms/nest boxes/rest areas, shade,
feeding stations, watering spots, and visual barriers should be
provided for each species within a mixed exhibit. These
comfort and sustenance areas should be available to all
individuals of every species housed in an exhibit.
Elevated areas such as dead/live trees, platforms, mock
barns/buildings, etc. should be provided for the more arboreal
species (raccoons, kinkajous). Ground surfaces of varied
heights, vegetation, rock piles, deadfall, etc. should be
provided as hiding places and visual barriers for the more
terrestrial species. Measures should be taken to prevent
Photo credit: S. Carter
woodchucks or other burrowing species from burrowing too deeply.
Coati: Neutered coatis have been successfully maintained in an enclosure with neutered raccoons, and
one old coati was housed with a pair of striped skunks (K. Schilling, personal experience). These animals

were introduced as adults. Institution A successfully housed an adult male coati with an adult male
capybara (S. Carter, personal communication).
At one AZA-accredited institution, coatis were exhibited with spectacled bear, while another institution
exhibited them with squirrel monkeys. In the latter combination, the squirrel monkeys were reported as
being prone to showing aggression towards coati young, even stealing and killing them at times.
Raccoon: Raccoons, striped skunks, and North American woodchucks have been housed together
successfully with very little aggressive interaction. It is important that appropriate shelter and denning
facilities be provided for each species, and that feeding/watering stations are established to minimize
aggression over food (G. Granat, unpublished information, 2003).
Raccoons also have been housed with coatis (see above) and silver, red, and arctic fox (K. Schilling,
personal experience). In the latter instances, there may be some aggression at feeding time, which
should be anticipated and prevented by offering multiple feeding locations. In the past, ex situ populations
of raccoons and fox have shown an inclination to share den boxes, especially in cold climates, even when
multiple denning locations were provided (K. Schilling, personal experience).
4.3 Introductions and Reintroductions
Managed care for and reproduction of procyonids housed in AZA-accredited institutions are dynamic
processes. Procyonids born in or moved between and within institutions require introduction and
sometimes reintroductions to other animals. It is important that all introductions are conducted in a
manner that is safe for all animals and humans involved.
Since the potential for harm, or even fatalities, are always a possibility during the introduction of new
animals, introductions should proceed slowly. The use of howdy doors, scent, visual and tactile
acclimation are all useful tools when introducing new animals. The use of training techniques in the
management of the procyonid species has not been explored as thoroughly as in some of the other
mammal and avian species. However, there is no reason to assume these techniques would not be
useful in some situations. Andrews (2001) stresses three components (1-3) for a successful introduction,
to which we add three more (4-6):
1. Adequate space.
2. Know your animals.
3. Staff preparedness.
4. Familiarize the animals with their new space and allow them ample time to mark it with their
scent.
5. Take the next step in the introduction process based on the animals‟ behavior not a preset
timetable.
6. If possible, introduce new animals in neutral environments.
Space: Ideally, the exhibit and holding space should be designed so that each animal can be individually
rotated through all areas without physical contact with a conspecific. Initial contact should be through a
small mesh fabric (wire), providing visual, olfactory, and auditory contact, but not physical contact. If the
approach of shared space is not possible, howdy cages or alternating between cages with only a small
see-through partition is recommended. If one animal is noticeably more timid than the other, we
recommend that this timid animal‟s cage be used for the physical introduction, thereby allowing it the
advantage of being in familiar territory.
Sometimes it is helpful during physical introductions to temporarily “confuse” the olfactory senses of
these species to minimize aggression. A drop or two of a non-toxic scent such as perfume or vanilla can
be placed, or sprayed, on all animals involved in the introduction; this may be successful in thwarting
aggression and replacing it with curiosity. Animals that are busy, or preoccupied, with the discovery of
interesting (non-threatening) scents have less time for aggression. Becoming familiar with each other
during this scent exploration is an inevitable by-product. However, this procedure does not guarantee
successful cohabitation. If anything, it may be used when other efforts have failed. (K. Schilling, personal
experience)
Knowing Your Animals: The decision to move from visual contact to physical contact should be made
carefully. Things to consider during the initial physical introduction include making sure that each animal
is fully aware of the other‟s presence. It is also recommended that no matter how compatible a pair may
seem in the first meetings, the animals should be separated at night until they have consistently exhibited

positive behavior in full-day encounters and appear totally at ease with each other and their surroundings
(AZA Small Carnivore TAG recommendation 2005). When introducing a new animal to a group it may be
advisable to perform introductions with the least dominant animal first.
Staff Preparedness: Andrews (2001) recommends that during an introduction, staff should prepare for
the worst-case scenario, planning strategies ahead of time. Planning should include knowing the
availability of the veterinarian, location of transport carriers, and exact plan of action with intervention or
distraction roles clearly defined (K. Schilling, personal experience).
Familiarize Animals With Their Space: New animals should be allowed to become familiar with the
exhibit and holding areas before introductions are attempted.
Take the Cues From the Animals: Know your animals and let them dictate when the next step should
take place. Some animals will take longer to acclimate to new surroundings and cohorts than others.
Coati: Coati can be difficult to introduce; some introductions proceed quickly and smoothly, others may
require staff patience and extended periods of olfactory and visual introductions only. Animals should be
“howdied” (placed in adjoining areas where they can see and smell but not touch each other) until they
begin to show signs of affiliative behaviors (e.g. sleeping next to one another, etc.). Some institutions
report difficulties with female-female introductions; in these cases moving slowly through the introduction
steps, insuring both animals were familiar with the environment, and that the introduction did not occur in
space considered home by the dominant (or older animal) facilitated the introduction. In cases of
apparently incompatible animals introductions may succeed if conducted slowly or they may not succeed;
however, all introductions should be observed closely and stopped if it appears the animals are becoming
too aggressive (growling, lunging, biting at or striking at the other animal).

Chapter 5. Nutrition
5.1 Nutritional Requirements
A formal nutrition program is recommended to meet the
behavioral and nutritional needs of all procyonids (AZA AZA Accreditation Standard
Accreditation Standard 2.6.2). Diets should be developed using (2.6.2) A formal nutrition program is
the recommendations of nutritionists, the Nutrition Advisory recommended to meet the behavioral and
Group‟s feeding guidelines nutritional needs of all species and
specimens within the collection.
(www.nagonline.net/feeding_guidelines.htm), and veterinarians,
as well as AZA Taxon Advisory Groups and Species Survival
Plan® Programs. Diet formulation criteria should address the animal‟s nutritional needs, feeding ecology,
as well as individual and natural histories to ensure that species-specific feeding patterns and behaviors
are stimulated.
As a group, procyonids exhibit diverse natural feeding strategies and foraging behaviors. Although
classified as carnivores, most procyonids are omnivorous, but the range of foods eaten and the means of
procurement differ considerably among genera. Raccoons forage for invertebrates, small vertebrates, and
fruits along bodies of water (Poglayen-Neuwall 1990; Nowak 1999). Ringtails and cacomistles feed
primarily on small vertebrates, insects, and fruit (Poglayen-Neuwall 1990; Nowak 1999). Kinkajous are
largely arboreal, mainly frugivorous, and have been observed to consume fruit pulp and seeds, flowers,
honey, young leaves and buds, and small invertebrates and vertebrates (Ford & Hoffman 1988;
Poglayen-Neuwall 1990; Denver 2003). Coatis forage for invertebrates, small vertebrates, and fruits on
the forest floor and in trees (Poglayen-Neuwall 1990; Nowak 1999).
Digestive System Morphology and Physiology: Morphological and
behavioral adaptations for foraging are diverse across procyonids. Kinkajous
have a long, protrusable tongue, presumably for obtaining food from crevices,
and prehensile tails which permit terminal branch feeding. Raccoons have
highly prehensile forepaws, which they use to search for, manipulate, and
capture prey that cannot be readily seen underwater. In general, the stomach
of procyonids is simple (note figure to left, raccoon gastrointestinal tract; Steven
and Hume 1995) and the distal segment of the stomach is marked only by a
sudden change in mucosa. The intestine of the raccoon is longer than that of
the dog or cat (2.7 times body length), and the hindgut is shorter, with neither a
cecum nor a distinct ileocolonic valve (Stevens and Hume 1995). No grossly
visible specialization for frugivory has been noted in kinkajous Steven and Hume 1995
(Wright and Edwards 2009).
Energy Requirements: Available information suggests that energy requirements are closely related to
body mass, food habits, climate, and activity level, but these factors are all interrelated and some exert
more influence than others. Work done by Muñoz-Garcia and Williams (2005) on the basal metabolic rate
(BMR) of 58 Carnivora species indicated, after controlling for body mass, a strong correlation between
home range size (used as a proxy for level of activity), diet, and BMR (Table 6). Based upon this work,
Muñoz-Garcia and Williams (2005) concluded that “…species that eat meat have larger home ranges and
higher BMR than species that eat vegetable matter.”
Procyonids have lower than predicted metabolic rates as compared to the Kleiber curve, suggesting
that relative energy requirements are lower than those of felids, canids, and mustelids of comparable size
(McNab 1989). This has been attributed in part to reduced muscle mass of some of the arboreally
adapted species in the group. Basal metabolic rates are not species constant and will be higher (as much
as twice) for growing individuals compared to adults (Robbins 1993). See Table 6 for the Basal Metabolic
Rate for selected procyonid species. Paradoxically, despite a depressed metabolic rate, some species
(e.g., kinkajou, ringtail, and cacomistle) have limited ability to dissipate heat and may become
hyperthermic at even moderately high ambient temperatures (>33 °C/91 °F). Observations of kinkajous
indicate that they need approximately 50 kcals/d less than an equivalently sized mammal along the
mouse-elephant (placental mammal) body curve because its BMR is 30-34% lower (Wright and Edwards
2009). Thus, a diet formulated for kinkajous based on a metabolic rate formula for other similarly sized
mammals can provide too much food and increase risk for obesity.

Table 6: Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) of selected procyonid species (from: Muñoz-Garcia & Williams 2005, citing
original sources)
2
BMR Diet (%) Home range (km )
Species Body Mass (g)
(kJ/d) (meat/invert/veg) (females only)
Nasua nasua 3,850 ± 212 486.02 ± 38 2/58/41 Not listed
Nasua narica 3,630 ± 548 573.25 ± 77 Not listed Not listed
Bassariscus astutus 860.7 185.5 Not listed 1.85
B. sumichrasti 1,287.3 ± 133 305.24 ± 25 Not listed Not listed
Potos flavus 2,688 447.71 0/21/78 0.2
Procyon lotor 4,847 742.23 0/73.5/26.5 1.22
P. cancrivorus 1,160 221.75 13.5/20.5/65.5 Not listed
Nutrient Requirements: Although we know many of the items consumed by procyonids, the nutrient
content of these items has not been completely characterized. Beyond this, diversity within the family‟s
feeding ecology precludes species or even genera-specific target nutrient levels. In the case of
procyonids, target nutrient levels are based on those of well-studied omnivores. Ranges are provided to
best describe the needs across a variety of genera, with the high ends of each range for growing and
lactating animals. In most cases, they reflect the highest values reported. Based on the emphasis of
foraging strategy of the genus or species in question, a range of target nutrient values has been provided
for more omnivorous individuals (see Table 7). These ranges are provided in comparison to straight dog
(NRC 1974; AAFCO 1999), Arctic fox (NRC 1982) and Mink (NRC, 1982). As additional information
becomes available, these ranges should be adjusted to reflect new knowledge.

Table 7. Target nutrient ranges for baseline species (dry matter basis).
1
Nutrient More Omnivorous
Kinkajou (potos flavus), Ringtail (bassariscus astutus), Coati
(nasua narica), Raccoon (procyon lotor)
1a
Protein (%) 17.5-26.0
Fat (%) 5-8.5
Linoleic Acid (%) 1.0-1.3
Vitamin A (IU/g) 0.5-5.9
Vitamin D (IU/g) 0.5-0.55
Vitamin E (mg/kg) 27-50
Thiamin (mg/kg) 1.0-2.25
Riboflavin (mg/kg) 1.6-10.5
Pantothenic acid (mg/kg) 7.4-15.0
Niacin (mg/kg) 11.4-20.0
Pyridoxine (mg/kg) 1.0-1.8
Folacin (mg/kg) 0.18-0.5
Biotin (mg/kg) 0.1-0.12
Vitamin B12 (mg/kg) 0.022-0.035
1b
Calcium (%) 0.3-1.2
1b
Phosphorus (%) 0.3-1.0
Potassium (%) 0.4-0.6
Sodium (%) 0.04-0.3
Magnesium (%) 0.04-0.06
Iron (mg/kg) 30-90
Zinc (mg/kg) 50-120
Copper (mg/kg) 6.0-12.4
Iodine (mg/kg) 0.9-1.54
Selenium (mg/kg) 0.1-0.35
1
Dog NRC (2006), Dog AAFCO (1999) (All numbers are based on requirement set for maintenance); Mink NRC (1982);
Fox NRC (1982) (for mink and fox NRC protein is range of growth and maintenance, vitamins are for growth, and minerals for
growth and maintenance).
1a
Authors of this chapter are not comfortable recommending a 10% protein for maintenance as the Dog NRC 2006 suggests.
1b
Authors of this chapter would caution feeding diets with 0.3% calcium and/or phosphorus as the Dog NRC 2006 suggests.
Several factors affect nutrient requirements. These factors include: age, physiological state, health
status, environment, activity, and group dynamics. The target nutrient values in these standard
recommendations encompass the needs for maintenance of adults and reproducing animals (gestation
and lactation), as well as the needs of growing animals. The sample diets included in section 5.2 have
supported all life stages.
Seasonal changes in nutritional requirements: Development of individual standard and predictable
feeding behavior patterns based on seasons can serve as effective diet management tools.
Coatis: Male coatis appear particularly prone to weight gain in the fall; while this gain may be temporary,
due to their tendency to have a reduced appetite during the winter months, care should be taken to make
sure they do not become too obese during this period; weight gained in the fall is often naturally dropped
in the spring (Standley 1992).
Raccoons: Raccoons may lose as much as 30-50% of their peak autumn body weight during the winter
dormant period. Thus, the normal weight dynamic patterns of raccoons over parts of their range may be
considerably more variable than those for subtropical or tropical species or other procyonid genera
(Roberts 1997). Raccoons are somewhat unusual among the procyonids in that they undergo variable
periods of dormancy during the winter over much of their range (from central United States to Canada).
Interestingly, it is the appearance of a permanent snow cover, rather than low temperatures per se, which
appears to initiate the onset of dormancy in free-ranging raccoons. This suggests that the (lack of)

availability of resources may play a role in triggering this phenomenon. Dormancy should not be confused
with hibernation or torpor, as dormant raccoons are easily aroused. However, activity and food
consumption drop dramatically during exposure to prolonged low temperatures, and animals rely on
accumulated fat stores to meet energy requirements.
5.2 Diets
The formulation, preparation, and delivery of all diets must
be of a quality and quantity suitable to meet the animal‟s AZA Accreditation Standard
nutritional, psychological and behavioral needs (AZA (2.6.3) Animal diets must be of a quality
Accreditation Standard 2.6.3). Food should be purchased from and quantity suitable for each animal‟s
reliable, sustainable and well-managed sources. The nutritional nutritional and psychological needs. Diet
formulations and records of analysis of
analysis of the food should be regularly tested and recorded. appropriate feed items should be
Food preparation must be performed in accordance with all maintained and may be examined by the
relevant federal, state, or local regulations (AZA Accreditation Visiting Committee. Animal food,
Standard 2.6.1). Meat processed on site must be processed especially seafood products, should be
purchased from reliable sources that are
following all USDA standards. sustainable and/or well managed.
If browse plants are used within the animal‟s diet or for
enrichment, all plants must be identified and assessed for safety. AZA Accreditation Standard
The responsibility for approval of plants and oversight of the
(2.6.1) Animal food preparations must
program should be assigned to at least one qualified individual meet all local, state/provincial, and federal
(AZA Accreditation Standard 2.6.4). The program should identify regulations.
if the plants have been treated with any chemicals or near any
point sources of pollution and if the plants are safe for the AZA Accreditation Standard
species. If animals have access to plants in and around their (2.6.4) The institution should assign at
exhibits, there should be a staff member responsible for ensuring least one person to oversee appropriate
that toxic plants are not available. browse material for the collection.
Sample Diets: There is a wide range of diets that can be appropriate for procyonids. As omnivores, diets
that contain a variety of food items and food groups appear most appropriate, with emphasis added
toward the vertebrate and invertebrate portions of the diet for more carnivorous members of the group
(raccoon, coati, ringtail and cacomistle) and fruits for the more frugivorous members (kinkajou). It should
be noted that the nutrient content of all items consumed (whole prey, nutritionally complete foods,
produce, etc) should be known and included in the nutrient analysis of the diet. This will help to develop
and maintain a diet which meets both the nutritional needs of the species and also avoid incidence of
metabolic problems (metabolic bone disease, obesity, anorexia, etc).
In this case, sample diets are provided as examples only. The goal is to provide a diet that meets
target nutrient values and is readily consumed. Ideally, a palatable nutritionally complete food item should
be used as the base of the diet, to which vertebrate and invertebrate prey, and produce may be added as
appropriate based on feeding strategy. Offering hard food items (bones, biscuits, etc) will encourage
natural tooth abrasion and promote dental health. Although the North American raccoon is not managed
within the AZA SCTAG, two diets are provided for additional reference in Table 8.

Table 8. Sample diets from AZA institutions of procyonid species as fed daily*
1
Species Common Name Institution Food Item grams/day % in diet
Potos flavus Kinkajou Institution B Seasonal fruit – used apple 115 43.00
Insectivore- Reliable Protein Prod 60 22.43
ZuPreem Feline canned 60 22.43
2
Nectar Mix 30 11.22
Purina Labdiet 5045 High Protein 2 0.75
Crickets 0.4 0.15
Mealworms 0.07 0.03
Total 267.47 100
Institution C Mazuri Omnivore Biscuit 86 33.34
Vegetable – used carrot 86 33.33
Fruit – used apple 86 33.33
Total 258 100
Institution D Corn on the cob 50 13.24
Apple 50 13.24
Hill‟s Science Canine Light dry 50 13.24
Hill‟s Science Original Adult dry 50 13.24
IAMS Adult Chicken Entrée can 28 7.41
Mazuri Browse Biscuit 12 3.18
Night crawlers (4g Sun) 0.57 0.15
Cantaloupe (50 g T/Th) 14.2 3.78
Kiwi (50 g W) 7.1 1.89
Papaya (50 g Th) 7.1 1.89
Mealworms (0.1 g W) 0.01 0.004
Grapes 50 13.24
Banana (40 g M,W,F) 17.1 4.54
Fig (40 g M,Th,F) 17.1 4.54
Egg, hard-boiled (40 g M,T,W,F) 22.8 6.05
DAK primate Gel (10g Sun) 1.4 0.38
Total 377.7 100
Bassariscus astutus Ringtail/Cacomistle Institution B Nebraska Special Beef Feline 35 22.22
Chicks (30 g M,W,F) 12.8 8.16
Mouse (30 g Su,T,Th,Sa) 17.1 10.88
Fruit – used apple 35 22.22
Insectivore– Reliable Protein Prod 35 22.22
Egg, Hard-boiled 22.5 14.29
Total 157.4 100
Institution E Natural Balance Carnivore 5% 24 37.33
Premium Edge Chicken/Rice Dog 11.1 17.33
Egg, hard-boiled 3.4 5.33
Fruit used apple 7.7 12.0
Vegetable used carrot 7.7 12.0
Mealworms 1.7 2.67
Crickets 0.57 0.89
Mouse (56 g Th- only mouse fed) 8 12.44
Total 64.17 100
3
Institution C Fruit Mix 55 53.40
Natural Balance Carnivore 10% 29 28.16
ZuPreem Feline Canned 10 9.71
Mouse 9 8.74
Total 103 100
Nasua narica Coati (white nosed) Institution B Fruit used apple 120 23.83
Vegetable used carrot 120 23.83
Nebraska Special Beef Feline 120 23.83
ZuPreem Feline can 60 11.91
Purina Labdiet 5045 high protein 60 11.91
Egg, hard-boiled 19.3 3.83
Cooked Roast Beef 4.3 0.85
Total 503.6 100
Institution E Natural Balance Carnivore 5% 43 20.84

1
Species Common Name Institution Food Item grams/day % in diet
Nasua narica Coati (white nosed) Institution E Premium Edge Chicken/Rice Dog 60 29.09
Lake Smelt 4.3 2.08
Mealworms 8 3.88
Crickets 8 3.88
Egg, hard-boiled 28 13.57
Apple 28 13.57
Banana 27 13.09
Total 206.3 100
Institution C (brown
Mazuri Omnivore 103 41.56
nosed)
Egg, hard-boiled 33 13.32
Banana 10.8 4.38
Apple 20.0 8.07
Grapes 6.4 2.59
Orange 17.0 6.86
Sweet potato cooked 9.3 3.75
Mealworms 8.1 3.29
Crickets 10.8 4.38
Mice 29.2 11.8
Total 247.8 100
Procyon lotor Raccoon Institution D Hill‟s Science Original Adult dry 85.0 63.33
Grapes 16.0 11.92
Carrots 9.7 7.24
Cantaloupe 0.85 0.64
Apple 0.85 0.64
Banana 0.43 0.32
Super worms 0.85 0.64
Cricket (3/4”) 0.21 0.16
Sweet Potato 6.0 4.47
Apple Juice Concentrate 14.3 10.64
Total 134.2 100
Institution F Apple 8 4.15
Grape 9 4.66
Carrot 16.5 8.55
Sweet Potato 16.5 8.55
4
Leafy Mix 27 13.99
Sports Mix Dog Food dry 58 30.05
Purina Labdiet 5038 Monkey 58 30.05
Total 193 100
1
Reliable Protein Products, Phoenix, AZ 85050; Zupreem, Shawnee, KS 66214; PMI Nutrition International, Grays Summit, MO 63039; Hill‟s
Pet Nutrition, Inc. Topeka, KS 66603; P&G Pet Care (IAMS), Cincinnati, OH 45220; Central Nebraska Packing, Inc. North Platte, NE 69103;
Natural Balance Pet Foods, Inc. Pacoima, CA 91331; Premium Edge Brand® Meta, MO 65058; Midwestern Pet Foods, Inc. Evansville, IN
47725.
2
Nectar mix from Omaha contains 9% raw egg, 5% Roudybush nectar 3 powder, 2% dry rice baby cereal, 4% honey, and 80% water.
3
Fruit mix from Institution C is a combination of 16.26% apple, 27.49% banana, 6.71% grape, 3.47% orange, 6.35% papaya, 11.73% pear,
4.27% white potato, 13.63% sweet potato, 6.76% carrot, and 3.33% hard-boiled egg; Vegetable mix is a combination of 11.15% apple, 6.15%
carrots, 8.92% pear, 1.44% collard greens, 6.34% green beans, 3.70% kale, 13.74% romaine, 10.94% pear, 9.87% white potato, 5.21%
spinach, and 22.54% sweet potato.
4
Institution F Leafy Mix is 45% iceberg lettuce, 11% kale, 22% spinach, and 22% celery shredded.
* The AZA SCTAG does not specifically endorse the use of any mentioned products.

The following table (Table 9) provides a comparison of the sample diets listed in Table 8 to target
nutrient levels identified in section 5.1.
1
Table 9. Nutrient content of sample diets (dry matter basis)
Institution B Institution C Institution D
Kinkajou Kinkajou Kinkajou More Omnivorous
Nutrient
Protein (%) 28.2 21.9 21.3 17.5-26.0
Fat (%) 16.7 6.7 10.5 5-8.5
2
Vitamin A (IU/g) 9.2 92 6.2 0.5-5.9
Vitamin D (IU/g) 0.45 3.1 0.27 0.5-0.55
Vitamin E (mg/kg) 56.9 70 183 27-50
Thiamin (mg/kg) 7.3 14.0 1.7 1.0-2.25
Riboflavin (mg/kg) 8.0 6.3 2.3 1.6-10.5
Pantothenic acid (mg/kg) 18.7 19.0 8.6 7.4-15.0
Niacin (mg/kg) 52.6 78.9 11.9 11.4-20.0
Pyridoxine (mg/kg) 3.4 9.7 2.9 1.0-1.8
Folacin (mg/kg) 0.95 2.3 1.2 0.18-0.5
Biotin (mg/kg) 0.26 0.16 0.03 0.1-0.12
Vitamin B12 (mg/kg) 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.022-0.035
Calcium (%) 0.38 2.0 0.54 0.3-1.2
Phosphorus (%) 0.31 1.4 0.46 0.3-1.0
Potassium (%) 0.36 1.1 0.72 0.4-0.6
Sodium (%) 0.12 0.30 0.21 0.04-0.3
Magnesium (%) 0.03 0.20 0.10 0.04-0.06
Iron (mg/kg) 118 481 36 30-90
Zinc (mg/kg) 66 157 15.3 50-120
Copper (mg/kg) 5.4 13.4 3.5 6.0-12.4
Iodine (mg/kg) 0.77 1.2 0.18 0.9-1.54
Selenium (mg/kg) 0.02 0.45 0.07 0.1-0.35
Institution B Institution E Institution C
Ringtail Ringtail Ringtail More Omnivorous
Nutrient
Protein (%) 38.4 40.8 33.2 17.5-26.0
Fat (%) 21.8 18.4 19.7 5-8.5
Vitamin A (IU/g) 9.0 95.6 61.9 0.5-5.9
Vitamin D (IU/g) 1.3 0.55 0.72 0.5-0.55
Vitamin E (mg/kg) 195 261 174 27-50
Thiamin (mg/kg) 29.9 5.2 8.1 1.0-2.25
Riboflavin (mg/kg) 9.2 8.9 12.0 1.6-10.5
Niacin (mg/kg) 35.2 96.4 84.2 11.4-20.0
Pyridoxine (mg/kg) 5.9 6.4 10.2 1.0-1.8
Folacin (mg/kg) 1.4 0.22 11.8 0.18-0.5
Biotin (mg/kg) 0.15 0.57 0.81 0.1-0.12
Vitamin B12 (mg/kg) 0.09 0.05 0.06 0.022-0.035
Calcium (%) 1.1 0.97 1.1 0.3-1.2
Phosphorus (%) 0.89 0.68 0.54 0.3-1.0
Potassium (%) 0.50 0.40 0.65 0.4-0.6
Sodium (%) 0.28 0.26 0.49 0.04-0.3
Magnesium (%) 0.07 0.19 0.18 0.04-0.06
Iron (mg/kg) 164 82.4 109 30-90
Zinc (mg/kg) 74.6 121 120 50-120
Copper (mg/kg) 10.5 9.2 11.8 6.0-12.4
Iodine (mg/kg) 0.69 0.40 0.68 0.9-1.54
Selenium (mg/kg) 0.29 0.43 0.12 0.1-0.35
Coati Coati Coati (brown-nosed) More Omnivorous
Nutrient
Protein (%) 31.9 33.8 29.8 17.5-26.0
Fat (%) 20.2 17.6 13.4 5-8.5
2 2
Vitamin A (IU/g) 229 4.4 28.7 0.5-5.9


More Omnivorous
Nutrient Coati Coati Coati (brown-nosed)
Vitamin D (IU/g) 2.8 0.26 3.0 0.5-0.55
Vitamin E (mg/kg) 175 244 70.3 27-50
Thiamin (mg/kg) 13.7 2.6 13.2 1.0-2.25
Riboflavin (mg/kg) 7.9 5.6 6.7 1.6-10.5
Niacin (mg/kg) 73.2 45.7 72.3 11.4-20.0
Pyridoxine (mg/kg) 8.4 4.8 7.8 1.0-1.8
Folacin (mg/kg) 4.2 0.25 2.2 0.18-0.5
Biotin (mg/kg) 0.20 0.27 0.16 0.1-0.12
Vitamin B12 (mg/kg) 0.05 0.03 0.04 0.022-0.035
Calcium (%) 1.0 0.36 1.9 0.3-1.2
Phosphorus (%) 0.82 0.32 1.4 0.3-1.0
Potassium (%) 1.0 0.37 0.94 0.4-0.6
Sodium (%) 0.35 0.17 0.32 0.04-0.3
Magnesium (%) 0.14 0.11 0.19 0.04-0.06
Iron (mg/kg) 218 31.7 471 30-90
Zinc (mg/kg) 115 124 162 50-120
Copper (mg/kg) 13.1 5.3 13.6 6.0-12.4
Iodine (mg/kg) 1.0 0.19 1.2 0.9-1.54
Selenium (mg/kg) 0.27 0.47 0.54 0.1-0.35
Institution F Institution D
Raccoon Raccoon More Omnivorous
Nutrient
Protein (%) 19.3 22.1 17.5-26.0
Fat (%) 6.8 13.6 5-8.5
2 2
Vitamin A (IU/g) 95.7 43.6 0.5-5.9
3
Vitamin D (IU/g) 3.3 0.5-0.55
3
Vitamin E (mg/kg) 31.6 2.1 27-50
3
Thiamin (mg/kg) 5.1 0.34 1.0-2.25
3
Riboflavin (mg/kg) 4.8 0.42 1.6-10.5
3
Pantothenic acid (mg/kg) 31.7 1.2 7.4-15.0
3
Niacin (mg/kg) 64.1 2.6 11.4-20.0
3
Pyridoxine (mg/kg) 7.4 0.77 1.0-1.8
3
Folacin (mg/kg) 3.7 0.04 0.18-0.5
3
Biotin (mg/kg) 0.05 0.1-0.12
3
Vitamin B12 (mg/kg) 0.01 0.03 0.022-0.035
Calcium (%) 0.48 0.63 0.3-1.2
Phosphorus (%) 0.27 0.58 0.3-1.0
Potassium (%) 0.45 0.72 0.4-0.6
Sodium (%) 0.14 0.25 0.04-0.3
Magnesium (%) 0.08 0.12 0.04-0.06
3
Iron (mg/kg) 95.6 3.0 30-90
3
Zinc (mg/kg) 58.7 1.1 50-120
3
Copper (mg/kg) 7.2 0.47 6.0-12.4
3
Iodine (mg/kg) 0.46 0.9-1.54
3
Selenium (mg/kg) 0.11 0.1-0.35
1
Target nutrient levels listed in Table 7.
2
High due to beta carotene from the carrots and sweet potato in diet.
3
Missing most of the nutrient information on the Hills Science Diet Adult dry so nutrients most likely meet targets set.
Provision of Food and Water: Heavy water bowls made from metal, or a sturdy, non-chewable plastic
can be used for water and food. Small pools with running water may also be used as watering points. All
food and water containers should be cleaned and disinfected daily. Water containers used for ringtails
and coatis should be heated in winter, otherwise their body temperatures may drop too low as they drink
ice cold water. Ice-cold water also may prevent them from drinking an adequate amount of water
(D.Bressler, personal communication). Water should always be available, but it is particularly important
for ringtails if they are not provided with enough fruit (from which they naturally obtain water) in their diet
(Reed-Smith et al. 2003).

In general, only foods that can easily be contaminated by dirt (e.g., moist foods or fruit) should be
placed in containers, the rest should be scattered or hidden for the animals to find (K. Schilling, personal
experience). This portion of the daily diet should be reserved for use as enrichment during the course of
the exhibit day. Dry foods, or foods that can be left whole, should be scattered or hidden around the
exhibit. Fruit can be placed on branches or skewered onto heavy bolts placed in branches. This will
promote activity and provide the animals an opportunity to engage in natural foraging behaviors. The
provision of decomposing logs that can be torn apart, or logs with holes for hiding insects, larvae, fruit,
etc. also will encourage foraging behaviors.
Procyonids eat a wide variety of foods. Procyonids should be provided with food at least twice a day,
preferably three, and it is recommended that the diet be provided in ways that promote species-
appropriate foraging and feeding behaviors (e.g., hidden, scattered, hung, etc.), where appropriate. Given
that coatis can spend 95% of their active time foraging in the wild (Kaufmann 1962), it is important that
the frequency of food delivery, and the means of presenting the food to these animals, be closely based
on the natural history of the species in order to promote species-appropriate foraging, and prevent the
development of abnormal behaviors.
Ringtail and cacomistle: The AZA SCTAG recommends that a well-balanced diet includes a variety of
items as noted in previous sections and that animals‟ weight and physical condition should be checked
regularly. Carbohydrate consumption (including fruit and vegetable forms) should be monitored,
particularly the amounts offered males, as ringtails and cacomistles are prone to obesity (D. Bressler,
personal communication).
Coati: Coatis benefit from a scattered feeding approach, allowing them to exercise their natural foraging
approach to feeding. All items can be scattered or hidden as long as keepers monitor that all individuals
are feeding, and leftover food is cleaned up daily.
Kinkajou: The unfortunate title "honey bear" for kinkajou has often led to the erroneous assumption that
this species requires honey or other sweets in its diet. Overindulgence in sweets can have disastrous
dietary and medical consequences and should be avoided (Roberts 1997).
Species-appropriate Foraging and Feeding: Most procyonids are nocturnal or crepuscular, meaning
active at or between dusk and dawn; the notable exception is the coati, which forages during the day
(Denver 2003). While it is not possible to mimic the same diet (or environment) for ex situ populations of
animals as their free-ranging conspecifics would utilize, it is recommended that the diet is offered during
the period of the day when the animals would typically be expected to actively forage (AZA Small
Carnivore TAG recommendation 2005). This will not only discourage pest species, but will encourage
typical foraging behavior. Easily soiled food such as meat products should be offered in containers that
are cleaned and sanitized after each use.
Procyonids have been observed to consume anything from soft fruits and berries to acorns and
crayfish, and most have well developed canines and a strong dentition. Many are highly dexterous or
have relatively well developed prehensile abilities, thus altering diet item size or form and scattering part
of the diet can contribute to stimulating natural foraging behaviors, encourage problem solving, and in
general provide variety in daily activity patterns.
Feeding soft foods only (such as canned dog food, cottage cheese, etc.) will promote dental tartar,
which, if left untreated, can lead to gingivitis and eventual loss of teeth (Roberts 1997). However, soft
foods should not be completely ruled out as occasional enriching treats (K.Schilling, personal
experience).
5.3 Nutritional Evaluations
Group dynamics often play a role in the nutrient content of the diet consumed by individuals in the
group. When housed in groups, procyonids should be observed to insure the subordinate animals
consume the correct proportions of diet ingredients. Often increasing the number of feeding times per
day, placing the food in several locations, distracting some of the animals to allow others adequate
access to food, or separating animals when possible are necessary in a group of procyonids.
Diets should be formulated taking into account an animal‟s size, activity level, age, and over-all
health. Target weights should be set for each animal and diets formulated to maintain that weight.
Procyonids have been noted to become obese from overfeeding, lack of exercise, or a combination of the
two. “Goal weights” for individuals should be established (ideally, general, and seasonal), and body

weight checked frequently, so that diet adjustments can be made in a timely fashion to avoid over or
under-condition.
Ringtails and cacomistles have been noted to easily gain weight in zoos and aquariums. This can be
managed by regularly monitoring their weight and adjusting diets as needed.
Health Status: Increased or decreased requirements for illness, thermoregulation, or activity can be met
by offering diets ad libitum and monitoring body weight and condition over time. In general, diets should
be offered so that a small amount of food is remaining at the end of the feeding period; however this
should be managed on an individual basis to avoid obesity.
Analysis of weight fluctuations can be a valuable tool for managing individuals and populations.
Weight changes can reflect nutritional problems (obesity and under-conditioning), illness (cancer, organ
failure, etc.), other medical conditions (intestinal blockage, etc.), changes in reproductive condition (e.g.,
pregnancy or weight loss during lactation), and hormonally or environmentally induced changes in
metabolism (e.g., prior to dormancy and the onset of the breeding season). Correlating weight changes
with key life history parameters will enable animals to be managed much more effectively and efficiently.

Chapter 6. Veterinary Care

6.1 Veterinary Services
Veterinary services are a vital component of excellent animal
care practices. A full-time staff veterinarian is recommended,
however, in cases where this is not practical, a consulting/part- (2.1.1) A full-time staff veterinarian is
time veterinarian must be under contract to make at least twice recommended. However, the Commission
realizes that in some cases such is not
monthly inspections of the animal collection and to any practical. In those cases, a
emergencies (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.1.1). Veterinary consulting/part-time veterinarian must be
coverage must also be available at all times so that any under contract to make at least twice
indications of disease, injury, or stress may be responded to in a monthly inspections of the animal
collection and respond as soon as
timely manner (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.1.2). All AZA- possible to any emergencies. The
accredited institutions should adopt the guidelines for medical Commission also recognizes that certain
programs developed by the American Association of Zoo collections, because of their size and/or
Veterinarians (AAZV) nature, may require different
considerations in veterinary care.
www.aazv.org/associations/6442files/zoo_aquarium_vet_med_g
uidelines.pdf. The current SCTAG Veterinary Advisor is Dr. AZA Accreditation Standard
Anneke Moresco, Institution G,
(2.1.2) So that indications of disease,
([email protected]). injury, or stress may be dealt with
Protocols for the use and security of drugs used for promptly, veterinary coverage must be
veterinary purposes must be formally written and available to available to the animal collection 24 hours
animal care staff (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.2.1). Procedures a day, 7 days a week.
should include, but are not limited to: a list of persons authorized
to administer animal drugs, situations in which they are to be AZA Accreditation Standard
utilized, location of animal drugs and those persons with access
(2.2.1) Written, formal procedures must
to them, and emergency procedures in the event of accidental be available to the animal care staff for
human exposure. the use of animal drugs for veterinary
Animal recordkeeping is an important element of animal care purposes and appropriate security of the
and ensures that information about individual procyonids and drugs must be provided.
their treatment is always available. A designated staff member
should be responsible for maintaining an animal record keeping AZA Accreditation Standard
system and for conveying relevant laws and regulations to the (1.4.6) A staff member must be
animal care staff (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.4.6). designated as being responsible for the
institution's animal record-keeping
Recordkeeping must be accurate and documented on a daily system. That person must be charged
basis (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.4.7). Complete and up-to- with establishing and maintaining the
date animal records must be duplicated and retained in a institution's animal records, as well as
fireproof container within the institution (AZA Accreditation with keeping all animal care staff
members apprised of relevant laws and
Standard 1.4.5) as well as be duplicated and stored at a regulations regarding the institution's
separate location (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.4.4). animal collection.
Following are some general recommendations that can be
used as guidelines of a basic healthcare protocol. However, AZA Accreditation Standard
each situation is unique and the health care protocol should take (1.4.7) Animal records must be kept
into account the relative risk of each animal. The veterinary staff current, and data must be logged daily.
should design the preventive health protocol that is ultimately
implemented. The design should take into consideration the AZA Accreditation Standard
weather, location, species involved, and institutional (1.4.5) At least one set of the institution‟s
management policies. The AAZV‟s „Small Carnivore Medical historical animal records must be stored
Management Guidelines‟ (Manharth & Shellebarger 2003) also and protected. Those records should
include permits, titles, declaration forms,
can be found in Appendix G, and should be carefully consulted. and other pertinent information.
Animal Records: Thorough and accurate medical records are
essential to learn and understand more about the medical
problems of any of our ex situ population species. Medical (1.4.4) Animal records, whether in
records should be systematic and entries should identify the electronic or paper form, including health
records, must be duplicated and stored in
history, physical findings, procedures performed, treatments a separate location.

administered, differential diagnosis, assessment, and future plans for treatment. A computerized medical
record system, which can help track problems and can be easily transmitted from one institution to the
next, is extremely beneficial. The AZA SCTAG encourages the use of ZIMS (Zoological Information
Management System) when it becomes available to replace MedARKS (International Species Information
System, 12101 Johnny Cake Ridge Road, Apple Valley, MN 55124, U.S.A.) as a universal medical record
program. Many institutions use MedARKS, making it easy to transfer information between them. The
medical record should include the following information:
 Medical history
 Identification (current ARKS record, transponder numbers, tattoos, etc.)
 Clinical notes (including exam findings, diagnoses, vaccination history, etc.)
 Parasitology
 Anesthesia
 Clinical pathology
 Treatments (current medications, recent treatments, etc.)
 Pathology
 Reproductive status (contracepted, cycle details or abnormalities, etc.)
 Nutritional information (nutritional deficiencies, supplements, allergies, etc.)
 Behavioral/social group notes (social traumas, aggression, training for medical procedures, etc.)
 Any pertinent group history should be included as well, especially if there is a history of infectious
disease within the group or exhibit.
 As small carnivores are prone to dental disease, a thorough history of dental problems and,
preferably, a dental chart noting extractions, root canals, problems, etc. is recommended.
Necropsy: All small carnivores that die should receive a thorough necropsy in a timely manner. This will
help establish cause of death, provide valuable insight into the health of the collection, and help protect
the other animals in the social grouping by delineating any immediate concerns. The following protocol is
adapted from the AAZV „Small Carnivore Medical Management Guidelines‟ (Manharth & Shellebarger
2003) (see Appendix G and Appendix M):
1. Blood: serum banking
2. Radiographs post-mortem (if possible)
3. External exam, including weight and description of condition of body
4. Internal exam
a. A detailed written report should be completed.
b. Cultures should be submitted, if indicated
c. Photo documentation, if possible
d. Submission of a representative sample of all lesions AND routine tissues:
- Skin, muscle, sciatic nerve, bone (femur), tongue, salivary gland, eye, brain, pituitary,
trachea, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, esophagus, lymph nodes (thoracic and abdominal),
lung, bronchus, heart, aorta, liver, gall bladder, diaphragm, spleen, pancreas, stomach,
duodenum, jejunum, ileum, ileocolic jxn, colon, adrenal, kidneys, bladder, ureter, urethra,
reproductive organs
- It is recommended that a pathologist familiar with non-traditional species be used for
histopathology.
- Reproductive organs should be submitted to: Dr. Linda Munson, VM -Pathology
Microbiology & Immunology, 4206 Vet Med 3A, One Shields Ave
Davis, CA 95616, as a standing request. Tissues should be fixed in 10% formalin and
accompanied by a submission form. More detailed submission instructions and the
submission form are available at:
www.stlzoo.org/animals/scienceresearch/contraceptioncenter/.
- Frozen set of tissues should be stored: heart, liver, kidney, brain, serum, lesions
- Any stones (uroliths, renoliths, etc.) should be submitted for analysis to: Minnesota
Urolith Center, Dept. of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine,
University of Minnesota, 1352 Boyd Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108
A complete report, including histopathology and test results, should be submitted to the veterinary
advisor on an annual basis.

6.2 Identification Methods

Ensuring that procyonids are identifiable through various
means increases the ability to care for individuals more
effectively. Procyonids must be identifiable and have (1.4.3) Animals must be identifiable,
corresponding ID numbers whenever practical, or a means for whenever practical, and have
corresponding ID numbers. For animals
accurately maintaining animal records must be identified if maintained in colonies or other animals
individual identifications are not practical (AZA Accreditation not considered readily identifiable, the
Standard 1.4.3). institution must provide a statement
AZA member institutions must inventory their population at explaining how record keeping is
maintained.
least annually and document all animal acquisitions and
dispositions (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.4.1). Transaction AZA Accreditation Standard
forms help document that potential recipients or providers of the
(1.4.1) An animal inventory must be
animals should adhere to the AZA Code of Professional Ethics, compiled at least once a year and include
the AZA Acquisition/Disposition Policy (see Appendix B), and all data regarding acquisitions and
relevant AZA and member policies, procedures and guidelines. dispositions in the animal collection.
In addition, transaction forms must insist on compliance with the
applicable laws and regulations of local, state, federal and AZA Accreditation Standard
international authorities. All AZA-accredited institutions must (1.4.2) All species owned by the
abide by the AZA Acquisition and Disposition policy (Appendix institution must be listed on the inventory,
including those animals on loan to and
B) and the long-term welfare of animals should be considered in
from the institution. In both cases,
all acquisition and disposition decisions. All species owned by an notations should be made on the
AZA institution must be listed on the inventory, including those inventory.
procyonids on loan to and from the institution (AZA Accreditation
Standard 1.4.2).
The AZA SCTAG recommends that all animals be identified as soon as possible after birth with a
transponder chip placed subcutaneously in the intrascapular area or neck. The location should be
recorded in the animal‟s medical record. If it is not possible to identify the animal with a transponder chip,
they should be tattooed on the inside of their thigh with their studbook number or institutional identifier.
See Appendix G for additional recommendations on identification methods for small carnivores.
6.3 Transfer Examination and Diagnostic Testing Recommendations
The transfer of procyonids between AZA-accredited institutions or certified related facilities due to
AZA SSP or PMP Program recommendations occurs often as part of a concerted effort to preserve these
species. These transfers should be done as altruistically as possible and the costs associated with
specific examination and diagnostic testing for determining the health of these animals should be
considered.
All procyonids should receive a thorough pre-shipment physical examination as outlined in Appendix
G. A copy of the complete medical record, including pre-shipment physical exam findings and laboratory
work should be sent to the veterinarian at the receiving institution before the animal is transferred (in
addition or in coordination with the copy that the curator receives). If an animal has a current medical
condition requiring ongoing treatment, the case should be discussed between the shipping and receiving
institutions‟ veterinarians before the animal is moved. All animal shipments should be accompanied by a
hard copy of the medical record, as well as a health certificate and the USDA acquisition, disposition, or
transport form (APHIS form #7020). Institutions using MedARKS (or ZIMS) should provide the receiving
institution with the medical records on a floppy disc or send them via e-mail (Petrini 1998). Contact the
veterinarian at the receiving institution to find out which tests the receiving institution requires. Also
contact the state veterinarian, if the animal is crossing state borders as different states may have different
requirements. See Appendix G for a complete list of testing recommended before transferring any small
carnivores.
6.4 Quarantine AZA Accreditation Standard
AZA institutions must have holding facilities or procedures for (2.7.1) The institution must have holding
the quarantine of newly arrived procyonids and isolation facilities facilities or procedures for the quarantine
or procedures for the treatment of sick/injured animals (AZA of newly arrived animals and isolation
facilities or procedures for the treatment
Accreditation Standard 2.7.1). All quarantine, hospital, and of sick/injured animals.
isolation areas should be in compliance with AZA

standards/guidelines (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.7.3;

Appendix C). All quarantine procedures should be supervised by
a veterinarian, formally written and available to staff working with (2.7.3) Quarantine, hospital, and isolation
areas should be in compliance with
quarantined animals (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.7.2). If a standards or guidelines adopted by the
specific quarantine facility is not present, then newly acquired AZA.
procyonids should be kept separate from the established
collection to prohibit physical contact, prevent disease AZA Accreditation Standard
transmission, and avoid aerosol and drainage contamination. If (2.7.2) Written, formal procedures for
the receiving institution lacks appropriate facilities for quarantine, quarantine must be available and familiar
pre-shipment quarantine at an AZA or AALAS accredited to all staff working with quarantined
animals.
institution may be applicable. Local, state, or federal regulations
that are more stringent than AZA Standards and recommendation AZA Accreditation Standard
have precedence.
AZA institutions must have zoonotic disease prevention (11.1.2) Training and procedures must be
in place regarding zoonotic diseases.
procedures and training protocols established to minimize the risk
of transferable diseases (AZA Accreditation Standard 11.1.2) with all procyonids, including those newly
acquired in quarantine. Keepers should be designated to care only for quarantined animals if possible. If
keepers should care for both quarantined and resident animals of the same class, they should care for
the quarantined animals only after caring for the resident animals. Equipment used to feed, care for, and
enrich procyonids in quarantine should be used only with these animals. If this is not possible, then all
items should be appropriately disinfected, as designated by the veterinarian supervising quarantine
before use with resident animals.
Quarantine durations span a minimum of 30 days (unless otherwise directed by the staff
veterinarian). If additional mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians or fish of the same order are introduced
into their corresponding quarantine areas, the minimum quarantine period should begin over again.
However, the addition of mammals of a different order to those already in quarantine will not require the
re-initiation of the quarantine period.
During the quarantine period, specific diagnostic tests should be conducted with each animal if
possible or from a representative sample of a larger population (e.g., birds in an aviary or frogs in a
terrarium) (see Appendix C). A complete physical, including a dental examination if applicable, should be
performed. Procyonids should be evaluated for ectoparasites and treated accordingly. Blood should be
collected, analyzed and the sera banked in either a -70ºC (-94ºF) freezer or a frost-free -20ºC (-4ºF)
freezer for retrospective evaluation. Fecal samples should be collected and analyzed for gastrointestinal
parasites and the animals should be treated accordingly. Vaccinations should be updated as appropriate,
and if the vaccination history is not known, the animal should be treated as immunologically naive and
given the appropriate series of vaccinations.
A tuberculin testing and surveillance program must be
established for animal care staff as appropriate to protect the AZA Accreditation Standard
health of both staff and animals (AZA Accreditation Standard (11.1.3) A tuberculin testing and
11.1.3). Depending on the disease and history of the animals, surveillance program must be established
for appropriate staff in order to ensure the
testing protocols for animals may vary from an initial quarantine health of both the employees and the
test to yearly repetitions of diagnostic tests as determined by the animal collection.
veterinarian. Procyonids should be permanently identified by their
natural markings or, if necessary, marked when anesthetized or restrained (e.g., tattoo, ear notch, ear
tag, etc.). Release from quarantine should be contingent upon normal results from diagnostic testing and
two negative fecal tests that are spaced a minimum of two weeks apart. Medical records for each animal
should be accurately maintained and easily available during the quarantine period.
Procyonids which die during the quarantine period should
have a necropsy performed to determine the cause of death and AZA Accreditation Standard
the subsequent disposal of the body must be done in accordance (2.5.1) Deceased animals should be
with any local or federal laws (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.5.1). necropsied to determine the cause of
Necropsies should include a detailed external and internal gross death. Disposal after necropsy must be
morphological examination and representative tissue samples done in accordance with local/federal
laws.
form the body organs should be submitted for histopathological
examination. See Section 6.1 and Appendix G and Appendix M
for necropsy protocols for small carnivores.

After it has been decided by authorized staff that euthanasia is indicated, these species can be
anesthetized (see anesthesia section). Once the animal is adequately anesthetized, an injection of
pentobarbital can be given intravenously or intraperitoneally. NOTE that pentobarbital is a controlled
substance and DEA regulations for its use should be followed. Heart should be auscultated to ensure the
animal has died prior to disposing of the animal according to institutional guidelines. For more detailed
information on alternative methods and on euthanasia guidelines please refer to the AVMA guidelines on
euthanasia, a copy can be found at: www.avma.org/issues/animal_welfare/euthanasia.pdf.
AZA SCTAG Recommendations: Foot baths should be used in all quarantine situations; gloves and
masks should be used around sick animals or animals that came in from the wild (e.g. raccoons, rehab
ringtail, etc.).
The importance of a preventive medical program for zoo animals cannot be emphasized enough.
Animals entering a collection should undergo quarantine in an isolated facility designed to allow handling
of the animals and proper cleaning and sanitizing of the enclosures. The shipping crate should be
cleaned and disinfected before it leaves the quarantine area, and the crate‟s contents disposed of
appropriately. Quarantine facilities require barriers against ingress of potential vectors and vermin.
Animals in quarantine should be cared for by separate keepers who are skilled at recognizing signs of
stress and disease and who will carefully monitor feed intake and fecal characteristics. Since diets
change between institutions it is recommended that the sending institutions diet be obtained in advance
of the animal‟s arrival. This enables the receiving institution to provide a familiar diet to the animal upon
arrival and for the first week of quarantine. The sending institution may want to send some of the regular
diet with the animal.
After the first week of quarantine, if the animal is doing well, the new diet should slowly be introduced.
If this is done at a rate of approximately 25% of new diet exchanged for old per week, the animal should
be converted to the new diet by the end of quarantine, and should avoid any problems associated with
dietary change.
AZA Accreditation Standards and Related Policies
See Appendix A for specific animal care and management recommendations for small carnivore
quarantine, which are included in the AZA Accreditation Standards and Related Policies (AZA 2008).
During quarantine, animals should receive appropriate vaccinations and diagnostic testing (see
section 6.2). They should be examined for ecto- and endoparasites and treated appropriately. Depending
on what has been done at the shipping institution, before release from quarantine the animal should
receive physical and laboratory examinations, including hematology, serum biochemistry, urinalysis, and
radiographs. Serum should be frozen (banked) for future reference and possible epidemiologic studies.
All procedures and results should be recorded and become the start of the animal‟s record.
A minimum of three consecutive negative fecals (fresh direct and float or sedimentation), each one
week apart, should be obtained before clearing from quarantine. Appropriate treatment for any parasites
should be administered while in quarantine and three negative fecals should be obtained post-treatment.
Cultures and special stains should be repeated during this time if there has been a history of
infectious disease in this animal or its previous group. In the event of an infectious bacterial intestinal
disease (e.g., salmonellosis), it is recommended that repeated cultures be submitted (three per week) in
order to identify or document the condition.
6.5 Preventive Medicine
AZA-accredited institutions should have an extensive
veterinary program that must emphasize disease prevention (AZA AZA Accreditation Standard
Accreditation Standard 2.4.1). The American Association of Zoo (2.4.1) The veterinary care program must
Veterinarians (AAZV) has developed an outline of an effective emphasize disease prevention.
preventative veterinary medicine program that should be
implemented to ensure proactive veterinary care for all animals
(www.aazv.org/associations/6442/files/zoo_aquarium_vet_med_g AZA Accreditation Standard
uidelines.pdf).
(11.1.2) Training and procedures must be
As stated in Chapter 6.4, AZA institutions must have zoonotic in place regarding zoonotic diseases.
disease prevention procedures and training protocols established
to minimize the risk of transferable diseases (AZA Accreditation

Standard 11.1.2) with all animals. Keepers should be designated to care for only healthy resident
animals, however if they need to care for both quarantined and resident animals of the same class, they
should care for the resident animals before caring for the quarantined animals. Care should be taken to
ensure that these keepers are “decontaminated” before caring for
the healthy resident animals again. Equipment used to feed, care AZA Accreditation Standard
for, and enrich the healthy resident animals should only be used (1.5.5) For animals used in offsite
with those animals. programs and for educational purposes,
the institution must have adequate
Procyonids that are taken off zoo/aquarium grounds for any
protocols in place to protect the rest of the
purpose have the potential to be exposed to infectious agents that collection from exposure to infectious
could spread to the rest of the institution‟s healthy population. agents.
AZA-accredited institutions must have adequate protocols in
place to avoid this (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.5.5).
Also stated in Chapter 6.4, a tuberculin testing and (11.1.3) A tuberculin testing and
surveillance program must be established for animal care staff, as surveillance program must be established
for appropriate staff in order to ensure the
appropriate, to protect the health of both staff and animals (AZA health of both the employees and the
Accreditation Standard 11.1.3). Depending on the disease and animal collection.
history of the animals, testing protocols for procyonids may vary
from an initial quarantine test, to annual repetitions of diagnostic tests as determined by the veterinarian.
To prevent specific disease transmission, vaccinations should be updated as appropriate for the species.
Vaccinations: Preventive medicine should be tailored to the risk of exposure, which varies by location
and with management practices. The veterinary staff should set up a preventive protocol that is
appropriate for the risk of exposure at each institution. Vaccination schedules should be viewed in light of
the real risk of animals contracting these diseases and the consequences of clinical disease, keeping in
mind that overly aggressive vaccination schedules may not be innocuous. Titers are useful if the assay
that measures them has been validated for the species in particular. However, in many (most) zoo
species it is not known for certain what constitutes a protective titer. That is, even if we know the test
actually reflects the titers, what do they mean in terms of protection? In order to assess the latter point it
is recommended that, if possible, institutions still gather titer information for use at a later date. Specifics
on red pandas are addressed in a separate document. For more information also see the Guidelines for
zoo and aquarium veterinary medical programs and veterinary hospitals available as a PDF at
www.aazv.org/Webaddit.pdf.
Specifics regarding type/lot of vaccine and site of injection should be recorded in the animal‟s record.
Many of the following recommendations have been taken from the AAZV website and this can be
checked for regular updates (Manharth & Shellebarger 2003).
Rabies: Rabies is recommended for all carnivores. Only a killed rabies vaccine product should be used.
Imrab 3 (Merial Ltd., 3239 Satellite Blvd., Duluth, GA 30096) has been used extensively in small
carnivores without apparent adverse effects. Dose: 1ml, i.m.. Frequency: once at 16 weeks of age, then
annually thereafter. Animals experiencing an adverse reaction to a vaccine should be administered an
antihistamine (e.g., diphenhydramine hydrochloride, 0.5-2mg/kg intravenously or intramuscularly) or for
severe reactions, epinephrine (20µg/kg intravenously, intramuscularly, subcutaneously, or intra-
tracheally), and supportive care (Fernandez-Moran 2003). PUREVAX Feline Rabies (Merial Ltd., 3239
Satellite Blvd., Duluth, GA 30096) is a live canarypox vectored, nonadjuvanted recombinant rabies
vaccine that is currently being used at some institutions for small carnivores. (1ml; i.m.). The frequency of
vaccination should be once at age 8 weeks or older, then annually. This has been used without adverse
effects in binturongs (A.Moresco, personal communication). Though it is recommended, use of rabies
vaccines in these species will be extra-label and will not be considered protective in the event of a bite.
Canine distemper: Procyonids are susceptible to canine distemper (raccoon, coati, and kinkajou). All
collection animals should be vaccinated against canine distemper. However, the safety and efficacy of
modified live canine distemper vaccinations in exotic species of carnivores has been problematic. In fact,
some exotic carnivores‟ canine distemper can be induced by administering live or modified live vaccines
(Carpenter et al. 1976; Pearson 1977). Therefore, it is recommended to NOT use live and modified live
vaccines in procyonids (Blomqvist & Rudbäck 2001). Vaccination may be indicated for other diseases
depending, as mentioned above, on the risk. Unfortunately, killed virus vaccines, with or without
adjuvants, have failed to induce persistent high titers in any species.

®
Recently, a recombinant canarypox-vectored canine distemper virus vaccine (Purevax Ferret
Distemper vaccine by Merial, Ltd., Inc. Athens, Georgia) has been found safe and efficacious in
herpestids (meerkats: Coke et al. 2005). Animals should be vaccinated annually (Roberts 1997;
Fernandez-Moran 2003). Use 1ml i.m. (Coke et al. 2005). Vaccinate previously vaccinated adults yearly,
unvaccinated adults twice 3-4 weeks apart, then annually and juveniles: three vaccinations, every three to
four weeks from 8-16 weeks of age (e.g., 8, 12 and 16 weeks).
The USDA-approved Fervac-D (United Vaccines, Inc., Madison, Wisconsin 53744, USA) has induced
disease in red pandas and anaphylaxis in some mustelids (notably ferrets) and viverrids (R.Montali,
unpublished data). The use of multivalent vaccines containing CDV, such as Galaxy-6-MPH-L (Solvay), is
discouraged, because of possible immunosuppression and clinical disease brought about by other MLV
components. Data on maternal antibody interference with vaccination of raccoons and ferrets suggest
that a final CDV vaccine should be administered at 18–20 weeks of age in raccoons (reviewed in Deem et
al. 2000). Vaccination schedules may require modification during canine distemper epidemics, or periods
of increased risk of exposure.
Feline Panleukopenia: AAZV‟s Infectious Disease Notebook notes that some small carnivores are
susceptible to feline panleukopenia and should be vaccinated and many small carnivores have been
vaccinated with a combination product in the past. However, a number of veterinary advisors do not
suggest vaccination in their recommendations, including red pandas and black-footed ferrets. Veterinary
advisor recommendations should be followed primarily.
Feline panleukopenia has been reported in raccoons and coatis (Bittle 1981). Vaccination with a
killed product is recommended. A killed panleukopenia vaccine is available by utilizing the panleukopenia
fraction of a multivalent feline vaccine. FPV-1 Feline Panleukopenia Vaccine (Biocor Animal Health Inc.,
th
2720 North 84 Street, Omaha, NE 68134) is a new non-adjuvanted, killed vaccine. The frequency of
vaccination should be at least two vaccines three weeks apart at/after 12 weeks of age. If started before
12 weeks, give a third vaccine, then vaccinate annually. This vaccine has been shown to be safe in
pregnant domestic cats.
th
Parvovirus: Parvocine (Biocor Animal Health Inc., 2720 North 84 Street, Omaha, NE 68134) is a killed
univalent parvovirus vaccine. Dose: 1ml. Route: IM. Frequency: same as listed above for canine
distemper.
Other vaccinations: In some areas where canine leptospirosis and canine hepatitis are a problem,
vaccination may be considered (Carnio 1996). Leptospirosis has been reported in raccoons (Shotts
1981). If canine leptospirosis vaccination is deemed necessary, vaccinate annually with multivalent
bacterin (Joslin et al. 1998).
Table 10: Vaccinations for raccoon, coati, and kinkajou (Castro & Heuschele 1992)
Vaccine Vaccine type Frequency
Canine distemper Killed/modified live* Annual
Feline panleukopenia Killed/modified live Annual
Canine adenovirus – 2 Killed/modified live Annual
Leptospira Bacterin-CI Killed/modified live Annual
Rabies Killed Annual
* Vaccine should not be of ferret origin, avian origin is preferred.
Coatis should be vaccinated for the first time at 6, 9, and 12 weeks of age, or until they have received
a series of three vaccinations three weeks apart, and vaccinated for rabies at 16 weeks.
 6 weeks – DHPP (Canine distemper/Parvo) They should not be vaccinated for Lepto or Corona*.
 9 weeks – DHPP
 12 weeks - DHP
 16 weeks – Imrab rabies
* Durmune Max 5™ without Lepto, made by Fort Dodge, has been used successfully in the coati (K.Schilling, personal experience).
Physical Examinations: It is recommended that all animals have regular routine physical examinations.
Young healthy animals can be examined biannually, while clinically healthy but geriatric animals or those
with shorter lifespan may be examined more frequently, at the discretion of the attending veterinarian.
Additionally any animal that has clinical signs of disease should be evaluated by the attending
veterinarian and if indicated, the animal is anesthetized to obtain diagnostic samples and physiologic

parameters. It is ideal to train animals to be able to obtain samples (e.g., blood) and receive vaccinations
without anesthesia or darting in order to be able to monitor animals more closely without the need of
anesthesia. During the physical examination the following is recommended (see Appendix G for
additional recommendations for procyonid physical examinations). The need for each test may vary
depending on the geographic location, species, and tests performed at the sending institution.
 Transponders and/or tattoos should be checked and reapplied if they are not readable.
 Baseline physiological parameters, such as weight and body condition scoring, body temperature,
heart rate, and respiratory rate, and hydration status should be obtained and recorded.
 Oral exam: including dental chart documentation. Any problems should be noted and addressed if
possible. Dental cleaning and polishing should be completed if necessary.
 Ophthalmologic exam; Ear exam: appropriate diagnostics should be completed if there is any
indication of problems. Cleaning and treatment should be done if necessary.
 Chest and abdominal auscultation and palpation.
 Assessment of genitalia. Care should be taken to record any changes in the external genitalia,
such as vulvar swelling or discharge, testicular enlargement, and mammary gland changes.
Contraceptive implants should also be checked to make sure they are in place and not causing
any local irritation.
 Skin, feet and nails.
 Anesthesia monitoring sheet.
 Radiographs should be taken and compared to previous ones if possible.
 Hematology and serum biochemistry profile should be performed. For animals that are housed
outside in heartworm endemic areas, this can include monitoring for heartworm infection by
performing a heartworm ELISA antigen test (will not detect all male infections nor infections with
less than three female nematodes). If infection is suspected, POSITIVELY identify the microfilaria
as pathogenic before instituting treatment. Treatment is not benign and mortality has been
associated with melarsomine dihydrochloride administration to North American river otters and a
red panda (Neiffer et al. 2002).
 Serum should be banked whenever possible.
 In some cases urine can be collected from the cage before anesthesia and a urinalysis
performed. If any abnormalities are detected, urine should be collected by cystocentesis for a
complete urinalysis (may need to include culture and sensitivity).
 Regular fecal examination should be performed to check for internal parasites. The frequency
may vary depending on environmental conditions and personnel but should be performed at least
annually. Anthelmintics should be administered as needed necessary. Fecal testing should
include both a direct smear examination as well as a fecal flotation, and if possible, sedimentation
techniques. Baermann fecal examination techniques help identify certain parasites such as
lungworms that are otherwise difficult to detect.
 Vaccines should be administered as needed.
 Reports of disease issues, adverse drug reactions, etc. should be reported to the veterinary
advisor or AZA TAG on an annual basis, in addition to submission of necropsy reports.
 NOTE in ovariohysterectomy cases, and necropsies of intact animals, it is strongly
recommended that the reproductive tissues be submitted for histopathological examination
(even if it is grossly normal) as many diseases may be subclinical and may not affect the
individual animal but may have an impact on the reproductive potential of the species.
Perhaps the best way to monitor condition, short of a complete physical examination, is through daily
visual inspections combined with the keeper‟s knowledge of each individual‟s typical behavior.
Parasite Control: It is recommended to diagnose first and treat appropriately. Parasites such as ear
mites, fleas, ticks, etc., can be detected during routine physical examination (Petrini 1998). Small
carnivores are susceptible to the same parasites as the domestic carnivores, and antiparasite drugs
applied to other carnivores (e.g., Piperazine, Telmin, Furacin, Caricide, Yomesan, etc.) have generally
proven successful for procyonids as well (Roberts 1997). Species housed out of doors should be routinely
administered heartworm preventative in areas where this parasite is endemic (Denver 2003). Fecal
examinations should be performed at least annually, but may be more frequent depending on the risk of
exposure. The following are recommendations for parasite testing and treatment:

Internal  Annual/ semiannual fecal examination (direct smear, fecal flotation, and
sedimentation or Baermann). De-worming should be done as determined by the
results of regular fecal exams. As a screening test, samples from the same cage
can be pooled. If results are positive, it is possible to perform a separate fecal
examination on each animal in order to determine who is positive. However, it is
very likely that all animals in the enclosure will need to be treated.
 Pre-shipment fecal examinations: direct smear and flotation.
 Quarantine fecal examination: 3 negative results of 1/week fecal direct smear and
flotation.
 Heartworm ELISA antigen tests can be conducted annually in animals exposed to

mosquitoes in heartworm endemic areas. Heartworm has been reported in otters
(Snyder et al. 1989a; Neiffer et al. 2002; Kiku et al. 2003), ferrets (Sasai 2000), and
raccoons (Snyder et al. 1989b).
External  Animals should be inspected for external parasites, including ear mites, during any
physical examination (Petrini 1998).
6.6 Capture, Restraint, and Immobilization

The need for capturing, restraining and/or immobilizing a
procyonid for normal or emergency husbandry procedures may AZA Accreditation Standard
be required. All capture equipment must be in good working (2.3.1) Capture equipment must be in
order and available to authorized and trained animal care staff at good working order and available to
authorized, trained personnel at all times.
all times (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.3.1).
As most procyonids will sleep in nest boxes, it is relatively
simple to periodically capture and weigh even the most intractable and flighty animals by closing them in
their nest boxes when they are asleep. Obtaining a weight involves simply weighing the nest box with the
animal in it and subtracting the known weight of the nest box and any bedding used. This precludes
stressful (to both animal and handler!) capture by net or other potentially injurious means. A little
forethought in nest box design can also minimize the potential disturbance of monitoring infants in the
nest (Roberts 1997). These species also are good candidates for behavioral training; animals can be
conditioned to enter squeeze cages, anesthesia chambers, stand on scales, etc.
Animals being anesthetized should be kept as calm and quiet as possible; voices should be kept low
and only those staff members necessary to the procedure should be present during the catch-up and
initial anesthesia induction. All animals recovering from anesthesia should be kept in a dark den box, or
confined space to facilitate smooth recovery (Fernandez-Moran 2003). It is suggested that the recovery
area be kept warm since animals coming out of anesthesia have more difficulty regulating their body
temperature. Also, a decrease in body temperature will increase the time needed to fully recover from the
anesthesia and may prove detrimental to the overall health of the animal.
Many procyonids are of a size that lends itself well to gas chamber induction. This is a safe method
and recoveries are generally quick. Because of its relative safety and low cost, intramuscular (IM)
ketamine has been the immobilizing agent of choice for most carnivores including procyonids. However,
ketamine alone can produce a number of adverse effects such as excessive salivation, tonic clonic
convulsions, hyperthermia, muscular rigidity, and apnea. (Maran & Robinson 1996; Blomqvist & Rudbäck
2001). Therefore the use of ketamine alone is not recommended in carnivores. These side effects can be
controlled by the concurrent administration of sedatives such as diazepam (Valium) midazolam, xylazine
or medetomidine. It should also be noted that the IM absorption of midazolam is more reliable than that
of diazepam.
Combinations of ketamine, an alpha-two agonist (medetomidine or xylazine) and opioid (butorphanol)
provide reliable and smooth anesthesia. The opioid and the alpha-two agonist can be antagonized
(naloxone and atipamezole resp.) to recover the animal more quickly or to alleviate any cardio respiratory
problems the animal may encounter. If used to alleviate cardio respiratory, problems place the animal on
a gas anesthesia (Isoflurane). It is not recommended to antagonize the opioid and the alpha-two agonist
until at least 30-45 minutes after the administration of ketamine, to avoid the effects of ketamine alone.
Combinations of ketamine and alpha-two agonist have produced hypertension in other carnivores (Larsen
et al. 2002), therefore it is important to monitor blood pressure. Tiletamine/zolazepam is a combination of

a dissociative and a sedative similar to midazolam or diazepam. It is only available as a combination.

Anesthesia is reliable and safe, but recoveries tend to be prolonged.
Table 11: Drugs & dosages used for procyonid species (from Denver 2003)
Drug Dosage
1
Ketamine 10-30mg/kg
Ketamine/diazepam 10mg/kg; 0.5mg/kg
2
Ketamine/midazolam 10mg/kg; 0.25-0.5mg/kg
3
Ketamine/xylazine 10mg/kg; 1-2mg/kg
4
Ketamine/medetomidine 2.5-5mg/kg; 25-50µg/kg
ketamine/ medetomidine/ butorphanol 4 mg/kg; 0.04mg/kg; 0.4mg.kg
5
Tiletamine/zolazepan 3-5mg/kg
7
Telazol 6-10mg/kg
6
Isoflurane In chamber, as needed
1
Ketamine alone is suitable only for short, minor procedures and may induce significant prolonged hyperthermia.
2
Ketamine/midazolam and medetomidine/ketamine should have the least respiratory depressant effects.
3
Ketamine/xylazine may result in significant prolonged hypoxemia.
4
Medetomidine/ketamine has the advantage of medetomidine being easily reversible using atipamezole (100µg/kg)
5
The tiletamine/zolazepam combination is very safe, with a prolonged recovery
6
Isoflurane chamber induction can be used; it also should be used as a supplement, or for maintenance, during long procedures.
7
Booth-Binczik, personal communication. Used for hundreds of coati immobilizations in the wild, and it worked beautifully, with no
muscular rigidity or respiratory depression.
Coati: Butorphanol, using a small cat dosage of 0.4mg/kg SQ, has been used successfully as analgesia
for coati (S.Grant, personal communication). Ketamine/Rompun (3:1 ratio) at a dose of 3mg/kg IM is a
successful anesthesia for coatis (S.Grant, personal communication). Booth-Binczik (2001) effectively
used Telazol at a dosage of 6-10mg/kg for hundreds of coati immobilizations in the wild, with no muscular
rigidity or respiratory depression seen.
More extensive details on adequate anesthesia protocols can be found in Kollias and Abu-Madi, 2007.
6.7 Management of Diseases, Disorders, Injuries and/or Isolation
AZA-accredited institutions should have an extensive
veterinary program that manages animal diseases, disorders, or AZA Accreditation Standard
injuries and has the ability to isolate these animals in a hospital (2.4.2) Keepers should be trained to
setting for treatment if necessary. Staff should be trained for recognize abnormal behavior and clinical
meeting the animal‟s dietary, husbandry, and enrichment needs, symptoms of illness and have knowledge
as well as in restraint techniques, and recognizing behavioral of the diets, husbandry (including
enrichment items and strategies), and
indicators animals may display when their health becomes restraint procedures required for the
compromised (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.4.2). Protocols animals under their care. However,
should be established for reporting these observations to the keepers should not evaluate illnesses nor
veterinary department. Hospital facilities should have x-ray prescribe treatment.
equipment or access to x-ray services (AZA Accreditation
Standard 2.3.2), contain appropriate equipment and supplies on AZA Accreditation Standard
hand for treatment of diseases, disorders or injuries, and have (2.3.2) Hospital facilities should have x-
staff available that are trained to address health issues, manage ray equipment or have access to x-ray
short and long term medical treatments and control for zoonotic services.
disease transmission.
AZA-accredited institutions must have a clear process for
identifying and addressing animal welfare concerns within the AZA Accreditation Standard
institution (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.5.8) and should have (1.5.8) The institution must develop a
an established Institutional Animal Welfare Committee. This clear process for identifying and
process should identify the protocols needed for animal care addressing animal welfare concerns
staff members to communicate animal welfare questions or within the institution.
concerns to their supervisors, their Institutional Animal Welfare
Committee or if necessary, the AZA Animal Welfare Committee. Protocols should be in place to document
the training of staff about animal welfare issues, identification of any animal welfare issues, coordination
and implementation of appropriate responses to these issues, evaluation (and adjustment of these
responses if necessary) of the outcome of these responses, and the dissemination of the knowledge
gained from these issues.

As care givers for the animals residing in our zoos and aquariums, it is vital that we provide the best
care possible for them until the time their health deteriorates to a point where euthanasia is the most
humane treatment, or the animal dies on its own. Necropsies should be conducted on deceased
procyonids to determine their cause of death and the subsequent
disposal of the body must be done in accordance with any local, AZA Accreditation Standard
state, or federal laws (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.5.1). (2.5.1) Deceased animals should be
Necropsies should include a detailed external and internal gross necropsied to determine the cause of
death. Disposal after necropsy must be
morphological examination and representative tissue samples
done in accordance with local/federal
form the body organs should be submitted for histopathological laws.
examination.
Diseases that are out of the ordinary or if multiple cases of a certain disease occur, as well as
cases of reproductive diseases and contraception problems should also be reported to the veterinary
advisor.
AZA SCTAG Recommendations: The following table (Table 12) provides a list of diseases and
associated clinical signs observed/reported in procyonids; it is not intended as a comprehensive table.
For proper treatment and management the reader is referred to more extensive medicine texts. The last
column lists the procyonid species in which the disease has been reported; other species may also be
susceptible.
Table 12: Diseases that affect procyonids (created by A.Moresco 2003).
Disease Clinical description
Rabies
Transmission Contact of infected saliva with mucosal surface or open wound.
Clinical signs Considered in any animal with outdoor access with neurologic signs.
Diagnosis Can only be diagnosed definitively post mortem. Histopath on brain.
Susceptible species All mammals are susceptible.
Canine Distemper
Transmission Aerosol exposure or direct contact with conjunctiva, nasal exudates, urine, or
feces. Vaccine (modified live) induced transmission has been reported in red
panda.
Clinical signs Anorexia, vomiting, diarrhea, weight loss, hyperemia of face & ears,
hyperkeratosis of nasal planum & footpads, oculonasal discharge, neurologic
signs.
Diagnosis Immunofluorescent antibody test or PCR of conjunctival swab. Histopath exam
of affected tissue. May be found with other concurrent diseases.
Susceptible species Many, including Red panda (Bush et al. 1976; Bush & Roberts 1977; Qin et al.
2007)and raccoon (Wojcinski & Barker 1986; Hamir et al. 1998; Lemberger et al.
2005); MLV vaccine induced in kinkajou and red panda (Bush et al. 1976;
Kazacos et al. 1981).
Parvovirus
Transmission Direct contact
Clinical signs Diarrhea, gastroenteritis.
Diagnosis IFA test on feces. PCR (Elia et al. 2007).
Susceptible species Raccoon (Martin & Zeidner 1992), red panda (Qin et al. 2007).
Feline panleukopenia
Transmission Direct contact with infected animals or via fomite transmission of excreta, in
utero from infected mother.
Clinical signs Vomiting, diarrhea, lethargy, fever, depression, eventually dehydration,
leucopenia, abortion. Can be fatal, especially in younger animals.
Diagnosis Quantitative PCR on blood; Antigen detection in feces.
Susceptible species Raccoon, Coati (Barker & Parrish 2001; Denver 2003).

Tyzzer‟s disease (Clostridium piliforme)

Transmission Mainly through fecal-oral route. Can be transplacental.
Clinical signs Anorexia, depression, diarrhea.
Diagnosis Serology, histopathology (necropsy), PCR on fecal samples.
Susceptible species Raccoon, red panda (Wojcinski & Barker 1986; Langan et al. 2000).
Toxoplasmosis
Transmission Exposure to sporulated oocysts, ingestion of intermediate host or ingestion of
uncooked infected meat.
Clinical signs Anorexia, lethargy, fever, lymphadenitis, spenomegaly, corneal edema,
myocarditis, hepatitis, pneumonitis, neurologic signs.
Diagnosis Serology, PCR.
Susceptible species All species (Denver 2003), but frequently reported in wild raccoons (Lindsay et
al. 2001).
Neospora
Transmission Ingestion of infected tissues or feces.
Clinical signs Exposure in wild raccoons is minimal, but has been reported. Can occur as a
co-infection with other disease.
Diagnosis Serology, PCR.
Susceptible species Raccoons (Lindsay et al. 2001; Lemberger et al. 2005)
Dermatophytosis (Microsporum gypsum)

Transmission Direct contact or fomite transmission. Exposure to cats.
Clinical signs Lesions resemble those seen in other species. Young animals most at risk. Skin
is thickened, itchy and scaly.
Diagnosis Definitive diagnosis is done by culture.
Susceptible species Most species, juvenile red pandas are very susceptible (Montali et al. 1984;
Kearns et al. 1999).
GI parasites
Transmission Similar to domestic dogs and cats, often fecal-oral route.
Clinical signs Similar to domestic dogs and cats. Baylisascaris procyonis (roundworm of
raccoons) is zoonotic, causing cerebral nematodiasis in other species.
Diagnosis Fecal exam (float, sedimentation, direct).
Susceptible species All species.
Lungworm
Transmission Depending on the species of lungworm involved, transmission can be direct, by
ingestion of L1 from feces or sputum of infected animals, or indirect by ingestion
of the intermediate host.
Clinical signs Can present as coughing, dyspnea, hyperpnea, nasal discharge, or neurological
signs.
Diagnosis First stage infective larva in fecal exam.
Susceptible species Red pandas usually without clinical disease (Montali et al. 1984).
Heartworm
Transmission Bite from infected mosquito.
Clinical signs Respiratory and cardiac signs. Not all microfilaria infections develop into clinical
disease. Often no clinical signs are seen.
Diagnosis Antigen detection in blood (ELISA), microfilaria in blood (Knott‟s test/ blood
smear), necropsy findings.


Susceptible species Raccoon (Snyder et al. 1989b); no patent infections have been described.
Other hemoparasites (Babesia lotori, Trypanozoma, Dirofilaria tenuis, Mansonella lewellyni)

Transmission Bite from infected arthropods.
Clinical signs Babesia most common of these four hemoparasites in raccoons.
Diagnosis Blood smear, microscopy..
Susceptible species Free ranging raccoons in Florida (Telford & Forrester 1991).
Sarcoptic mange
Transmission Exposure to infected animals.
Clinical signs Scabs around head and neck, tail, feet.
Diagnosis Finding the mites in skin scrapings or biopsy.
Susceptible species Many
Fleas
Transmission Can transfer from other animals, although tend to prefer specific host.
Clinical signs Signs may vary from asymptomatic to fleabite allergy. Pruritus, inflammation, or
anemia can also occur, especially in young or sick animals with heavy
infestation.
Diagnosis Finding fleas or flea dirt in the coat.
Ticks
Transmission Similar to transmission in other mammals
Clinical signs Itching. May transmit other diseases.
Diagnosis Finding ticks on animals. Others in group may be affected.
Non-infectious disease
Dental disease
Risk factor ---
Clinical Signs Decreased appetite, weight loss.
Diagnosis Physical exam, radiographs.
Species reported Red pandas are prone to it (Denver 2003).
Hyperthyroidism
Risk factor ---
Clinical Signs ---
Diagnosis Physical exam, serum chemistry.
Species reported Raccoon (Denver 2003).
Hepatic disease
Risk factor Diet change.
Clinical Signs Increased ATL.
Diagnosis Blood chemistry, biopsy.
Species reported Red panda (Montali et al. 1989).
Renal disease (interstitial nephritis)

Risk factor Some cases in wild raccoons due to leptospirosis, others unknown cause.
Clinical Signs Similar to other mammals with renal disease. Dependent on stage of disease.


Diagnosis Histopathology
Species reported Free ranging raccoons (Hamir et al. 2001).
Cardiac disease (CHF and cardiomegaly)

Risk factor ---
Clinical Signs As in other mammals
Diagnosis Physical exam, radiographs, ultrasound.
Species reported Red pandas
Uterine neoplasia
Risk factor Possibly MGA implants.
Clinical Signs Purulent vaginal discharge
Diagnosis Physical exam, histopathology.
Species reported Coati (Chittick et al. 2001)
Useful Veterinary References: (This list is not exhaustive, but a sampling of medical references not
cited.)
Fournier, P., Fournier-Chambrillon, C., Vie, J.C. (1998). Immobilization of wild kinkajous (Potos flavus)
with medetomidine-ketamine and reversal by atipamezole. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine
29(2):190-194.
Hanson, W.L., Boggs, D.F., Kay, J.M., Hofmeister, S.E., Okada, O., Wagner, Jr. W.W. (2000). Pulmonary
vascular response of the coati to chronic hypoxia. Journal of Applied Physiology 88(3): 981-986.

Chapter 7. Reproduction
7.1 Reproductive Physiology and Behavior
It is important to have a comprehensive understanding of the reproductive physiology and behaviors
of the animals in our care. This knowledge facilitates all aspects of reproduction, artificial insemination,
birthing, rearing, and even contraception efforts that AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums strive to
achieve.
Procyonids have relatively small litters (usually 1-4 young per litter and most often 2-3) of altricial
young that remain nest bound for at least 45 days. The temperate species (raccoon and ringtail) tend to
be seasonal breeders and the approximate timing of parturition can be predicted with some confidence.
(Ringtails‟ estrus lasts one to two days, generally occurring in April or May.) The tropically distributed
species (e.g., kinkajou, olingo, and some raccoon species) are not seasonal, and should be monitored
much more closely for evidence of pending parturition.
Table 13: Selected Procyonidae reproduction/development parameters (from: Denver 2003; Reed-Smith et al. 2003,
Appendix K)
Brown/white
Raccoon Kinkajou Ringtail Cacomistle
Parameter** nosed coati
(Procyon lotor) (Potos flavus) (B. astutus) (B. sumichrasti)
(Nasua)
Breeding season Mid-Dec to Feb-Apr in Nonseasonal Feb-May Year-round, peaks
early August Panama; in late winter
Non-seasonal in
zoos
Estrous freq. Typically 1-3 times per Polyestrous Monestrous ---
monestrous year
Estrus duration 9 days 10 days Estrus lasts 4- 24-36 hours 24 hour
6 days every conception period
60 days or so
Courtship Elaborate Lek-like mating Non-ritualized. Increased, Submissive
movement system localized urine chirps, crouches,
patterns depositing and and “coy” behavior
scattering of
feces
Copulation May last as 23-60 minutes, Several times Several times Several times per
long as an repeatedly over over several per hour for a hour for a few
hour the course of 10 days few minutes minutes at a time
days
Gestation (days) 60-75 70-77 112-118 51-54 63-64
No. of offspring 1-7, usually 3- 2-7,usually 3-5 1, rarely 2 1-5, usually 2-4 1-5
4
Birth weight (g) 60-75 100-180 150-200 28 Ave. 28
Eyes open (days) 18-23 ~10-11 7-19 21-34 31-34
First solid food ~7-8 weeks 8-10 weeks 7-8 weeks ~4 weeks ~4 weeks
Weaned 7-16 weeks By 4 months ~4 months 3-4 months ~4 months
Sexual maturity* Females at 9- ~2 years for Males at 1½ ~9-10 months Some say ~10
10 months; males & females years and months, others 1.9
males at ~2 females at 2¼ years
years years.
* Capable of breeding but may not be successful until older
** Poglayen-Neuwall 1995; Gompper & Decker 1998; Stanley et al. 1999; Haas & Roback 2000; B.Snyder, unpublished information.
It has been speculated that ringtail and cacomistle (Bassariscus spp.) may mate permanently or
semi-permanently in the wild but there is no evidence of direct male parental care, and females even
endeavor to keep males away from the nest containing infants. Most female procyonids reproduce in their
second year and males become sexually mature somewhat later; all have reproductive life spans in

excess of 10 years. Females may be seasonally polyestrous (although some, like Bassariscus, are
monestrous) and adult females not reproducing in the spring may cycle again within four months with the
result that a second birthing season may occur unusually late in the year. While breeding is seasonal in
many species in the wild, this appears to be a resource-based effect, with reproductive seasons tending
to decay and even disappear in zoos or aquariums. Increasing winter photoperiod plays an important role
in initiating reproduction for seasonal breeders. Some of the procyonids do show marked behavioral
differences seasonally. Typically these changes are observed during the breeding season or when a
female is in estrus, for example when male coatis join the female troop during breeding season. Also,
typically solitary animals, such as the raccoon, olingo, ringtail, and cacomistle, may spend more time with
an exhibit mate (Roberts 1997). Hormonal tracking of a male or female‟s reproductive status is possible
using fecal or urine hormonal metabolite testing. If this is required, the AZA SCTAG Chair should be
contacted for the current Reproductive Advisor‟s name and contact information.
Gestations tend to scale with body size and most range between 60 days (ringtail and cacomistle)
and 72-77 days (coati). A gestation of 113-117 days is on record for the kinkajou (B.Snyder, unpublished
information, 2003). The onset of the breeding season is marked by increased activity and agonism,
especially among males; mating itself is prolonged and vigorous. This is especially the case for raccoons
where males have a very long, re-curved baculum, which presumably has evolved as a result of inter-
sexual competition among males. Most species are solitary and females should be isolated from all
conspecifics during the birth and rearing period. While coatis are gregarious during the non-breeding
period, females leave the band to give birth and typically do not rejoin the group until some weeks after
parturition. Therefore, provision should be made to isolate expectant females in this species as well
(Roberts 1997).
In ringtail and cacomistle females there is a clear swelling of the vulva 7-10 days before peak estrus;
females of these species are receptive only for about 24 hours (Partridge 1992). Successful breeding in
the ringtail often can be marked by observing the female whose vulva has sealed shut with a layer of
dried vaginal fluid covering it. This is normal and no attempts should be made to clear this up unless there
is evidence of another underlying condition that mandates intervention.
Coati: Female coatis should be housed as a group, neutered/young males can be housed with the
females, but the breeding male should be introduced only when a female shows signs of estrus. Groups
of females with young are the typical social structure of the coati species. Male coatis should be
introduced to females once they begin to show behavioral signs of estrus. It is suggested that the
breeding pair be introduced to one another in a neutral space, or one familiar to the female. Off-exhibit
holding areas are ideal for this if they are large enough (V.Walkosak, unpublished information 2003). The
male and female should also be introduced to one another away from the group; if excessive aggression
occurs the pair should be separated and reintroduced several hours to a day later (V.Walkosak,
unpublished information 2003). Due to the generally solitary nature of coati males, provisions should be
made to allow for isolation of males if required (Standley 1992). Typically males only join female groups
for mating. Outside of the breeding season the females and juveniles drive the males away. In zoos and
aquariums, females are particularly intolerant of males following parturition (Standley 1992).
Male coatis can remain apart from female groups except during the breeding season, but coatis have
a flexible social organization, and in some locations males associate with female groups at all times of
year (Booth-Binczik 2001; Hirsch 2007). When female groups are very large, male coatis exhibit lek-like
mating behaviors (Booth-Binczik et al. 2004, personal communication); during the breeding season males
display to attract females. Such displays include fighting with other males, which frequently results in
serious injury and, occasionally death of the opponent.
Young males should be removed from coati groups before they reach sexual maturity at about two
years of age (Campbell 2001). Neutered males can be maintained in all-female groups (V.Walkosak,
unpublished information 2003).
Ringtail and cacomistle: Typically, male ringtails and cacomistles play no role in the rearing of young
(Partridge 1992). Some experts believe the female will allow the male to rejoin the family group when the
young are roughly three weeks of age (Poglayen-Neuwall & Toweill 1988). Others believe the young are
still vulnerable to infanticide at that age and that the male should not be reintroduced until much later
(K.Schilling, personal experience).
Ringtail and cacomistle females housed in trios should be separated from the other female as they
are likely to interfere with one another‟s litters resulting in infanticide (Partridge 1992). Pregnant females

also will become hostile to the male, who should also be removed. Sometimes this expected aggression
does not occur, usually when pairs are housed together. In these cases, the male may be driven from the
communal nest box, and so alternate sleeping boxes should be provided for him shortly before parturition
(Partridge 1992).
The rate of cannibalism is extremely high in ex situ populations of ringtails (K.Schilling, personal
experience). Females should feel safe and secure when raising a litter. Removal of the male is highly
advisable to prevent one or both of the ringtails from cannibalizing the kits (K.Schilling, personal
experience).
Kinkajou: Kinkajou trios can be left together at all times during breeding. Some trios may be kept together
through parturition with one female even helping care for the other‟s young. In other cases the pregnant
female may need to be moved to other quarters. Close monitoring by keepers will determine the
appropriate course of action for a particular trio (Kays & Gittleman 2001). See Appendix K for more
detailed information.
Facilities for Reproduction: Proper nest and maternal management is essential if successful
reproduction is a primary goal of ex situ population maintenance. Prior to parturition, females will locate a
suitable nest site and will prepare it by adding nest material. Straw, hay, grasses, leaves, twigs, and
sticks will be used if available. Some procyonids routinely move infants during the nest bound phase of
development so alternative nest areas should be provided to accommodate for this behavior. While some
species (e.g., raccoon) are fairly adaptable to zoos and aquariums and will rear young in almost any nest
area provided, other species (e.g., ringtail and cacomistle) are much less flexible, and care should be
taken to provide appropriate and secure nest areas. Often, the provision of a number of nest areas prior
to birth allowing the expectant mother to choose an acceptable one is all that is necessary (Roberts
1997).
Pregnant females should be provided with a nest box located away from the group (coatis) or male
(kinkajou, ringtail, cacomistle, and olingo). If the exhibit is large enough to allow a parturient female to
isolate herself, it is acceptable to leave her with the group. This size may vary from female to female, in
general it should be interpreted as large enough to allow the female complete separation from the sounds
and smells of conspecifics. Typically, a parturient female should be moved to a quiet, secure location,
which she has previously been familiarized with (Campbell 2001; Reed-Smith et al. 2003). See Section
7.3 for additional species-specific information.
7.2 Assisted Reproductive Technology
The practical use of artificial insemination (AI) with animals was developed during the early 1900s to
replicate desirable livestock characteristics to more progeny. Over the last decade or so, AZA-accredited
zoos and aquariums have begun using AI processes more often with many of the animals residing in their
care. AZA Studbooks are designed to help manage animal populations by providing detailed genetic and
demographic analyses to promote genetic diversity with breeding pair decisions within and between our
institutions. While these decisions are based upon sound biological reasoning, the efforts needed to
ensure that transports and introductions are done properly to facilitate breeding between the animals are
often quite complex, exhaustive, and expensive, and conception is not guaranteed.
AI has become an increasingly popular technology that is being used to meet the needs identified in
the AZA Studbooks without having to re-locate animals. Males are trained to voluntarily produce semen
samples and females are being trained for voluntary insemination and pregnancy monitoring procedures
such as blood and urine hormone measurements and ultrasound evaluations. Techniques used to
preserve and freeze semen have been achieved with a variety, but not all, taxa and should be
investigated further.
AI is not a technique currently used in procyonids.
7.3 Pregnancy and Parturition
It is extremely important to understand the physiological and behavioral changes that occur
throughout a procyonid‟s pregnancy.
Coati: In the wild, female coatis will leave the band to give birth, and will not rejoin it until the young are
roughly six weeks of age (Standley 1992). Parturient females should be separated from the group or
other exhibit mates; females are known to vigorously defend their nests, which could lead to animal injury
or neglect of the young (Standley 1992).

Female coatis left with the group to give birth have exhibited aggression towards the male (Campbell
2001), and if there is insufficient cage space „kidnapping‟ of the young among the mothers has been
reported (Grzimek 1990). Walkosak (unpublished information 2003) states the separation of a parturient
female coati into an adjacent suite, which includes nest box, climbing structures, food, water, etc. has
been key to the successful rearing of young; this should be an area the female is familiar with. Some
managers recommend the male should be removed from the females after breeding season and not held
within scent/visual range when the female gives birth. Booth-Binczik (personal communication) offers this
observation from the wild: “…females interact amicably with males throughout pregnancy and nesting -
they just don't allow them to actually go to the nest. They generally don't allow other females to go to the
nest either…females sharing a nest was observed on a couple of occasions.” It may not be necessary to
remove the male from scent/visual range, something that should be evaluated in each situation, and
closely bonded females pregnant simultaneously may be able to be left together in some situations.
Management choices should be evaluated based on physical size/layout of the exhibit and individual
animals involved (Booth-Binczik, personal communication).
Female coatis should be provided with their own nest box that should be approximately 61 cm x 46
cm x 61 cm (2 ft long x 1.5 ft wide x 2 ft high) (Standley 1992; Campbell 2001), as well as an alternate
nesting site where she can move her young if she becomes nervous (Standley 1992; V. Walkosak,
unpublished information 2003). Female coatis should be separated from the group just prior to giving birth
(V. Walkosak, unpublished information 2003). The female should be left alone without human
interference, unless required, or the mother can become too stressed (Haas & Roback 2000).
The well-bedded nest boxes should be provided in quiet, private areas easily accessed by the keeper
staff, once the female has settled down, for cleaning and monitoring of young development.
Kinkajou: Kinkajou pairs can be left together for parturition but should be monitored for aggression or
excessive interference by the male with the young (B. Snyder, unpublished information 2003). Some trios
can be left together but should be closely monitored, especially the first time one of the females gives
birth (Kays & Gittleman 2001). See Appendix K for more detailed information.
Ringtail and Cacomistle: There is a high rate of cannibalism of ringtail babies in ex situ populations,
often as the result of improper husbandry. This is a highly sensitive species that should be given ample
time (several weeks) to become accustomed to new surroundings before giving birth. Schilling
recommends isolating female ringtails in familiar surroundings and that unfamiliar/loud noises should be
kept to a minimum (K. Schilling, personal experience). Females should be given quiet and privacy as well
as nest box choices. Females of both species should be separated from exhibit mates. Primiparous
ringtail females should be monitored to ensure they are caring for their young and have not abandoned or
eaten them. Poglayen-Neuwall (1980b) reports for the ringtail:
“The annual breeding season extends from Feb. into May, with the majority of matings taking
place in April. The female is receptive during a 24 hour period only, which coincides with the peak
of the estrous swelling of her vulva. If conception has occurred, vulval swelling commences again
a few days after the termination of the estrous cycle and shows another peak at the time of
parturition. Recurring vulval swelling is an indication of pregnancy in addition to mammary
development and increased abdominal girth. The gestation period in this species varies from 51
days and 8 hours to 53 days and 14 hours, and parturition may last from 85-126 min. This is the
shortest gestation period among Procyonidae. No post-partum estrus with copulations was
observed even after the loss of neonate young.”
In another article (original articles in German, this information is taken from English summaries),
Poglayen-Neuwall, I. (1980a) states:
“Young ringtails frequently ingest saliva from the mother's mouth during the nutritional weaning
stage, when the mother's mammary glands begin to dry up. Spontaneously, or more often after
prodding by the young, the mother facilitates the saliva licking by opening her mouth and bending
her head toward the young. When the young are essentially weaned, fully mobile and capable of
following the mother on extended foraging excursions, the mother will deny the young access to
her mouth and the interest of the young in this source of fluid will wane rapidly. This behavior may
contribute to the survival of young ringtails under conditions of aridity and excessive heat by
minimizing the danger of dehydration.”

See Table 13 for estrus, courtship, copulation, gestation, and kit development information.
7.4 Birthing Facilities
As parturition approaches, animal care staff should ensure that the mother is comfortable in the area
where the birth will take place, and that this area is “baby-proofed.” See below for summary information
about birthing facilities, however Section 7.1 and 7.3 also should be consulted for management
considerations.
Coati: Female coatis should be provided with their own nest box that should be approximately 61cm x
46cm x 61cm (2 ft long x 1.5 ft wide x 2 ft high) (Standley 1992, Campbell 2001), as well as an alternate
nesting site where she can move her young if she becomes nervous (Standley 1992; V.Walkosak,
unpublished information 2003). Female coatis should be separated from the group just prior to giving birth
(V.Walkosak, unpublished information 2003). The female should be left alone without human interference,
unless required, or the mother can become too stressed (Haas & Roback 2000).
The well-bedded nest boxes should be provided in quiet, private areas easily accessed by the keeper
staff, once the female has settled down, for cleaning and monitoring of young development.
Kinkajou: No information is available on recommended nest box size for this species. The female should
be provided with at least two nest box choices; boxes should be large enough for her to turn around in
and to accommodate the presence of young. Boxes should be provided with dry nesting material.
Females should not be disturbed immediately after parturition unless trouble is suspected. Normal
routines should be maintained but noise kept to a minimum.
Ringtail and Cacomistle: There is a high rate of cannibalism of ringtail babies in ex situ populations,
often as the result of improper husbandry. This is a highly sensitive species that should be given ample
time (several weeks) to become accustomed to new surroundings before giving birth. Schilling
recommends isolating female ringtails in familiar surroundings and that unfamiliar/loud noises should be
kept to a minimum (K. Schilling, personal experience). Females should be given quiet and privacy as well
as nest box choices. Females of both species should be separated from exhibit mates. Primiparous
ringtail females should be monitored to ensure they are caring for their young and have not abandoned or
eaten them.
7.5 Assisted Rearing
Although mothers may successfully give birth, there are times when they are not able to properly care
for their offspring, both in the wild and in ex situ populations. Fortunately, animal care staff in AZA-
accredited institutions are able to assist with the rearing of these offspring if necessary.
Hand-rearing: Hand rearing may be necessary for a variety of reasons – rejection by the parents, ill
health of the mother, or weakness of the offspring. Careful consideration should be given as hand rearing
requires a great deal of time and commitment (Muir 2003).
Before the decision to hand rear is made, the potential for undesirable behavioral problems in a hand-
reared adult should be carefully weighed (aggression towards humans, inappropriate species-specific
behavior, etc.), and plans made to minimize deleterious effects on the development of natural behaviors
as far as possible. This may require extensive time commitment on the part of staff, plans for fostering,
relocation of the young, exposure to species-specific sounds, etc. Once the decision has been made and
the young have been abandoned by the mother, or are consistently getting weaker/losing weight, it is best
to remove the infants as soon as possible.
If young have been abandoned by their mother it is best to remove them to prevent infanticide. If the
offspring are being cared for but receiving no milk they will be restless, possibly calling continuously, or
conversely they may be hypothermic and scattered around the enclosure. Another indicator of trouble
would be the female moving around the exhibit continuously while carrying the young; this could mean
she is not comfortable with the denning provided, or there is something wrong with her or the young (Muir
2003).
If it is necessary to remove offspring because of an exceptionally large litter, it is best to remove two
of the largest infants. The temptation is often to take the smallest, but they stand the best chance if raised
by their mother. Hand-rearing of singletons is more likely to lead to severe imprinting than if they have a
conspecific to play with (Muir 2003).

Physical care: Incubators are the best source of warmth; heat lamps are too intense and can be
dehydrating or cause serious burns. Hot water bottles can be used in a pinch and hypothermic babies can
be warmed slowly by placing them next to your body (Muir 2003). Most babies will feel more secure if
wrapped in layers of towels; this also aids in keeping them warm (Muir 2003). Ringtails and cacomistles
should be placed in an incubator with a floor temperature of ~38ºC (100ºF) (Partridge 1992).
Feeding Protocols: Young mammals require a specific number of kcal/day for optimum development
and growth. If the formula being offered is nutritionally dense, fewer feedings will be necessary than with
formulas that are more dilute or low in fat or protein. Following is a method for calculating the volume of
food to be offered daily, the volume that should be offered at each feeding and the number of feedings
per day (adapted from Grant 2004).
The Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) or Basal Energy Requirement (BER) is the amount of energy (kcal)
an animal needs for basic metabolic function at rest in a thermoneutral zone. In other words, the amount
of calories it needs to stay alive, without having to use energy to maintain normal body temperatures. The
0.75
formula to determine the BER/BMR is: 70 x body wt (in kg.) (Kleiber 1947). For a 30g infant the BER
0.75 0.75
would be: 70 x 0.03 = 5.0 kcal/day. For a 90g infant the BER would be: 70 x 0.09 = 11.5 kcal/day.
For this formula, 0.75 is an exponent that is multiplied by the body weight to put mammals of different
sizes on the same playing field when assessing metabolism. As body weight increases, metabolism
decreases, so a larger animal will not have the same caloric requirement as a much smaller animal (e.g.,
mice consume a much higher percentage of their body weight than an elephant does). In order to
complete the calculations, you will need a scientific calculator that does exponents other than squares.
Follow steps 1-3 below to calculate the BER. Add step 4 if you want to calculate the Maintenance Energy
Requirement. Table 14 provides some pre-calculated MER values.
1. Key in the body weight (in kg) into the calculator
y
2. Press the exponent key (on Texas Instrument calculators the button is marked by the symbol x
representing x with the exponent y) and type in 0.75
3. Press the equals sign, and then multiply that by 70 to get the BER.
4. To calculate the MER, multiply this value by the MER factor (i.e., 2, 3 or 4) to get the kcal
required for that particular animal. .
Once the BER is established, the Maintenance Energy Requirement (MER) can be calculated. This
measurement determines the amount of calories the animal needs to function in a normal capacity at its
life stage. For adults in a maintenance life stage, the BER is multiplied by 2. For infants that have a higher
metabolism and are developing and growing, the BER is multiplied by 3 or 4 (Evans 1987), depending on
the species and other factors.
The stomach capacity for most placental mammals is 5-7% of the total body weight (Meehan 1994).
Convert the body weight into grams to find the stomach volume in ml/cc. To calculate the stomach
capacity in ounces, convert body weight into grams (30g ~ 1oz). It is important that units are the same for
body weight and stomach volume. The stomach capacity is the amount of formula an infant can
comfortably consume at one feeding. Offering much more than this value may lead to overfilling, stomach
distension and bloat. It also prevents complete emptying of the stomach before the next feeding and
promotes the overgrowth of potentially pathogenic bacteria, diarrhea, and enteritis (Evans 1987).
The following calculations will determine the total volume and kcal to feed/day, as well as the amount
of formula for each feeding and the total number of feedings daily (see Table 14 for sample calculated
kcal/day and stomach capacity for various body weights).
0.75
1. Calculate Maintenance Energy Requirement (MER): 70 x body wt (kg) x 3 or 4.
2. Determine stomach capacity (amount that can be fed at each meal): Body weight (in grams or
ounces) x 0.05.
3. Divide MER (number of calories required per day) by the number of kcal/ml in the formula to
determine the volume to be consumed per day. This value can be converted into ounces, by
dividing it by 30.
4. Divide ml of formula per day by volume to be consumed at each meal (stomach capacity). This
gives the number of meals to be offered per day.
5. Divide 24 hours by the number of feedings/day to find the time interval between feedings.

Table 14: Chart for determining kcal/day and stomach capacity for various body weights (Grant 2004)
Weight MER (kcal/day) MER (kcal/day) Stomach capacity
0.75 0.75
(grams) [70 x bw (kg) x 3] [70 x bw (kg) x 4] (ml/feeding)
5.0 3.95 5.25 0.25
6.0 4.5 6.0 0.30
7.0 5.1 6.8 0.35
8.0 5.6 7.5 0.40
9.0 6.1 8.2 0.45
10.0 6.6 8.9 0.50
11.0 7.1 9.5 0.55
12.0 7.6 10.2 0.60
13.0 8.1 10.8 0.65
14.0 8.5 11.4 0.70
15.0 9.0 12.0 0.75
16.0 9.4 12.6 0.80
17.0 9.9 13.2 0.85
18.0 10.3 13.8 0.90
19.0 10.7 14.3 0.95
20.0 11.2 14.9 1.0
25.0 13.2 17.6 1.25
30.0 15.1 20.2 1.50
35.0 17.0 22.7 1.75
40.0 18.8 25.0 2.0
45.0 20.5 27.4 2.25
50.0 22.2 29.6 2.5
55.0 23.9 31.8 2.75
60.0 25.5 33.9 3.0
65.0 27.0 36.0 3.25
70.0 28.6 38.1 3.5
75.0 30.1 40.1 3.75
80.0 31.6 42.1 4.0
85.0 33.1 44.0 4.25
90.0 34.5 46.0 4.5
95.0 35.9 47.9 4.75
100 37.3 49.8 5.0
125 44.1 58.9 6.25
150 50.6 67.5 7.5
175 56.8 75.8 8.75
200 62.8 83.7 10.0
250 74.2 --- 12.5
300 85.1 --- 15.0
350 95.6 --- 17.5
400 105.6 --- 20.0
Initially the animal should receive only an electrolyte solution for the first 2-3 feedings, depending on
how compromised it is. This is to rehydrate the animal and clear the stomach of the maternal milk. Then
the artificial formula is started at a diluted concentration, generally at a 1:4 ratio (mixed formula: water) for
another two to three feedings. It generally takes 48-72 hours to get the animal on full-strength formula by
gradually offering higher concentrations. Depending on the species, three to four feedings of each
concentration level (1:3, 1:2, 1:1, full-strength) are recommended to allow for adaptation and to minimize
the onset of digestive problems, particularly diarrhea. During the initial phase, weight loss is to be
expected but the animal should quickly begin to maintain weight and then start gaining as the formula
concentration increases. It‟s important that the infants not be given full strength formula too soon (in less
than 48 hours after pulling for hand-rearing) because the likelihood of diarrhea occurring is extremely
high. Diarrhea is of particular concern with neonates less than one week of age because they have very
little or no immunity to infections.
The stomach capacity of most eutherian mammals is 5% body weight (bw). This is the volume of
formula that should be offered at each feeding (Grant 2004). The total volume offered per day will depend

on how nutrient dense the formula is. The optimal amount would be the number of kcal calculated from
the infant‟s body weight (see Table 14).
As a general rule, animals should not have an overnight break between feedings that are longer than
twice the time period between daytime feedings (equivalent to missing one feeding). For example, if you
are feeding every three hours during the day, they can go six hours at night without food. When they are
eating every four hours, they can go eight hours at night. It is not advisable to go more than eight hours
between feedings with species that typically nurse throughout the day when mother-raised. Intervals
between feeding also will depend on how healthy or strong the infants are. Very weak neonates will
probably need feedings every few hours even through the night; typically this is necessary for only a few
days to a week.
Feed only if the infant is hungry and suckling vigorously. Weak infants may be hypothermic,
dehydrated and/or hypoglycemic. It is recommended to not offer anything by mouth until the body
temperature is within the normal range for its age. Offer oral electrolytes if it will suckle, or give
subcutaneously if it is weak or dehydrated. Offer 2.5-5% dextrose to raise glucose level, if necessary.
Babies will not die from being slightly underfed, but overfeeding may result in gastrointestinal disease that
is potentially fatal. Young animals will be hungry at some feedings, less at others, but this is quite normal
(Muir 2003).
It is important to keep in mind that neonates are obligate nose breathers and incapable of breathing
through their mouths and nursing at the same time. For this reason, respiratory infections can be life
threatening because they may interfere with breathing and make nursing difficult or impossible (Meier
1985). Aspirated formula is frequently a contributing factor to neonatal respiratory infections; to avoid this
be sure to select the appropriate nipple. The nipple‟s hole should suit the neonate‟s sucking reflex. Also, if
a nipple is too stiff, the pup may tire and refuse to nurse.
Hold the pup in the correct nursing position; ventrally or sternally recumbent (tummy down, not on its
back), with the head up. Place the hand holding the bottle in such a way that it provides a surface for the
pup to push against with its front feet. If milk comes through their nose the nipple hole may be too large or
the pup may be trying to eat too quickly.
If an animal aspirates fluids the recommended protocol is to hold the infant with head and chest lower
than the hind end. A rubber bulb syringe should be used to suck out as much fluid from the nostrils and
the back of the throat as possible. If aspiration is suspected, or if fluid is heard in the lungs, contact the
veterinarian immediately; do not administer drugs without the veterinarian‟s involvement. Monitor body
temperature closely for the occurrence of a fever and a decline in the animal‟s appetite and general
attitude. Depending on the condition and age of the animal, diagnostic procedures may include
radiographs, CBC, chemistry. It is possible to start a course of antibiotics while results from the blood
work are pending, and the attending veterinarian can prescribe an appropriate antibiotic course.
Digestive upset is a common issue with hand-reared neonates, and may be associated with several
factors (Meier 1985): a) inappropriate milk formula, b) feeding frequency, c) overfilling the stomach, d)
rapid changes in the diet, and e) improper storage of formula (spoilage). Unused formula requires
refrigeration, and is safe to use for 24-36 hours after preparation and refrigeration. Refer to the label
guidelines of the formula manufacturer. When digestive upset, characterized by diarrhea, bloating,
inappetance, and/or extreme fuzziness occurs, it is recommended that one factor is analyzed and/or
changed at a time. Lactose intolerance also should be considered, particularly for the coati (D.Bressler,
personal communication).
® ® ® ®
Ringtail and cacomistle: The formula of choice is Esbilac (Pet Ag manufacture KMR , Esbilac , Multi-
® ®
Milk and the Zoologic Milk Matrix line; contact details: 261 Keyes Ave., Hampshire, IL. 60140, 1-800-
323-0877/ 1-800-323-6878 www.petag.com), which should be offered 9 times per day for the first 14
days. Total intake per day should be about 6ml per 24 hours for this period. On days 15-30, 18ml should
be offered, daily, in 7 feedings (Partridge 1992). Total food amounts should be based on the infant‟s
®
weight. KMR should not be used for ringtail; they appear to respond initially but then can go downhill
quickly, often dying.
Kittens should be stimulated to urinate and defecate for the first three weeks. Solid food should be
introduced into the diet on approximately day 35 at which time the Esbilac can be increased up to ~43ml
per day and the number of feedings reduced to five. By day 60, Esbilac should be reduced to one feeding
of ~30ml and can be eliminated entirely by day 80. The amount of solids offered should be gradually

increased to ~140grams by day 90. Artificial heating can be discontinued when the kittens are about five
weeks of age as long as the ambient temperature stays between 24-30ºC (75-86ºF) (Partridge 1992).
® ® ®
Raccoons: The formula of choice for these species is KMR or Milk Matrix 42/25 (Pet Ag ). Mix one part
powder to two parts water by volume for either product after first ensuring that the kit is well hydrated. The
kit should be offered 3:1 rehydrating solution to formula, then half and half before being fed 100%
®
formula. The weaning diet should be comprised of soaked puppy chow, Gerber high-protein baby cereal,
and KMR powder with enough water to make up an oatmeal-like consistency. Kits with their eyes still
closed may need to be tube feed (DeGhetto et al. 2002).
®
Coati: The formula of choice is Esbilac /water mixed at a 1:2 ratio. Day one pups should start with a
hydrating formula solution, progressing gradually over several days to a 1:1 formula/water mix then to
straight formula. Formula should be kept at 35-37.8°C (95-100°F) or the baby coati will refuse it. All
nipples should be the same size, color, and texture or they might refuse the bottle. Pups should be fed
every 2 hours until two weeks of age, and every 3 hours until three weeks of age; at this stage rice cereal
should be added to the formula (just enough to thicken it). At 3 weeks, the pups should be fed every 4
hours with a mixture of 1 part formula, 2 parts water, 1 part cereal, 1 part baby peaches (jarred) until five
weeks of age. At five weeks of age, pups can go 6 hours overnight without feeding them (D. Bressler,
®
personal communication). Since coatis are lactose intolerant, Lactaid pills should now be added to
mixture (2 crushed pills for every 12 scoops of formula) (D. Bressler, personal communication).
Final weaning should not occur before 16 weeks of age (weaning age in the wild). However, weaning
may begin at 8 weeks of age with the addition of foods, such as mashed bananas, soaked puppy food,
dry puppy food, and scrambled eggs. At this time, the pup should be offered formula in a bottle 4 times a
day. Pups should be stimulated to urinate until they are three to four weeks of age. The amount of
formula offered should be based on the pups age and weight (see Table 14) (D. Bressler, personal
communication).
7.6 Contraception
Many procyonids cared for in AZA-accredited institutions breed so successfully that contraception
techniques are implemented to ensure that the population remains at a healthy size.
In addition to reversible contraception, reproduction can be prevented by separating the sexes or by
permanent sterilization. In general, reversible contraception is preferable because it allows natural social
groups to be maintained while managing the genetic health of the population. Permanent sterilization may
be considered for individuals that are genetically well-represented or for whom reproduction would pose
health risks. The contraceptive methods most suitable for procyonids are outlined below. More details on
products, application, and ordering information can be found on the AZA Wildlife Contraception Center
(WCC) webpage: www.stlzoo.org/contraception.
The progestin-based melengestrol acetate (MGA) implant, previously the most widely used
contraceptive in zoos, has been associated with uterine and mammary pathology in felids and suspected
in other carnivore species (Harrentstein et al 1996, Munson et al 2002, Munson 2006). Other progestins
® ®
(e.g., Depo-Provera , Ovaban ) are likely to have the same deleterious effects (e.g., Chittick et al. 2001;
Munson et al. 2002). For carnivores, the AZA Wildlife Contraception Center now recommends GnRH
® ®
agonists, e.g., Suprelorin (deslorelin) implants or Lupron Depot (leuprolide acetate) as safer
alternatives. Although it appears safe and effective, dosages and duration of efficacy have not been
systematically evaluated for all species. GnRH agonists can be used in either females or males, and side
effects are generally those associated with gonadectomy, especially weight gain, which should be
®
managed through diet. Suprelorin was developed for domestic dogs, but has been tested in very few
procyonids (e.g., coati).
®
Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH) Agonists: GnRH agonists (Suprelorin implants, or Lupron
®
Depot ) achieve contraception by reversibly suppressing the reproductive endocrine system and
preventing production of pituitary (FSH and LH) and gonadal hormones (estradiol and progesterone in
females and testosterone in males) (Munson et al. 2001). The observed effects are similar to those
following either ovariectomy in females or castration in males, but are reversible. GnRH agonists first
stimulate the reproductive system, which can result in estrus and ovulation in females or temporary
enhancement of testosterone and semen production in males. Then, down-regulation follows the initial
stimulation. The stimulatory phase can be prevented in females by daily Ovaban administration for one
week before and one week after implant placement (Wright et al. 2001).

GnRH agonists should not be used during pregnancy, since they may cause spontaneous abortion or
prevent mammary development necessary for lactation. They may prevent initiation of lactation by
inhibiting progesterone secretion, but effects on established lactation are less likely. New data from
domestic cats have shown no effect on subsequent reproduction when treatment began before puberty;
no research in prepubertal procyonids has been conducted (Bertschinger et al. 2001).
A drawback of these products is that time of reversal cannot be controlled. Neither the implant
® ®
(Suprelorin ) nor the depot vehicle (Lupron ) can be removed to shorten the duration of efficacy to time
reversals. The most widely used formulations are designed to be effective either 6 or 12 months, but
those are for the most part minimum durations, which can be longer in some individuals.
Although GnRH agonists can also be an effective contraceptive in males, they are more commonly
used in females, because monitoring efficacy by suppression of estrous behavior or cyclic gonadal
steroids in feces is usually easier than ensuring continued absence of sperm in males, since most
®
institutions cannot perform regular semen collections. Suprelorin has been tested primarily in domestic
®
dogs, whereas Lupron Depot has been used primarily in humans, but should be as effective as
®
Suprelorin , since the GnRH molecule is identical in all mammalian species.
If used in males, disappearance of sperm from the ejaculate following down-regulation of testosterone
may take an additional 6 weeks, as with vasectomy. It should be easier to suppress the onset of
spermatogenesis in seasonally breeding species, but that process begins at least 2 months before the
first typical appearance of sperm. Thus, treatment should be initiated at least 2 months before the
anticipated onset of breeding.
® ®
Progestins: If progestins (Melengestrol acetate (MGA) implants, Depo-Provera injections, Ovaban
pills) have to be used, they should be administered for no more than 2 years, and then discontinued to
allow for a pregnancy. Discontinuing progestin contraception and allowing non-pregnant cycles does not
substitute for a pregnancy. Use of progestins for more than a total of 4 years is not recommended. MGA
implants last at least 2 years, and clearance of the hormone from the system occurs rapidly after implant
removal. Progestins are considered safe to use during lactation.
Vaccines: The porcine zona pellucida (PZP) vaccine has not been tested in procyonids but may cause
permanent sterility in many carnivore species after only one or two treatments. This method is not
recommended.
Ovariectomy or Ovariohysterectomy: Removal of ovaries is a safe and effective method to prevent
reproduction for animals that are eligible for permanent sterilization. In general, ovariectomy is sufficient
in young females, whereas, removal of the uterus as well as ovaries is preferable in older females, due to
the increased likelihood of uterine pathology with age.
Coati: In consultation with the AZA Small Carnivore TAG, ovariohistorectomies may be performed at ~6
months of age and are performed as other spay procedures on mammals: 2-0 PDS or Maxon is
recommended for ligating the pedicles and muscle layer; SQ and intra-dermal sutures are very important.
The skin can be closed with a small amount of surgical glue (e.g., Nexaband) (S. Grant, personal
communication).
Vasectomy: Vasectomy of males will not prevent potential adverse effects to females that can result from
prolonged, cyclic exposure to the endogenous progesterone associated with the pseudo-pregnancy that
follows ovulation. This method is not recommended for procyonids.

Chapter 8. Behavior Management

8.1 Animal Training
Classical and operant conditioning techniques have been used to train animals for over a century.
Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov. Classical
conditioning involves the presentation of a neutral stimulus that will be conditioned (CS) along with an
unconditioned stimulus that evokes an innate, often reflexive, response (US). If the CS and the US are
repeatedly paired, eventually the two stimuli become associated and the animal will begin to produce a
conditioned behavioral response to the CS.
Operant conditioning uses the consequences of a behavior to modify the occurrence and form of that
behavior. Reinforcement and punishment are the core tools of operant conditioning. Positive
reinforcement occurs when a behavior is followed by a favorable stimulus to increase the frequency of
that behavior. Negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior is followed by the removal of an aversive
stimulus to also increase the frequency of that behavior. Positive punishment occurs when a behavior is
followed by an aversive stimulus to decrease the frequency of that behavior. Negative punishment occurs
when a behavior is followed by the removal of a favorable stimulus also to decrease the frequency of that
behavior.
AZA-accredited institutions are expected to utilize reinforcing conditioning techniques to facilitate
husbandry procedures and behavioral research investigations.
AZA SCTAG Recommendations: As far as possible, all procyonids should routinely shift into a holding
area and readily separate into specific holding areas on cue. It is recommended that all animals should be
trained to do the following:
Shift and station: The animal should come when called by the keeper for daily, visual health checks; this
is most often accomplished with fencing or a mesh barrier between keeper and animal.
Remain calm: The animal should be calm and not aggressive during visual health checks, and during all
training interactions.
Crate: The animal should enter a crate on cue (e.g., Wooster 1998).
Station and scale: The animal should stand on a scale for routine weighing.
Clicker and target training have proven to be extremely successful with procyonid and very useful
when training routine and unusual husbandry procedures. These species respond very well to positive
reinforcement. Procyonids are good candidates for desensitizing or training for non-routine procedures
such as blood draws, hair clipping for identification, mouth checks, etc. See Appendix H for examples
provided by the AAZK Animal Training Committee. See Table 15 for a list of behaviors commonly trained
with ex situ populations of procyonids.
Table 15: Commonly trained behaviors in procyonids
Raccoons Ringtails Kinkajou Coati
Show paws/feet Show paws/feet Target Show paws/feet
Separations Target Blood draw Show belly
Station Station Injection Target
Target Show side/torso Stethoscope Stations
Stand up Show belly Otoscope Separations
Lie parallel Stethoscope Ophthalmoscope Shift
Climb Stand on a scale Leash on/off Climb
Carry an object Shift Move from A to B Stand on a scale
Enter squeeze cage or Climb Enter squeeze cage or Enter squeeze cage or
crate crate crate
Nail trim Injections
Take oral medications
Out (go on exhibit)
Shape discrimination
Keepers should avoid use of aversive stimuli in the daily management of procyonids. Profound
aversive stimuli such as squirting with hoses, loud noises, harsh words, and long-term withholding of food

are inappropriate unless serious injury of keeper or animal is imminent (e.g., serious fight). Many of the
procyonids respond to profound aversive stimuli with fear and/or aggression. It is best to maintain all
keeper/animal interactions positive and pleasant. Assessing the animal‟s motivation (why should it “want”
to come in? Why does it “want” to stay outside?) is a useful exercise when training problems occur.
Patience and planning are keys to success (Wooster 1998). See Appendix H for examples of commonly
trained behaviors (AAZK Animal Training Committee). The following table (Table 16) provides
descriptions of behavioral cues and criteria for trained behaviors used with procyonids.
Table 16: Sample trained behaviors, cues, and reinforcement criteria*
Species Behavior Verbal cue** Visual cue** Criteria for reinforcement
Coati Stationing Station ----- Standing in assigned spot
Coati Target on Target Tennis ball on a stick Standing with nose on target
item
Coati Scale Scale Point to scale Standing calmly on scale
Kinkajou Go into crate Crate Point to crate Animal enters and allows door
to be closed
Kinkajou Collar with Collar Show collar Animal has collar & leash put
leash on while staying calm
Raccoon Target Target Target stick presented Stands with nose on target
Raccoon Up Up Arm extended with hand Stands on hind feet while front
flat against mesh of cage feet rest on wire mesh
Raccoon Follow Follow Right index finger points Animal follows trainer
at animal
Raccoon Crate in Crate Right index finger points Animal enters crate and waits
at animal & then at crate
Raccoon Crate out Out Right index finger points Animal leaves crate
at animal & then away
from crate
Raccoon Scale Scale Animal is targeted to scale Animal stands calmly on scale
Raccoon Paw present Touch Touch apparatus is moved Animal holds bar until bridged
to front of cage
* Information from: B.Stark, Institution H; A.Varsik, Institution I; C.Shultz, Institution J; A.Dosch, Institution K; J.Gramieri, Institution L
** Verbal and visual cues may differ between facilities; the above table is intended to illustrate examples of cues used successfully.
Animal Management and Exhibit Design: In general, procyonid species can be trained in protected-
contact (i.e., keeper and animal should be separated by a mesh barrier) or free contact situations; these
decisions should be made by the institution‟s management staff, taking the species and individual animal
into consideration. It is advised that all facilities have holding areas in order to shift animals into/out of
their primary enclosure. Husbandry training may occur anywhere the individual animal seems to feel
comfortable and where the keeper can safely access them through a mesh screen. Care should be given
not to encroach upon the animal‟s flight distance. Managers and caretakers should decide if food rewards
can be hand fed through/under mesh screen or if a meat stick should be used to deliver the food.
8.2 Environmental Enrichment
Environmental enrichment, also called behavioral enrichment, refers to the practice of providing a
variety of stimuli to the animal‟s environment, or changing the environment itself to increase physical
activity, stimulate cognition, and promote natural behaviors. Stimuli, including natural and artificial objects,
scents, and sounds are presented in a safe way for the animals to interact with. Some suggestions
include providing food in a variety of ways (i.e., frozen in ice or in a manner that requires an animal to
solve simple puzzles to obtain it), using the presence or scent/sounds of other animals of the same or
different species, and incorporating an animal training (husbandry or behavioral research) regime in the
daily schedule.
It is recommended that an enrichment program be based on current information in biology, and
should include the following elements: goal-setting, planning and approval process, implementation,
documentation/record-keeping, evaluation, and subsequent program refinement. Environmental

enrichment programs should ensure that all environmental

enrichment devices (EEDs) are safe and are presented on a
variable schedule to prevent habituation. AZA-accredited (1.6.1) The institution must have a formal
written enrichment program that promotes
institutions must have a formal written enrichment program that
species-appropriate behavioral
promotes species-appropriate behavioral opportunities (AZA opportunities.
Enrichment programs should be integrated with veterinary AZA Accreditation Standard
care, nutrition, and animal training programs to maximize the
(1.6.2) The institution must have a
effectiveness and quality of animal care provided. AZA-accredited specific staff member(s) or committee
institutions must have specific staff members assigned to assigned for enrichment program
oversee, implement, train, and coordinate interdepartmental oversight, implementation, training, and
enrichment programs (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.6.2). interdepartmental coordination of
enrichment efforts.
AZA SCTAG Recommendations: Development of enrichment
ideas should be goal-oriented, proactive, based upon the animal‟s natural history, individual history, and
exhibit constraints, and should be integrated into all aspects of their ex situ population management.
Successful enrichment techniques include variation of exhibit schedule or exhibit mates (where
appropriate only), re-arranging of exhibit furniture/features, change of furniture (some of the old should
always be retained to maintain the animal‟s scent and an element of the familiar), scents, sounds, toys
(natural and artificial; care should be taken they cannot be eaten, broken, or become stuck in the animal‟s
mouth), herbs, spices, different substrates for digging/rolling, food items, and novel presentation of food
items. It is important that enrichment items are not merely thrown in an exhibit and allowed to stay for
extended periods – an enrichment program is only successful and useful if actively managed and
constantly reviewed. The American Association of Zoo Keepers (AAZK) Enrichment committee provides
the follow general guidelines about enrichment:
“The goal of enrichment should be to maximize the benefit while minimizing unacceptable risks. All
enrichment should be evaluated on three levels: 1) whether the enrichment item itself poses an
unacceptable risk to the animals, 2) what benefit the animals will derive from the enrichment, and 3)
whether the manner of enrichment delivery is apt to lead to problems.
A written plan of action that eliminates the most dangerous risk factors while maintaining the benefits
of a challenging and complex environment can help animal managers develop a safe and successful
enrichment program. Keepers should evaluate new and creative enrichment ideas with their managers
and staff from other departments (curatorial, janitorial, maintenance, veterinary, nutritional, etc.) to
decrease the frequency of abnormal and stereotypic behaviors or low activity levels, and to fine-tune
enrichment ideas. For enrichment to be safely provided, it is strongly recommended that each institution
establish enrichment procedures, protocols, and a chain of command that keepers can follow.” (AAZK
Enrichment Committee)
The AAZK Enrichment Committee also provides an excellent cautionary list for the various types of
enrichment on their web page accessed through www.aazk.org. This list includes key questions that
should be answered for all enrichment items or programs to assess potential hazards. For example:
1. Can the animals get caught in it or become trapped by it?
2. Can it be used as a weapon?
3. Can an animal be cut or otherwise injured by it?
4. Can it fall on an animal?
5. Can the animal ingest the object or piece of it? Is any part of it toxic, including paint or epoxy?
6. Can it be choked on or cause asphyxiation or strangulation?
7. Can it become lodged in the digestive system and cause gut impaction or linear obstruction?
8. In a multi-species exhibit or other social grouping, could a larger or smaller animal become stuck
or injured by the object or get hung up on it (particularly a young animal)?
9. Can it destroy an exhibit?
10. If fecal material is used for enrichment, has it been determined to be free from harmful parasites?
11. Is food enrichment included as part of the animals' regular diet in a manner that will reduce the
risk of obesity?
12. When introducing animals to conspecifics or in a multi-species exhibit, are there sufficient areas
for them to escape undesirable interactions?

13. Can the manner of enrichment presentation (i.e., one item or items placed in a small area)
promote aggression or harmful competition?
14. Has browse been determined to be non-toxic?
15. Do the animals show signs of allergies to new items (food, browse, substrates, etc.)?
16. Does the enrichment cause abnormally high stress levels?
17. Does the enrichment cause stimulation at a high level for extended periods of time that do not
allow the animal natural down time in the species' normal repertoire (e.g., constant activity for
public enjoyment when the animal would normally be inactive in its native habitat)?
AAZK Enrichment Committee, Enrichment Caution List
Dietary Enrichment
- Food enrichment, if uncontrolled, can lead to obesity and tooth decay; deviation from the normal diet
can cause nutritional problems. Keepers can consult with the nutritionist or commissary staff to
determine the best method of introducing novel food items.
- New food items introduced without analysis may cause colic, rumenitis or metabolic acidosis in
ungulates.
- Food items can spoil and cause animal illness if left in the exhibit for extended periods of time.
Enrichment food items should be removed within a reasonable amount of time to prevent spoilage.
- Animals can have adverse reactions to toxic plants and chemicals. Keepers should be able to
correctly discern between toxic and browse plants, ensure that browse is free of fertilizers and
herbicides, and wash plants to remove free ranging bird and animal feces and debris.
- Foraging or social feedings may give rise to aggression and possible injuries within the animal
population.
- Competition for enrichment items may lead to social displacement of subordinate animals. These
concerns can be minimized by providing enough enrichment to occupy all of the animals within the
population.
- Carcass feedings for omnivores and carnivores may be hazardous if the source of the carcass is not
determined and appropriate precautions taken. Diseased animals, chemically euthanized animals or
those with an unknown cause of death are not appropriate for an enrichment program. Freezing the
carcasses of animals that are determined to be safe to feed to exhibit animals can help minimize the
risk of parasitism and disease. Providing enough carcasses in group feedings can minimize
competition and aggression within an exhibit.
- Carefully introducing a group of animals to the idea of social feedings can be done by moving carcass
pieces closer together at each feeding until the animals are sharing one carcass. This can allow
social carnivores to exhibit normal dominance posturing while minimizing the possibility of
aggression. During live feedings, prey animals may fight back. Care should be taken to ensure such
prey can only inflict superficial wounds on zoo animals.
- Cage furniture may interrupt flight paths or entangle horns and hooves if poorly placed. Careful
planning can prevent this.
- If unsecured, some items may fall on an animal or be used as a weapon and cause injuries.
- If position is not thoughtfully considered, limbs and apparatus may provide avenues for escape or
may block access into exhibit safety zones, leaving subordinate animals feeling trapped and
vulnerable.
- Animals that crib or chew wood should be provided with non-toxic limbs and untreated wood furniture.
- Water features should be tailored to the inhabitants to prevent drowning and ensure that animals
such as box turtles can right themselves if they flip over on their backs.
- Animals can be injured in filtration systems if water intake areas are not protected.
- Substrates should provide adequate traction and not cause an intestinal impaction if ingested.
- Caution should be exercised when ropes, cables, or chains are used to hang or secure articles to
prevent animals from becoming entangled. Generally, the shortest length possible is recommended.
Chain can be covered with a sheath such as PVC pipe; swivels can be used to connect the chain to
the enrichment item to minimize kinking.

Olfactory Enrichment
- Scents from different animals or species can lead to aggression if there is an assertion of dominant
animals or subordinate animals attempting to use enrichment to advance their status in the hierarchy.
- Animal feces used for olfactory enrichment should be determined to be parasite free through fecal
testing and as with other animal by-products such as feathers, sheds, wool and hair, come from only
healthy animals. Many of these items can be autoclaved for sterilization.
- Perfumes can be overwhelming to some animals (and keepers) and are therefore best used in open,
ventilated areas.
- Some spices may be too strong or toxic to some animals.
Auditory Enrichment
- When provided with audio enrichment, animals may be less threatened by deflected sounds rather
than those directed at the animals.
- Some animals may have adverse reactions to recordings of predator calls and should be closely
observed when this type of enrichment is provided.
- Providing the animals with an option for escape or the means to mobilize for confrontation when
predator calls are played can lessen the stress of this type of enrichment and allow the animals to
investigate the sounds and their environment over a period of time.
Manipulable Enrichment
- Individual parts or enrichment devices may be swallowed resulting in choking or asphyxiation.
- If ingested, indigestible enrichment items may cause a gut impaction or linear obstruction.
- Broken items may have sharp edges that can cut an animal. Only items that are appropriate for the
species should be provided. For example, some devices will hold up to the play of a fox but not a wolf
- When building or designing enrichment items from wood, it may be wise to use dovetail cuts and glue
rather than screws and nails. Rounded corners and sanded edges can prevent the animals from
getting splinters.
- Many paints and other chemicals are toxic if eaten. When providing enrichment involving paint or
other chemicals, only non-toxic items should be used.
- If used, destructible items such as cardboard boxes and paper bags should be free of staples, tape,
wax, strings or plastic liners.
Factors that should be considered when determining how often behavioral or environmental
enrichment is offered include the species and individual(s) involved as well as the physical characteristics
of the exhibit. Large, complex exhibits may offer ample opportunities for animals to exercise natural
behaviors with infrequent enrichment (2-3 times weekly). Other exhibits or individuals may require more
frequent enrichment (daily or multiple times per day). Husbandry staff should monitor all individuals in an
exhibit and structure an enrichment schedule for the needs of those animals, providing them opportunities
several times a day to interact positively with their environment. Enrichment should never be offered on a
regular schedule, instead times, items, and delivery methods should be rotated so there is always an
element of novelty associated with each item or activity.
Many of the procyonid species have acute olfactory senses, enrichment designed to stimulate these
senses and encourage foraging should be well-received and stimulate species-appropriate behaviors
(Campbell 2001). Additionally, some species are very tactile oriented (e.g., raccoons and coatis), and will
benefit from rotating new and unusual tactile stimuli. This is particularly useful for education animals
generally housed in smaller enclosures. All enrichment items should be approved by an institution‟s
management team, including the veterinarian and horticulturist.
More information on enrichment initiatives, resources, and references can be found in the following
appendices: Appendix I (enrichment and training resources), Appendix J (sample enrichment ideas and
techniques).
8.3 Staff and Animal Interactions
Animal training and environmental enrichment protocols and techniques should be based on
interactions that promote safety for all involved. See Section 8.1 for exhibit design tips to facilitate exhibit
design.

Animal management staff should be encouraged to form a trusting relationship with the animals in
their care. This, however, does not mean one in which the animals are made pets. All animals should be
treated with respect; keeper staff should learn the behavioral profiles of each individual animal and
structure their working routines to maximize the animal‟s comfort. Behavioral management in the form of
training for husbandry procedures, both routine and non-routine, is encouraged. Interactions with
procyonid species while the public is present should be primarily for educational purposes; interactions
with procyonid species for medical emergency or routine husbandry purposes while the public is present
should be limited. If these activities have to be carried out while the public is present, it is suggested that
an interpreter be present to explain what is happening and why.
Each zoo should have written standard operating guidelines that address the safety of both the
animal and the keeper. Keepers should avoid entering the enclosure with the animals present if possible.
Where this is not possible, the animals should be given time to get to know the standard husbandry
routine and be allowed to separate themselves from the keepers (Roberts 1997).
Keepers should take care to keep outside the flight distance of the individuals involved. This will
minimize stress to the animal and the keeper (Roberts 1997). Coatis and kinkajous can become very
accustomed to people; sudden movements and excessive interaction with the animals should be avoided.
Coati and Raccoons: Keepers should wear protective gear on their hands when working with raccoons
that have not been treated for parasites. Both coatis and raccoons show a propensity towards “object
claiming”. Keepers who have direct contact with these species should keep this in mind. The wearing of
jewelry while working with these animals should be restricted. Even animals that are not acclimated to
direct human contact will behave with great curiosity and approach to get a better view of items such as
watches, earrings, bracelets, and necklaces. Additionally, curious animals also may vehemently search
keepers‟ pockets, so care should be taken to keep pocket contents to a minimum. Bolder animals will
make daring attempts to remove or claim such items.
Both raccoons and coatis can behave very aggressively when defending an object they have claimed
as their own. This does not apply only to items claimed off of humans, but also objects within their
enclosures. Both coatis and raccoons will demonstrate overt aggression when they feel their prize is
being threatened. Their claims may be on a particular stick in the enclosure, an edible treat, or a toy
placed there for enrichment. In general, if the animal is presently preoccupied with an object, greater
caution should be exercised around the animal to prevent defensive attacks on the keeper (K.Schilling,
personal experience).
Maintaining eye contact, not turning your back, and keeping your head above the coatis and raccoons
whenever possible will help the keeper staff hold a dominant position to the animals (D.Bressler, personal
experience; K. Schilling, personal experience). Some coatis and raccoons display aggression as the
result of certain sounds. The same sounds may induce playful behaviors in other individuals. Keepers
should be aware of this and familiarize themselves with individual animals that demonstrate such
behavior and the triggers that may solicit it. Some of the typical sounds that elicit these responses
include: jingling keys, squeaky toys, or bells (K.S chilling, personal experience).
8.4 Staff Skills and Training
Staff members should be trained in all areas of animal behavior management. Funding should be
provided for AZA continuing education courses, related meetings, conference participation, and other
professional opportunities. A reference library appropriate to the size and complexity of the institution
should be available to all staff and volunteers to provide them with accurate information on the behavioral
needs of the animals with which they work.
The following technical skills and competencies are recommended for all animal care staff working
with small carnivores.
 Keepers and managers should have an in-depth understanding of the species natural history and
the individual‟s history.
 Keepers and managers should have an in-depth understanding of the individual animal‟s
behaviors, an understanding of the function of those behaviors, and the ability to describe those
behaviors orally and in writing.
 Keepers should be able to recognize signs of illness and injury in the procyonid species they are
working with and to communicate those signs orally or in writing to managers and veterinarians.

 Keepers should be able to accurately assess the appropriate level of cleanliness and safety of the
animal‟s exhibit, holding area, and food-prep area.
 Keepers should have the skills to safely capture or restrain the procyonid species in question.
 Keepers should have some understanding of the species natural diet and foraging style.
 Keepers and managers should have an understanding of enrichment concepts and have a
commitment to consistently enhance the environments of the species in their care.
 Keepers should understand the concepts of animal learning and training, be able to use a variety
of techniques (e.g., habituation, operant conditioning) to train the animals under their care, and to
create a training plan (identifying training steps, cues, and criteria). See www.animaltraining.org
for additional details.
 Managers should understand the concepts of animal learning and training, be able to coach
keepers in all aspects of training, review their training plans, look for consistency among keepers
in their training techniques, and help their teams prioritize training, enrichment, and other
husbandry goals.

Chapter 9. Program Animals

9.1 Program Animal Policy
AZA recognizes many public education and, ultimately, conservation benefits from program animal
presentations. AZA‟s Conservation Education Committee‟s Program Animal Position Statement
(Appendix D) summarizes the value of program animal presentations.
For the purpose of this policy, a program animal is described as an animal presented either within or
outside of its normal exhibit or holding area that is intended to have regular proximity to or physical
contact with trainers, handlers, the public, or will be part of an ongoing conservation education/outreach
program.
Program animal presentations bring a host of responsibilities, including the welfare of the animals
involved, the safety of the animal handler and public, and accountability for the take-home, educational
messages received by the audience. Therefore, AZA requires all accredited institutions that give program
animal presentations to develop an institutional program animal policy that clearly identifies and justifies
those species and individuals approved as program animals and details their long-term management plan
and educational program objectives.
AZA‟s accreditation standards require that the conditions and
treatment of animals in education programs must meet standards
set for the remainder of the animal collection, including species- (1.5.4) A written policy on the use of live
animals in programs should be on file.
appropriate shelter, exercise, sound and environmental Animals in education programs must be
enrichment, access to veterinary care, nutrition, and other related maintained and cared for by trained staff,
standards (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.5.4). In addition, and housing conditions must meet
providing program animals with options to choose among a standards set for the remainder of the
animal collection, including species-
variety of conditions within their environment is essential to appropriate shelter, exercise, social and
ensuring effective care, welfare, and management. Some of environmental enrichment, access to
these requirements can be met outside of the primary exhibit veterinary care, nutrition, etc. Since some
enclosure while the animal is involved in a program or is being of these requirements can be met outside
of the primary enclosure, for example,
transported. For example, housing may be reduced in size enclosures may be reduced in size
compared to a primary enclosure as long as the animal‟s provided that the animal‟s physical and
physical and psychological needs are being met during the psychological needs are being met.
program; upon return to the facility the animal should be returned
to its species-appropriate housing as described above.
 A kinkajou female that participates in education programs at one institution (Kirkendall, personal
communication) is housed indoors at a temperature range of 20º to 22.2º C (68° to 72°F) year-
round. Her cage is 121.9 cm x 152.4 cm x 187.9 cm (48 in wide x 60 in deep x 74 in tall). She
does not have access to an unsupervised weathering yard, but she is taken out on leash often for
programs and physical activity. During exercise periods she is allowed to climb into a small
orange tree and run around the lawn area while on her leash.
9.2 Institutional Program Animal Plans
AZA‟s policy on the presentation of animals is as follows: AZA is dedicated to excellence in animal
care and welfare, conservation, education, research, and the presentation of animals in ways that inspire
respect for wildlife and nature. AZA‟s position is that animals should always be presented in adherence to
the following core principles:
 Animal and human health, safety, and welfare are never compromised.
 Education and a meaningful conservation message are integral components of the presentation.
 The individual animals involved are consistently maintained in a manner that meets their social,
physical, behavioral, and nutritional needs.
AZA-accredited institutions which have designated program
animals are required to develop their own Institutional Program
Animal Policy that articulates and evaluates the program benefits (1.5.3) If animal demonstrations are a part
(see Appendix E for recommendations). Program animals should of the institution‟s programs, an education
and conservation message must be an
be consistently maintained in a manner that meets their social, integral component.
physical, behavioral, and nutritional needs. Education and
conservation messaging must be an integral component of any

program animal demonstration (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.5.3).

Animal care and education staff should be trained in
program animal-specific handling protocols, conservation and AZA Accreditation Standard
education messaging techniques, and public interaction (1.5.5) For animals used in offsite
procedures. These staff members should be competent in programs and for educational purposes,
recognizing stress or discomfort behaviors exhibited by the the institution must have adequate
program animals and be able to address any safety issues that protocols in place to protect the rest of the
collection from exposure to infectious
arise. agents.
Program animals that are taken off zoo or aquarium grounds
for any purpose have the potential to be exposed to infectious AZA Accreditation Standard
agents that could spread to the rest of the institution‟s healthy
(10.3.3) All animal enclosures (exhibits,
population. AZA-accredited institutions must have adequate
holding areas, hospital, and
protocols in place to avoid this (AZA Accreditation Standard quarantine/isolation) must be of a size
1.5.5). and complexity sufficient to provide for
Careful consideration must be given to the design and size the animal‟s physical, social, and
of all program animal enclosures, including exhibit, off-exhibit psychological well-being; and exhibit
enclosures must include provisions for the
holding, hospital, quarantine, and isolation areas, such that the behavioral enrichment of the animals.
physical, social, behavioral, and psychological needs of the
species are met and species-appropriate behaviors are AZA Accreditation Standard
facilitated (AZA Accreditation Standards 10.3.3;1.5.2). (1.5.2) Animals should be displayed,
Animal transportation must be conducted in a manner that is whenever possible, in exhibits replicating
lawful, safe, well-planned and coordinated, and minimizes risk to their wild habitat and in numbers sufficient
the animal(s), employees, and general public (AZA Accreditation to meet their social and behavioral needs.
Display of single specimens should be
Standard 1.5.11). avoided unless biologically correct for the
species involved.
Conservation Education Messages
Coati: “There is still debate as to whether or not the Cozumel AZA Accreditation Standard
coati (N. nelson) is truly a separate species or a subspecies (1.5.11) Animal transportation must be
introduced to Cozumel by the Maya (Bixler, unpublished data). conducted in a manner that is safe, well-
Coatis are highly adaptable animals. They are essentially diurnal planned and coordinated, and minimizes
in their activities and can be both terrestrial and arboreal. They risk to the animal(s), employees, and
general public. All applicable local, state,
are also very variable in their social groupings, being either and federal laws must be adhered to.
solitary or living in groups of up to 30 individuals; the females live
in groups while the adult males are solitary. The term coatimundi, which is often used in the literature to
refer to the coati, actually refers to a solitary adult male coati. Coatis are omnivorous, feeding on fruit,
invertebrates, and small animals. They will search for fruit high in the forest canopy or forage on the forest
floor for animal prey, poking their long noses into crevices, pushing over rocks, or ripping apart dead logs
with their claws. When they are alarmed, they seek refuge in trees and at night sleep at the tops of
trees….the prime threat to coatis is habitat loss due to deforestation.” (Glatston 1994)
 White-nosed coati: “White-nosed coatis are classified as an endangered species in New Mexico
and they are given total legal protection there. However, in Arizona, where most of the coatis in
the United States live, they are subject to year round hunting. Coatis are listed in Appendix III of
CITES by Honduras. Elsewhere in their range they do not appear to be afforded any official
protection. Coatis are threatened by large scale habitat loss and in some areas hunting. In
addition, the coati population in the United States is suspected to be gradually becoming
genetically isolated from populations further south as a result of the situation in Mexico. This
could lead to local extirpation of the coati in the United States. Coatis are hunted throughout their
range either for their skin or for food. In the United States they are occasionally caught in traps
set for other species, killed by hunters ostensibly looking for other species, or they fall victim to
“predator” control campaigns. They apparently disappeared from the Burro Mountains in New
Mexico at about the same time as a coyote poisoning campaign (Kaufmann et al., 1976). In
addition, coatis are susceptible to canine distemper and rabies (Kaufmann et al. 1976) (Samudio
et al. 2008).”
Kinkajou: “Little is known about the natural history of the kinkajou. It is highly arboreal, as indicated by its
prehensile tail. It is the only carnivore, with the exception of the binturong (Artictis binturong), to possess

such an appendage. Its diet consists essentially of fruit supplemented by insects (Bisbal 1987). Charles-
Dominique et al. (1981) states that kinkajous play an important role in dispersing the seeds of some plant
species. Their social behavior has been little studied. Apart from observations of females with their young,
kinkajous are normally seen singly, although several may feed together in fruiting trees (Ewer 1973).
They have been observed with olingos, and the two species can be confused by some observers. As this
is a highly arboreal species, even though we have no evidence that it is becoming threatened, it must be
presumed that its numbers decrease with extensive human disturbance (Glatston 1994).”
Threats include extensive human disturbance, deforestation, and the pet trade (Glatston 1994, IUCN
Red List 2009)
Ringtail: “Of the two species (cacomistle and ringtail), the ringtail has been studied in some detail (Trapp
1972; 1978). This species is known to be nocturnal and solitary in its habits. It inhabits a variety of
habitats including rocky or cliff areas, areas of dense riparian or evergreen forest, scrub, and desert. It is
restricted to altitudes of less than 2,800 m. Its diet consists of small vertebrates, fruits, and insects. Much
of the food is succulent and ringtails are able to produce highly concentrated urine (Richards 1976), and
so can live in fairly arid habitats (Kaufmann 1982). The cacomistle is much less well-known than the
ringtail but the information available indicates that it inhabits wetter forests than the ringtail and that it is
highly arboreal and nocturnal. It is solitary outside of the breeding season (Poglayen-Neuwall & Toweill
1988). It forages alone and emits a high-pitched long call which apparently serves as a spacing function
(Coates-Estrada & Estrada 1986). However, it is not yet certain whether its behavior and ecology are
similar to those of the ringtail. Threats to the ringtail include automobiles and trappers. Threats to the
cacomistle include habitat disturbance, deforestation, and fragmentation of populations (Glatston 1994).”
Raccoon: There is dispute over how many species of raccoon should be recognized. The common
raccoon and crab-eating raccoon have the widest distribution while all other raccoon species, or
subspecies, are confined to islands. Some confusion arises from what is thought to be the relatively
recent arrival of the island raccoons due to rafting or human introduction. The IUCN Red List recognizes
only one of the island raccoons as a separate species, the Cozumel or pygmy raccoon (P. pygmaeus),
which is listed as Critically Endangered with a decreasing population. The common raccoon should be
used to educate the visiting public about raccoons, their natural history, and the threats to the pygmy
raccoon and other island raccoons.
“The crab-eating raccoon is naturally rare in some areas of its range and it does not seem as
adaptable to human activity as the common raccoon, although it is probably stable throughout
South America where viable areas exist. Threats to this species include overhunting for pelts, use
for target practice, the pet trade, and, in some areas, habitat destruction (being a rain forest
species). Little is known of any of the island forms of raccoon in regards to distribution or natural
history. However, they have probably never been very numerous, given the small size of their
island ranges and the undoubted negative influence of tourism. Their habitats are probably
diminishing and one form, the Barbados raccoon P. gloverallenis, is probably extinct. The last
sighting occurred in the early 1960s. The status of the rest is indeterminate at present (Glatston
1994).”
The IUCN Procyonid and Ailurid Action Plan (Glatston 1994) has this to say about the cultural
significance of the procyonid species:
There does not appear to be any appreciable folklore associated with any species, although it is
possible that there may be some references to these species in the folklore of current
Amerindians or in those of past cultures such as the Toltecs, Aztecs, Incas, or Mayas. For
example, the coati is thought to have been a fertility symbol for the Maya and was also used as a
pet and a source of food (possibly eaten only by the women) (Hamblin 1984). Indeed, Bixler
(unpublished) speculates that the Cozumel coati may have been brought to that island by the
Maya, as Cozumel was an important center for the worship of Ix Chel, the goddess of fertility.
Other indications of the interest that some procyonid species may have held for the indigenous
people of the Americas are to be found in their local names. The name cacomistle is derived from
the Mexican Nathuatl Indian word, “Tlacomiztli”, meaning “half mountain lion”; coati is derived
from the name “Kuat-I” used by the indigenous Guarani Indians, while raccoon comes from the
word “Aroughcoune,” used by the Algonquin Indians of Virginia to mean “he scratches with his
hands.” Further information regarding what, if anything, these animals meant to the tribes

concerned is unknown. On the subject of names, the cacomistle (or ringtail) has also been known
as the “miner‟s cat,” a name earned because ringtails were placed in frontier mines to control
rodents as they were supposed to be better mousers than cats (Poglayen-Neuwall & Toweill
1988; Whitaker 1988). Otherwise, cultural interest in procyonids only involves their use as
companion animals or as sport. Some procyonid species, notably coatis and kinkajous, are kept
as pets in various countries throughout Central and South America today. Some species, again
notably the kinkajou and coati, are also hunted for their meat by the indigenous peoples of
Mexico and Central America. However, this kind of hunting activity is strictly limited.
9.3 Program Evaluation
AZA-accredited institutions which have an Institutional Program Animal Plan are required to evaluate
the efficacy of the plan routinely (see Appendix E for recommendations). Education and conservation
messaging content retention, animal health and well-being, guest responses, policy effectiveness, and
accountability and ramifications of policy violations should be assessed and revised as needed. The AZA
SCTAG has no specific recommendations regarding program evaluation format.

Chapter 10. Research

10.1 Known Methodologies
AZA believes that contemporary animal management, AZA Accreditation Standard
husbandry, veterinary care and conservation practices should be
based in science, and that a commitment to scientific research, (5.3) Institutions should maximize the
generation of scientific knowledge gained
both basic and applied, is a trademark of the modern zoological from the animal collection. This might be
park and aquarium. AZA-accredited institutions have the achieved by participating in AZA
invaluable opportunity, and are expected, to conduct or facilitate TAG/SSP sponsored research when
research both in in situ and ex situ settings to advance scientific applicable, conducting original research
projects, affiliating with local universities,
knowledge of the animals in our care and enhance the and/or employing staff with scientific
conservation of wild populations. This knowledge might be credentials.
achieved by participating in AZA Taxon Advisory Group or
Species Survival Plan® Program sponsored research, conducting original research projects, affiliating
with local universities, and/or employing staff with scientific credentials (AZA Accreditation Standard 5.3).
Research investigations, whether observational, behavioral, physiological, or genetically based,
should have a clear scientific purpose with the reasonable expectation that they will increase our
understanding of the species being investigated and may provide results which benefit the health or
welfare of animals in wild populations. Many AZA-accredited
institutions incorporate superior positive reinforcement training AZA Accreditation Standard
programs into their routine schedules to facilitate sensory, (5.2) Institutions must have a written
cognitive, and physiological research investigations and these policy that outlines the type of research
types of programs are strongly encouraged by the AZA. that it conducts, methods, staff
involvement, evaluations, animals to be
AZA-accredited institutions are required to have a clearly involved, and guidelines for publication of
written research policy that identifies the types of research being findings.
conducted, methods used, staff involved, evaluations of the
projects, the animals included, and guidelines for the reporting or
publication of any findings (AZA Accreditation Standard 5.2). AZA Accreditation Standard
Institutions must designate a qualified individual to oversee and (5.1) Research activities must be under
direct its research program (AZA Accreditation Standard 5.1). If the direction of a person qualified to make
institutions are not able to conduct in-house research informed decisions regarding research.
investigations, they are strongly encouraged to provide financial,
personnel, logistical, and other support for priority research and
conservation initiatives identified by Taxon Advisory Groups or Species Survival Plan® Programs.
The following covers a variety of the types of studies that have been conducted on procyonids to
date. This list is not exhaustive and those interested in conducting research should perform a thorough
literature review prior to beginning.
Behavioral
 Kays, R.W., Gittleman, J.L. (2001). The social organization of the kinkajou Potos flavus
(Procyonidae). Journal of Zoology (London) 253(4):491-504.
 Blount, J.D., Taylor, N.J. (2000). The relative effectiveness of manipulable feeders and olfactory
enrichment for Kinkajous Potos flavus: A preliminary study of Newquay Zoo. International Zoo
Yearbook. 37:381-394.
 Weldon, P.J., Cranmore, C.F., Chatfield, J.A. (2006). Prey-rolling behavior of coatis (Nasua spp.)
is elicited by benzoquinones from millipedes. Naturwissenschaften 93(1):14-16.
 Booth-Binczik, S.D., Binczik, G.A., Labisky, R.F. (2004). Lek-like mating in white-nosed coatis
(Nasua narica): Socio-ecological correlates of intraspecific variability in mating systems. Journal
of Zoology (London) 262(2):179-185.
 Hass, C.C. (2002). Home-range dynamics of white-nosed coatis in southeastern Arizona. Journal
of Mammalogy 83(4):943-946.
 Hass, C.C., Jason, F.( 2000). Copulatory behavior of white-nosed coatis. Southwestern
Naturalist. 45(3):329-331.

Ex situ Population Management

 Pernalete, J.M. (1997). Management and reproduction of the Kinkajou Potos flavus at Institution
M. International Zoo Yearbook 35(0):287-289.
Dietary
 Kays, R.W. (1999). Food preferences of kinkajous (Potos flavus): A frugivorous carnivore. Journal
of Mammalogy 80(2):589-599.
 Julien-Laferrier, D. (1999). Foraging strategies and food partitioning in the neotropical frugivorous
mammals Caluromys philander and Potos flavus. Journal of Zoology (London) 247(1):71-80.
Field studies
 Ackerson, B.K., Harveson, L.A. (2006) looked at (1) habitat selection, (2) home range, (3)
denning characteristics, and (4) food habits of a population of ringtail in Texas.
 Barja, I. (2006) Reported on fecal marking behaviour in ringtails (Bassariscus astutus) during the
non-breeding period focusing on spatial characteristics of latrines and single feces.
 Nava-Vargas, V., Tejero-Diez, J.D., Chavez-Tapia, C.B. (1999) Studies the food habits of the
ringtail Bassariscus astutus (Carnivora: Procyonidae) in a xerophitic bush in Hidalgo, Mexico.
 Hass, C.C., Valenzuela, D. (2002). Anti-predator benefits of group living in white-nosed coatis
(Nasua narica). Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology 51(6):570-578.
Physiological
 Poglayen-Neuwall, I., Shively, J.N. (1991). Testicular cycles of the ringtail Bassariscus astutus.
(Poglayen-Neuwall has studied the ringtail extensively, including gestation and parturition; see
References for other citations.)
 Urashima, T., Yamamoto, M., Nakamura, T., Arai, I., Saito, T., Namiki, M., Yamaoka, K.,
Kawahara, K. (1999). Chemical characterization of the oligosaccharides in a sample of milk of a
white-nosed coati, Nasua narica (Procyonidae: Carnivora). Comparative Biochemistry &
Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology 123(2):187-193.
 McClearn, D. (1992). Locomotion posture and feeding behavior of kinkajous, coatis, and
raccoons. Journal of Mammalogy 73(2):245-261.
Vocalizations
 Compton, L.A., Clarke, J.A., Seidensticker, J., Ingrisano, D.R. (2001). Acoustic characteristics of
white-nosed coati vocalizations: A test of motivation-structural rules. Journal of Mammalogy
82(4):1054-1058.
 Maurello, M.A., Clarke, J.A., Ackley, R.S. (2000). Signature characteristics in contact calls of the
white-nosed coati. Journal of Mammalogy 81(2):415-421.
10.2 Future Research Needs
This Animal Care Manual is a dynamic document that will need to be updated as new information is
acquired. Knowledge gaps have been identified throughout the Manual and are included in this section to
promote future research investigations. Knowledge gained from areas will maximize AZA-accredited
institutions‟ capacity for excellence in animal care and welfare as well as enhance conservation initiatives
for the species.
Specific Areas of Ex situ Population Research Needed by Manual Heading:
Chapter 1: Ambient Environment
Section 1.4. Sound and Vibration: Little is known about sound or vibration sensitivity in these species and
should be investigated in the future.
Chapter 3: Transport
Section 3.2. Protocols: There is no definitive information available at this time as to whether there should
be a maximum duration of transport for procyonids. Information from the pre- and post-transport
examinations of procyonid species, after transports of differing durations, may provide key information
that can be used to determine the need for duration requirements.

Chapter 4: Social Environment

Section 4.1. Group Structure and Size: There is no information available on the occurrence of cohort
groups in procyonid species. Field and ex-situ population research is needed to investigate whether this
is a common phenomenon for these species.
Section 4.1. Group Structure and Size: There are currently no specific standards of care detailing optimal
or minimum group sizes for procyonid species. Additional research is needed to determine the effect that
different group sizes and structures have on the welfare of individuals within current AZA institutions.
Trends and patterns seen should be reported.
Section 4.2. Influence of Others and Conspecifics: No recommendations are available for the placement
of procyonid enclosures with respect to enclosures housing conspecifics or heterospecifics, as there is no
information available on the influence that other groups or species can have on individual animals (e.g.,
from a visual, auditory, or olfactory perspective). Assessing behavioral and physiological indicators of
stress in animals housed adjacent to conspecifics or potential predators will provide useful data to explore
these non-physical social interactions.
Along similar lines, additional research on the best approaches to take when individuals from social
species need to be separated for prolonged medical procedures/treatment (e.g., quarantine,
hospitalization) is recommended. Questions that need to be answered include: what are the behavioral or
physical indicators that suggest procyonids are not coping with enforced social isolation? What are the
mechanisms that can be used to avoid the need for separation (e.g., the „buddy‟ system; visual, auditory,
or olfactory contact; increased enrichment; etc.). Examples of how medical separation has been
addressed for procyonid species at AZA institutions should be shared, identifying the most successful
strategies.
Chapter 5: Nutrition
Section 5.1. Nutritional Requirements: There is little information available on the changing nutritional
requirements of procyonids during periods of reproductive activity (e.g., during gestation or periods of
lactation). Additional nutritional research is needed in this area.
Chapter 6: Veterinary Care
Section 6.1. Veterinary Services: For the continuing evaluation of procyonid health issues and treatments,
there is always a need for access to stored blood/tissue samples. Future research will benefit significantly
from the appropriate banking of blood/serum and tissue samples from procyonids, and the AZA Small
Carnivore TAG requests this where possible. See Appendix G and Appendix M for additional information.
Section 6.7. Management of Diseases, Disorders, Injuries and/or Isolation: The presence of hereditary
diseases in procyonid species should be investigated further, especially in terms of how this relates to
population management.
Section 6.7. Management of Diseases, Disorders, Injuries and/or Isolation: Further research is needed to
establish the medical requirements for these classes. Research should focus on the timing and frequency
of physical examinations, the schedule of vaccinations (neonates), common diseases and disorders for
these age classes, and their treatments, and veterinary procedures that should be considered as
specifically important for these groups.
Chapter 7: Reproduction
Section 7.6. Contraception: Research on the effects that GnRH agonists have on future reproductive
abilities when provided to prepubertal procyonids is needed, as current research is based on studies
using domestic cats.

Acknowledgements
The AZA SCTAG would like to thank the numerous people who contributed their knowledge and
experience to the creation of this document; for a complete list please see Appendix L. Special thanks go
to Dr. Joseph Barber, original facilitator for the AZA Animal Care Manuals for his editing, patience, help,
and encouragement.

References
AAFCO (Association of American Feed Control Officials) 1999. Nutrient Guidelines for Dogs. Pet Food
Regulations. AAFCO, Inc., Atlanta.
Ackerson, B.K., Harveson, L.A. (2006). Characteristics of a ringtail (Bassariscus astutus) population in
Trans Pecos, Texas. Texas Journal of Science 58(2):169-184.
Andrews, P. (2001). Introducing adult males and females. In: Mellen J, Wildt D. (eds.), Husbandry manual
for small felids. Lake Buena Vista, FL: Disney‟s Animal Kingdom. (available on Felid TAG web
site: www.csew.com/felidtag/)
Anon. (1981). Outdoor Air Requirements for Ventilation (ASHRAE Standard 62-1981) 3.1 Commercial
Facilities (Offices, Stores, Shops, Hotels, Sports Facilities, etc.). American Society of Heating,
Refrigeration, Air Conditioning Engineers: 74-85.
AWR (Animal Welfare Regulations) 2005. Animal Welfare Act, 7 U.S.C. Animal Welfare Regulations, 9
CFR Chapter 1, Subchapter A, Parts 1-4.
Ayars, G.H., Altman L.C., Frazier C.E., Chi E.Y. (1989). The toxicity of constituents of cedar and pine
woods to pulmonary epithelium. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 83: 610-618.
AZA (Association of Zoos and Aquariums) 2008. Accreditation Standards and Related policies.
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Appendix A: Accreditation Standards by Chapter

The following specific standards of care relevant to procyonids are taken from the AZA Accreditation
Standards and Related Policies (AZA 2010) and are referenced fully within the chapters of this animal
care manual:
General Information
(1.1.1) The institution must comply with all relevant local, state, and federal wildlife laws and regulations.
It is understood that, in some cases, AZA accreditation standards are more stringent than existing laws
and regulations. In these cases the AZA standard must be met.
Chapter 1
(1.5.7) The animal collection must be protected from weather detrimental to their health.
(10.2.1) Critical life-support systems for the animal collection, including but not limited to plumbing,
heating, cooling, aeration, and filtration, must be equipped with a warning mechanism, and
emergency backup systems must be available. All mechanical equipment should be under a
preventative maintenance program as evidenced through a record-keeping system. Special
equipment should be maintained under a maintenance agreement, or a training record should show
that staff members are trained for specified maintenance of special equipment.
(1.5.9) The institution must have a regular program of monitoring water quality for collections of fish,
pinnipeds, cetaceans, and other aquatic animals. A written record must be maintained to document
long-term water quality results and chemical additions.
Chapter 2
(1.5.2) Animals should be displayed, whenever possible, in exhibits replicating their wild habitat and in
numbers sufficient to meet their social and behavioral needs. Display of single specimens should be
avoided unless biologically correct for the species involved.
(10.3.3) All animal enclosures (exhibits, holding areas, hospital, and quarantine/isolation) must be of a
size and complexity sufficient to provide for the animal‟s physical, social, and psychological well-
being; and exhibit enclosures must include provisions for the behavioral enrichment of the animals.
(11.3.3) Special attention must be given to free-ranging animals so that no undue threat is posed to the
animal collection, free-ranging animals, or the visiting public. Animals maintained where they will be in
contact with the visiting public must be carefully selected, monitored, and treated humanely at all
times.
(11.3.1) All animal exhibits and holding areas must be secured to prevent unintentional animal egress.
(11.3.6) Guardrails/barriers must be constructed in all areas where the visiting public could have contact
with other than handleable animals.
(11.2.3) All emergency procedures must be written and provided to staff and, where appropriate, to
volunteers. Appropriate emergency procedures must be readily available for reference in the event of
an actual emergency. These procedures should deal with four basic types of emergencies: fire,
weather/environment; injury to staff or a visitor; animal escape.
(11.6.2) Security personnel, whether staff of the institution, or a provided and/or contracted service, must
be trained to handle all emergencies in full accordance with the policies and procedures of the
institution. In some cases, it is recognized that Security personnel may be in charge of the respective
emergency (i.e., shooting teams).
(11.2.4) The institution must have a communication system that can be quickly accessed in case of an
emergency.
(11.2.5) A written protocol should be developed involving local police or other emergency agencies and
include response times to emergencies.
(11.5.3) Institutions maintaining potentially dangerous animals (sharks, whales, tigers, bears, etc.) must
have appropriate safety procedures in place to prevent attacks and injuries by these animals.
Appropriate response procedures must also be in place to deal with an attack resulting in an injury.
These procedures must be practiced routinely per the emergency drill requirements contained in
these standards. Whenever injuries result from these incidents, a written account outlining the cause
of the incident, how the injury was handled, and a description of any resulting changes to either the

safety procedures or the physical facility must be prepared and maintained for five years from the
date of the incident.
Chapter 3
(1.5.11) Animal transportation must be conducted in a manner that is safe, well-planned and coordinated,
and minimizes risk to the animal(s), employees, and general public. All applicable local, state, and
federal laws must be adhered to.
Chapter 5
(2.6.2) A formal nutrition program is recommended to meet the behavioral and nutritional needs of all
species and specimens within the collection.
(2.6.3) Animal diets must be of a quality and quantity suitable for each animal‟s nutritional and
psychological needs. Diet formulations and records of analysis of appropriate feed items should be
maintained and may be examined by the Visiting Committee. Animal food, especially seafood
products, should be purchased from reliable sources that are sustainable and/or well managed.
(2.6.1) Animal food preparations must meet all local, state/provincial, and federal regulations.
(2.6.4) The institution should assign at least one person to oversee appropriate browse material for the
collection.
Chapter 6
(2.1.1) A full-time staff veterinarian is recommended. However, the Commission realizes that in some
cases such is not practical. In those cases, a consulting/part-time veterinarian must be under contract
to make at least twice monthly inspections of the animal collection and respond as soon as possible
to any emergencies. The Commission also recognizes that certain collections, because of their size
and/or nature, may require different considerations in veterinary care.
(2.1.2) So that indications of disease, injury, or stress may be dealt with promptly, veterinary coverage
must be available to the animal collection 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.
(2.2.1) Written, formal procedures must be available to the animal care staff for the use of animal drugs
for veterinary purposes and appropriate security of the drugs must be provided.
(1.4.6) A staff member must be designated as being responsible for the institution's animal record-
keeping system. That person must be charged with establishing and maintaining the institution's
animal records, as well as with keeping all animal care staff members apprised of relevant laws and
regulations regarding the institution's animal collection.
(1.4.7) Animal records must be kept current, and data must be logged daily.
(1.4.5) At least one set of the institution‟s historical animal records must be stored and protected. Those
records should include permits, titles, declaration forms, and other pertinent information.
(1.4.4) Animal records, whether in electronic or paper form, including health records, must be duplicated
and stored in a separate location.
(1.4.3) Animals must be identifiable, whenever practical, and have corresponding ID numbers. For
animals maintained in colonies or other animals not considered readily identifiable, the institution
must provide a statement explaining how record keeping is maintained.
(1.4.1) An animal inventory must be compiled at least once a year and include data regarding acquisitions
and dispositions in the animal collection.
(1.4.2) All species owned by the institution must be listed on the inventory, including those animals on
loan to and from the institution. In both cases, notations should be made on the inventory.
(2.7.1) The institution must have holding facilities or procedures for the quarantine of newly arrived
animals and isolation facilities or procedures for the treatment of sick/injured animals.
(2.7.3) Quarantine, hospital, and isolation areas should be in compliance with standards or guidelines
adopted by the AZA.
(2.7.2) Written, formal procedures for quarantine must be available and familiar to all staff working with
quarantined animals.
(11.1.2) Training and procedures must be in place regarding zoonotic diseases.
(11.1.3) A tuberculin testing and surveillance program must be established for appropriate staff in order to
ensure the health of both the employees and the animal collection.
(2.5.1) Deceased animals should be necropsied to determine the cause of death. Disposal after necropsy
must be done in accordance with local/federal laws.
(2.4.1) The veterinary care program must emphasize disease prevention.

(1.5.5) For animals used in offsite programs and for educational purposes, the institution must have
adequate protocols in place to protect the rest of the collection from exposure to infectious agents.
(2.3.1) Capture equipment must be in good working order and available to authorized, trained personnel
at all times.
(2.4.2) Keepers should be trained to recognize abnormal behavior and clinical symptoms of illness and
have knowledge of the diets, husbandry (including enrichment items and strategies), and restraint
procedures required for the animals under their care. However, keepers should not evaluate illnesses
nor prescribe treatment.
(2.3.2) Hospital facilities should have x-ray equipment or have access to x-ray services.
(1.5.8) The institution must develop a clear process for identifying and addressing animal welfare
concerns within the institution.
Chapter 8
(1.6.1) The institution must have a formal written enrichment program that promotes species-appropriate
behavioral opportunities.
(1.6.2) The institution must have a specific staff member(s) or committee assigned for enrichment
program oversight, implementation, training, and interdepartmental coordination of enrichment efforts.
Chapter 9
(5.3) A written policy on the use of live animals in programs should be on file. Animals in education
programs must be maintained and cared for by trained staff, and housing conditions must meet
standards set for the remainder of the animal collection, including species-appropriate shelter,
exercise, social and environmental enrichment, access to veterinary care, nutrition, etc. Since some
of these requirements can be met outside of the primary enclosure, for example, enclosures may be
reduced in size provided that the animal‟s physical and psychological needs are being met.
(1.5.3) If animal demonstrations are a part of the institution‟s programs, an education and conservation
message must be an integral component.
Chapter 10
(5.3) Institutions should maximize the generation of scientific knowledge gained from the animal
collection. This might be achieved by participating in AZA TAG/SSP sponsored research when
applicable, conducting original research projects, affiliating with local universities, and/or employing
staff with scientific credentials.
(5.2) Institutions must have a written policy that outlines the type of research that it conducts, methods,
staff involvement, evaluations, animals to be involved, and guidelines for publication of findings.
(5.1) Research activities must be under the direction of a person qualified to make informed decisions
regarding research.

Appendix B: Acquisition/Disposition Policy

I. Introduction: The Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) was established, among other reasons, to
foster continued improvement in the zoological park and aquarium profession. One of its most important
roles is to provide a forum for debate and consensus building among its members, the intent of which is
to attain high ethical standards, especially those related to animal care and professional conduct. The
stringent requirements for AZA accreditation and high standards of professional conduct are unmatched
by similar organizations and also far surpass the United States Department of Agriculture's Animal and
Plant Health Inspection Service's requirements for licensed animal exhibitors. AZA member facilities must
abide by a Code of Professional Ethics - a set of standards that guide all aspects of animal management
and welfare. As a matter of priority, AZA institutions should acquire animals from other AZA institutions
and dispose of animals to other AZA institutions.
AZA-accredited zoological parks and aquariums cannot fulfill their important missions of conservation,
education and science without living animals. Responsible management of living animal populations
necessitates that some individuals be acquired and that others be removed from the collection at certain
times. Acquisition of animals can occur through propagation, trade, donation, loan, purchase, capture, or
rescue. Animals used as animal feed are not accessioned into the collection.
Disposition occurs when an animal leaves the collection for any reason. Reasons for disposition vary
widely, but include cooperative population management (genetic or demographic management),
reintroduction, behavioral incompatibility, sexual maturation, animal health concerns, loan or transfer, or
death.
The AZA Acquisition/Disposition Policy (A/D) was created to help (1) guide and support member
institutions in their animal acquisition and disposition decisions, and (2) ensure that all additions and
removals are compatible with the Association's stated commitment to "save and protect the wonders of
the living natural world." More specifically, the AZA A/D Policy is intended to:
- Ensure that the welfare of individual animals and conservation of populations, species and
ecosystems are carefully considered during acquisition and disposition activities;
- Maintain a proper standard of conduct for AZA members during acquisition and disposition
activities;
- Ensure that animals from AZA member institutions are not transferred to individuals or
organizations that lack the appropriate expertise or facilities to care for them.
- Support the goal of AZA‟s cooperatively managed populations and associated programs,
including Species Survival Plans (SSPs), Population Management Plans (PMPs), and Taxon
Advisory Groups (TAGs).
The AZA Acquisition/Disposition Policy will serve as the default policy for AZA member institutions.
Institutions may develop their own A/D Policy in order to address specific local concerns. Any institutional
policy must incorporate and not conflict with the AZA acquisition and disposition standards.
Violations of the AZA Acquisition/Disposition Policy will be dealt with in accordance with the AZA
Code of Professional Ethics. Violations can result in an institution's or individual's expulsion from
membership in the AZA.
II. Group or Colony-based Identification: For some colonial, group-living, or prolific species, such as
certain insects, aquatic invertebrates, schooling fish, rodents, and bats, it is often impossible or highly
impractical to identify individual specimens. These species are therefore maintained, acquisitioned, and
disposed of as a group or colony. Therefore, when this A/D Policy refers to animals or specimens, it is in
reference to both individuals and groups/colonies.
III. Germplasm: Acquisition and disposition of germplasm should follow the same guidelines outlined in
this document if its intended use is to create live animal(s). Ownership of germplasm and any resulting
animals should be clearly defined. Institutions acquiring or dispositioning germplasm or any animal parts
or samples should consider not only its current use, but also future possible uses as new technologies
become available.

IV(a). General Acquisitions: Animals are to be acquisitioned into an AZA member institution‟s collection if
the following conditions are met:
1. Acquisitions must meet the requirements of all applicable local, state, federal and international
regulations and laws.
2. The Director or Chief Executive Officer of the institution is charged with the final authority and
responsibility for the monitoring and implementation of all acquisitions.
3. Acquisitions must be consistent with the mission of the institution, as reflected in its Institutional
Collection Plan, by addressing its exhibition/education, conservation, and/or scientific goals.
4. Animals that are acquired for the collection, permanently or temporarily, must be listed on
institutional records. All records should follow the Standards for Data Entry and Maintenance of
®
North American Zoo and Aquarium Animal Records Databases .
5. Animals may be acquired temporarily for reasons such as, holding for governmental agencies,
rescue and/or rehabilitation, or special exhibits. Animals should only be accepted if they will not
jeopardize the health, care or maintenance of the animals in the permanent collection or the
animal being acquired.
6. The institution must have the necessary resources to support and provide for the professional
care and management of a species, so that the physical and social needs of both specimen and
species are met.
7. Attempts by members to circumvent AZA conservation programs in the acquisition of SSP
animals are detrimental to the Association and its conservation programs. Such action may be
detrimental to the species involved and is a violation of the Association's Code of Professional
Ethics. All AZA members must work through the SSP program in efforts to acquire SSP species
and adhere to the AZA Full Participation policy.
8. Animals are only to be acquired from sources that are known to operate legally and conduct their
business in a manner that reflects and/or supports the spirit and intent of the AZA Code of
Professional Ethics as well as this policy. Any convictions of state, federal, or international wildlife
laws should be reviewed, as well as any previous dealings with other AZA-accredited institutions.
9. When acquiring specimens managed by an AZA PMP, institutions should consult with the AZA
PMP manager.
10. Institutions should consult AZA Wildlife Conservation and Management Committee (WCMC)-
approved Regional Collection Plans (RCPs) when making acquisition decisions.
IV(b). Acquisitions from the Wild: The maintenance of wild animal populations for education and wildlife
conservation purposes is a unique responsibility of AZA member zoos and aquariums. To accomplish
these goals, it may be necessary to acquire wild-caught specimens. Before acquiring animals from the
wild, institutions are encouraged to examine sources including other AZA institutions or regional
zoological associations.
When acquiring animals from the wild, careful consideration must be taken to evaluate the long-term
impacts on the wild population. Any capture of free-ranging animals should be done in accordance with all
local, state, federal, and international wildlife laws and regulations and not be detrimental to the long-term
viability of the species or the wild or captive population(s). In crisis situations, when the survival of a
population is at risk, rescue decisions are to be made on a case-by-case basis.
V(a). Disposition Requirements – living animals: Successful conservation and animal management efforts
rely on the cooperation of many entities, both within and outside of AZA. While preference is given to
placing animals within AZA member institutions, it is important to foster a cooperative culture among
those who share the primary mission of AZA-accredited facilities. The AZA draws a strong distinction
between the mission, stated or otherwise, of non-AZA member organizations and the mission of
professionally managed zoological parks and aquariums accredited by the AZA.
An accredited AZA member balances public display, recreation, and entertainment with demonstrated
efforts in education, conservation, and science. While some non-AZA member organizations may meet
minimum daily standards of animal care for wildlife, the AZA recognizes that this, by itself, is insufficient to
warrant either AZA membership or participation in AZA's cooperative animal management programs.
When an animal is sent to a non-member of AZA, it is imperative that the member be confident that the
animal will be cared for properly.

Animals may only be disposed of from an AZA member institution's collection if the following
conditions are met:
1. Dispositions must meet the requirements of all applicable local, state, federal and international
regulations and laws.
2. The Director or Chief Executive Officer of the institution is charged with the final authority and
responsibility for the monitoring and implementation of all dispositions.
3. Any disposition must abide by the Mandatory Standards and General Advisories of the AZA Code
of Professional Ethics. Specifically, "a member shall make every effort to assure that all animals
in his/her collection and under his/her care are disposed of in a manner which meets the current
disposition standards of the Association and do not find their way into the hands of those not
qualified to care for them properly."
4. Non-domesticated animals shall not be disposed of at animal auctions. Additionally, animals shall
not be disposed of to any organization or individual that may use or sell the animal at an animal
auction. In transactions with AZA non-members, the recipient must ensure in writing that neither
the animal nor its offspring will be disposed of at a wild animal auction or to an individual or
organization that allows the hunting of the animal.
5. Animals shall not be disposed of to organizations or individuals that allow the hunting of these
animals or their offspring. This does not apply to individuals or organizations which allow the
hunting of only free-ranging game species (indigenous to North America) and established long-
introduced species such as, but not limited to, white-tailed deer, quail, rabbit, waterfowl, boar,
ring-necked pheasant, chukar, partridge, and trout. AZA distinguishes hunting/fishing for sport
from culling for sustainable population management and wildlife conservation purposes.
6. Attempts by members to circumvent AZA conservation programs in the disposition of SSP
animals are detrimental to the Association and its conservation programs. Such action may be
detrimental to the species involved and is a violation of the Association's Code of Professional
Ethics. All AZA members must work through the SSP program in efforts to deacquisition SSP
species and adhere to the AZA Full Participation policy.
7. Domesticated animals are to be disposed of in a manner consistent with acceptable farm
practices and subject to all relevant laws and regulations.
8. Live specimens may be released within native ranges, subject to all relevant laws and
regulations. Releases may be a part of a recovery program and any release must be compatible
with the AZA Guidelines for Reintroduction of Animals Born or Held in Captivity, dated June 3,
1992.
9. Detailed disposition records of all living or dead specimens must be maintained. Where
applicable, proper animal identification techniques should be utilized.
10. It is the obligation of every loaning institution to monitor, at least annually, the conditions of any
loaned specimens and the ability of the recipient to provide proper care. If the conditions and care
of animals are in violation of the loan agreement, it is the obligation of the loaning institution to
recall the animal. Furthermore, an institution's loaning policy must not be in conflict with this A/D
Policy.
11. If live specimens are euthanized, it must be done in accordance with the established policy of the
institution and the Report of the American Veterinary Medical Association Panel on Euthanasia
(Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 218 (5): 669-696, 2001).
12. In dispositions to non-AZA members, the non-AZA member's mission (stated or implied) must not
be in conflict with the mission of AZA, or with this A/D Policy.
13. In dispositions to non-AZA member facilities that are open to the public, the non-AZA member
must balance public display, recreation, and entertainment with demonstrated efforts in
conservation, education, and science.
14. In dispositions to non-AZA members, the AZA members must be convinced that the recipient has
the expertise, records management practices, financial stability, facilities, and resources required
to properly care for and maintain the animals and their offspring. It is recommended that this
documentation be kept in the permanent record of the animals at the AZA member institution.
15. If living animals are sent to a non-AZA member research institution, the institution must be
registered under the Animal Welfare Act by the U.S. Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant

Health Inspection Service. For international transactions, the receiving facility should be
registered by that country's equivalent body with enforcement over animal welfare.
16. No animal disposition should occur if it would create a health or safety risk (to the animal or
humans) or have a negative impact on the conservation of the species.
17. Inherently dangerous wild animals or invasive species should not be dispositioned to the pet
trade or those unqualified to care for them.
18. Under no circumstances should any primates be dispositioned to a private individual or to the pet
trade.
19. Fish and aquatic invertebrate species that meet ANY of the following are inappropriate to be
disposed of to private individuals or the pet trade:
a. species that grow too large to be housed in a 72-inch long, 180 gallon aquarium (the largest
tank commonly sold in retail stores)
b. species that require extraordinary life support equipment to maintain an appropriate captive
environment (e.g., cold water fish and invertebrates)
c. species deemed invasive (e.g., snakeheads)
d. species capable of inflicting a serious bite or venomous sting (e.g., piranha, lion fish, blue-
ringed octopus)
e. species of wildlife conservation concern
20. When dispositioning specimens managed by an AZA PMP, institutions should consult with the
AZA PMP manager.
21. Institutions should consult WCMC-approved RCPs when making disposition decisions.
V(b). Disposition Requirements – dead specimens: Dead specimens (including animal parts and
samples) are only to be disposed of from an AZA member institution's collection if the following conditions
are met:
1. Dispositions of dead specimens must meet the requirements of all applicable local, state, federal
and international regulations and laws.
2. Maximum utilization is to be made of the remains, which could include use in educational
programs or exhibits.
3. Consideration is given to scientific projects that provide data for species management and/or
conservation.
4. Records (including ownership information) are to be kept on all dispositions, including animal
body parts, when possible.
5. SSP and TAG necropsy protocols are to be accommodated insofar as possible.
VI. Transaction Forms: AZA member institutions will develop transaction forms to record animal
acquisitions and dispositions. These forms will require the potential recipient or provider to adhere to the
AZA Code of Professional Ethics, the AZA Acquisition/Disposition Policy, and all relevant AZA and
member policies, procedures and guidelines. In addition, transaction forms must insist on compliance with
the applicable laws and regulations of local, state, federal and international authorities.

Appendix C: Recommended Quarantine Procedures

Quarantine facility: A separate quarantine facility, with the ability to accommodate mammals, birds,
reptiles, amphibians, and fish should exist. If a specific quarantine facility is not present, then newly
acquired animals should be isolated from the established collection in such a manner as to prohibit
physical contact, to prevent disease transmission, and to avoid aerosol and drainage contamination.
Such separation should be obligatory for primates, small mammals, birds, and reptiles, and attempted
wherever possible with larger mammals such as large ungulates and carnivores, marine mammals, and
cetaceans. If the receiving institution lacks appropriate facilities for isolation of large primates, pre-
shipment quarantine at an AZA or AALAS accredited institution may be applied to the receiving
institutions protocol. In such a case, shipment must take place in isolation from other primates. More
stringent local, state, or federal regulations take precedence over these recommendations.
Quarantine length: Quarantine for all species should be under the supervision of a veterinarian and
consist of a minimum of 30 days (unless otherwise directed by the staff veterinarian). Mammals: If during
the 30-day quarantine period, additional mammals of the same order are introduced into a designated
quarantine area, the 30-day period must begin over again. However, the addition of mammals of a
different order to those already in quarantine will not have an adverse impact on the originally quarantined
mammals. Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians, or Fish: The 30-day quarantine period must be closed for each of
the above Classes. Therefore, the addition of any new birds into a bird quarantine area requires that the
30-day quarantine period begin again on the date of the addition of the new birds. The same applies for
reptiles, amphibians, or fish.
Quarantine personnel: A keeper should be designated to care only for quarantined animals or a keeper
should attend quarantined animals only after fulfilling responsibilities for resident species. Equipment
used to feed and clean animals in quarantine should be used only with these animals. If this is not
possible, then equipment must be cleaned with an appropriate disinfectant (as designated by the
veterinarian supervising quarantine) before use with post-quarantine animals.
Institutions must take precautions to minimize the risk of exposure of animal care personnel to
zoonotic diseases that may be present in newly acquired animals. These precautions should include the
use of disinfectant foot baths, wearing of appropriate protective clothing and masks in some cases, and
minimizing physical exposure in some species; e.g., primates, by the use of chemical rather than physical
restraint. A tuberculin testing/surveillance program must be established for zoo/aquarium employees in
order to ensure the health of both the employees and the animal collection.
Quarantine protocol: During this period, certain prophylactic measures should be instituted. Individual
fecal samples or representative samples from large numbers of individuals housed in a limited area (e.g.,
birds of the same species in an aviary or frogs in a terrarium) should be collected at least twice and
examined for gastrointestinal parasites. Treatment should be prescribed by the attending veterinarian.
Ideally, release from quarantine should be dependent on obtaining two negative fecal results spaced a
minimum of two weeks apart either initially or after parasiticide treatment. In addition, all animals should
be evaluated for ectoparasites and treated accordingly.
Vaccinations should be updated as appropriate for each species. If the animal arrives without a
vaccination history, it should be treated as an immunologically naive animal and given an appropriate
series of vaccinations. Whenever possible, blood should be collected and sera banked. Either a -94°F
(-70ºC) frost-free freezer or a -4°F (-20ºC) freezer that is not frost-free should be available to save sera.
Such sera could provide an important resource for retrospective disease evaluation.
The quarantine period also represents an opportunity to, where possible, permanently identify all
unmarked animals when anesthetized or restrained (e.g., tattoo, ear notch, ear tag, etc.). Also, whenever
animals are restrained or immobilized, a complete physical, including a dental examination, should be
performed. Complete medical records should be maintained and available for all animals during the
quarantine period. Animals that die during quarantine should have a necropsy performed under the
supervision of a veterinarian and representative tissues submitted for histopathologic examination.
Quarantine procedures: The following are recommendations and suggestions for appropriate quarantine
procedures for Procyonid:
Procyonid:

Required:
1. direct and floatation fecals
2. vaccinate as appropriate
Strongly Recommended:
1. CBC/sera profile
2. urinalysis
3. appropriate serology (FIP, FeLV, FIV)
4. heartworm testing in appropriate species

Appendix D: Program Animal Policy and Position Statement

Program Animal Policy
Originally approved by the AZA Board of Directors – 2003
Updated and approved by the Board – July 2008 & June 2011
The Association of Zoos & Aquariums (AZA) recognizes many benefits for public education and,
ultimately, for conservation in program animal presentations. AZA‟s Conservation Education Committee‟s
Program Animal Position Statement summarizes the value of program animal presentations (see pages
42-44).
For the purpose of this policy, a Program Animal is defined as “an animal whose role includes handling
and/or training by staff or volunteers for interaction with the public and in support of institutional education
and conservation goals”. Some animals are designated as Program Animals on a full-time basis, while
others are designated as such only occasionally. Program Animal-related Accreditation Standards are
applicable to all animals during the times that they are designated as Program Animals.
There are three main categories of Program Animal interactions:
1. On Grounds with the Program Animal Inside the Exhibit/Enclosure:
i. Public access outside the exhibit/enclosure. Public may interact with animals from outside the
exhibit/enclosure (e.g., giraffe feeding, touch tanks).
ii. Public access inside the exhibit/enclosure. Public may interact with animals from inside the
exhibit/enclosure (e.g., lorikeet feedings, „swim with‟ programs, camel/pony rides).
2. On Grounds with the Program Animal Outside the Exhibit/Enclosure:
i. Minimal handling and training techniques are used to present Program Animals to the public.
Public has minimal or no opportunity to directly interact with Program Animals when they are
outside the exhibit/enclosure (e.g., raptors on the glove, reptiles held “presentation style”).
ii. Moderate handling and training techniques are used to present Program Animals to the public.
Public may be in close proximity to, or have direct contact with, Program Animals when they‟re
outside the exhibit/enclosure (e.g., media, fund raising, photo, and/or touch opportunities).
iii. Significant handling and training techniques are used to present Program Animals to the public.
Public may have direct contact with Program Animals or simply observe the in-depth
presentations when they‟re outside the exhibit/enclosure (e.g., wildlife education shows).
3. Off Grounds:
i. Handling and training techniques are used to present Program Animals to the public outside of
the zoo/aquarium grounds. Public may have minimal contact or be in close proximity to and have
direct contact with Program Animals (e.g., animals transported to schools, media, fund raising
events).
These categories assist staff and accreditation inspectors in determining when animals are designated as
Program Animals and the periods during which the Program Animal-related Accreditation Standards are
applicable. In addition, these Program Animal categories establish a framework for understanding
increasing degrees of an animal’s involvement in Program Animal activities.
Program animal presentations bring a host of responsibilities, including the safety and welfare of the
animals involved, the safety of the animal handler and public, and accountability for the take-home,
educational messages received by the audience. Therefore, AZA requires all accredited institutions that
make program animal presentations to develop an institutional program animal policy that clearly
identifies and justifies those species and individuals approved as program animals and details their long-
term management plan and educational program objectives.
AZA’s accreditation standards require that education and conservation messages must be an integral
component of all program animal presentations. In addition, the accreditation standards require that the
conditions and treatment of animals in education programs must meet standards set for the remainder of
the animal collection, including species-appropriate shelter, exercise, appropriate environmental
enrichment, access to veterinary care, nutrition, and other related standards. In addition, providing
program animals with options to choose among a variety of conditions within their environment is

essential to ensuring effective care, welfare, and management. Some of these requirements can be met
outside of the primary exhibit enclosure while the animal is involved in a program or is being transported.
For example, free-flight birds may receive appropriate exercise during regular programs, reducing the
need for additional exercise. However, the institution must ensure that in such cases, the animals
participate in programs on a basis sufficient to meet these needs or provide for their needs in their home
enclosures; upon return to the facility the animal should be returned to its species-appropriate housing as
described above.
Program Animal Position Statement

Last revision 1/28/03
Re-authorized by the Board June 2011
The Conservation Education Committee (CEC) of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums supports the
appropriate use of program animals as an important and powerful educational tool that provides a variety
of benefits to zoo and aquarium educators seeking to convey cognitive and affective (emotional)
messages about conservation, wildlife and animal welfare.
Utilizing these animals allows educators to strongly engage audiences. As discussed below, the use of
program animals has been demonstrated to result in lengthened learning periods, increased knowledge
acquisition and retention, enhanced environmental attitudes, and the creation of positive perceptions
concerning zoo and aquarium animals.
Audience Engagement
Zoos and aquariums are ideal venues for developing emotional ties to wildlife and fostering an
appreciation for the natural world. However, developing and delivering effective educational messages in
the free-choice learning environments of zoos and aquariums is a difficult task.
Zoo and aquarium educators are constantly challenged to develop methods for engaging and teaching
visitors who often view a trip to the zoo as a social or recreational experience (Morgan and Hodgkinson,
1999). The use of program animals can provide the compelling experience necessary to attract and
maintain personal connections with visitors of all motivations, thus preparing them for learning and
reflection on their own relationships with nature.
Program animals are powerful catalysts for learning for a variety of reasons. They are generally active,
easily viewed, and usually presented in close proximity to the public. These factors have proven to
contribute to increasing the length of time that people spend watching animals in zoo exhibits (Bitgood,
Patterson and Benefield, 1986, 1988; Wolf and Tymitz, 1981).
In addition, the provocative nature of a handled animal likely plays an important role in captivating a
visitor. In two studies (Povey, 2002; Povey and Rios, 2001), visitors viewed animals three and four times
longer while they were being presented in demonstrations outside of their enclosure with an educator
than while they were on exhibit. Clearly, the use of program animals in shows or informal presentations
can be effective in lengthening the potential time period for learning and overall impact.
Program animals also provide the opportunity to personalize the learning experience, tailoring the
teaching session to what interests the visitors. Traditional graphics offer little opportunity for this level of
personalization of information delivery and are frequently not read by visitors (Churchman, 1985;
Johnston, 1998). For example, Povey (2001) found that only 25% of visitors to an animal exhibit read the
accompanying graphic; whereas, 45% of visitors watching the same animal handled in an educational
presentation asked at least one question and some asked as many as seven questions. Having an animal
accompany the educator allowed the visitors to make specific inquiries about topics in which they were
interested.

Knowledge Acquisition
Improving our visitors' knowledge and understanding regarding wildlife and wildlife conservation is a
fundamental goal for many zoo educators using program animals. A growing body of evidence supports
the validity of using program animals to enhance delivery of these cognitive messages as well.
 MacMillen (1994) found that the use of live animals in a zoomobile outreach program significantly
enhanced cognitive learning in a vertebrate classification unit for sixth grade students.
 Sherwood and his colleagues (1989) compared the use of live horseshoe crabs and sea stars to the
use of dried specimens in an aquarium education program and demonstrated that students made the
greatest cognitive gains when exposed to programs utilizing the live animals.
 Povey and Rios (2002) noted that in response to an open-ended survey question (“Before I saw this
animal, I never realized that . . . ”), visitors watching a presentation utilizing a program animal
provided 69% cognitive responses (i.e., something they learned) versus 9% made by visitors viewing
the same animal in its exhibit (who primarily responded with observations).
 Povey (2002) recorded a marked difference in learning between visitors observing animals on exhibit
versus being handled during informal presentations. Visitors to demonstrations utilizing a raven and
radiated tortoises were able to answer questions correctly at a rate as much as eleven times higher
than visitors to the exhibits.
Enhanced Environmental Attitudes
Program animals have been clearly demonstrated to increase affective learning and attitudinal change.
 Studies by Yerke and Burns (1991) and Davison and her colleagues (1993) evaluated the effect live
animal shows had on visitor attitudes. Both found their shows successfully influenced attitudes about
conservation and stewardship.
 Yerke and Burns (1993) also evaluated a live bird outreach program presented to Oregon fifth-
graders and recorded a significant increase in students' environmental attitudes after the
presentations.
 Sherwood and his colleagues (1989) found that students who handled live invertebrates in an
education program demonstrated both short and long-term attitudinal changes as compared to those
who only had exposure to dried specimens.
 Povey and Rios (2002) examined the role program animals play in helping visitors develop positive
feelings about the care and well-being of zoo animals.
 As observed by Wolf and Tymitz (1981), zoo visitors are deeply concerned with the welfare of zoo
animals and desire evidence that they receive personalized care.
Conclusion
Creating positive impressions of aquarium and zoo animals, and wildlife in general, is crucial to the
fundamental mission of zoological institutions. Although additional research will help us delve further into
this area, the existing research supports the conclusion that program animals are an important tool for
conveying both cognitive and affective messages regarding animals and the need to conserve wildlife and
wild places.
Acknowledgements
The primary contributors to this paper were Karen Povey and Keith Winsten with valuable comments
provided from members of both the Conservation Education Committee and the Children's Zoo Interest
Group.
References
Bitgood, S., Patterson, D., & Benefield, A. (1986). Understanding your visitors: ten factors that influence
visitor behavior. Annual Proceedings of the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums,
726-743.
Bitgood, S., Patterson, D., & Benefield, A. (1988). Exhibit design and visitor behavior. Environment and
Behavior, 20 (4), 474-491.

Churchman, D. (1985). How and what do recreational visitors learn at zoos? Annual Proceedings of the
American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, 160-167.
Davison, V.M., McMahon, L., Skinner, T.L., Horton, C.M., & Parks, B.J. (1993). Animals as actors: take 2.
Annual Proceedings of the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, 150-155.
Johnston, R.J. (1998). Exogenous factors and visitor behavior: a regression analysis of exhibit viewing
time. Environment and Behavior, 30 (3), 322-347.
MacMillen, Ollie. (1994). Zoomobile effectiveness: sixth graders learning vertebrate classification. Annual
Morgan, J.M. & Hodgkinson, M. (1999). The motivation and social orientation of visitors attending a
contemporary zoological park. Environment and Behavior, 31 (2), 227-239.
Povey, K.D. (2002). Close encounters: the benefits of using education program animals. Annual
Proceedings of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums, in press.
Povey, K.D. & Rios, J. (2002). Using interpretive animals to deliver affective messages in zoos. Journal of
Interpretation Research, in press.
Sherwood, K. P., Rallis, S. F. & Stone, J. (1989). Effects of live animals vs. preserved specimens on
student learning. Zoo Biology 8: 99-104.
Wolf, R.L. & Tymitz, B.L. (1981). Studying visitor perceptions of zoo environments: a naturalistic view. In
Olney, P.J.S. (Ed.), International Zoo Yearbook (pp.49-53). Dorchester: The Zoological Society of
London.
Yerke, R. & Burns, A. (1991). Measuring the impact of animal shows on visitor attitudes. Annual
Yerke, R. & Burns, A. (1993). Evaluation of the educational effectiveness of an animal show outreach
program for schools. Annual Proceedings of the American Association of Zoological Parks and
Aquariums, 366-368.

Appendix E: Developing an Institutional Program Animal Policy

Last revision 2003
Re-authorized by the Board June 2011
Rationale
Membership in AZA requires that an institution meet the AZA Accreditation Standards collectively
developed by our professional colleagues. Standards guide all aspects of an institution's operations;
however, the accreditation commission has asserted that ensuring that member institutions demonstrate
the highest standards of animal care is a top priority. Another fundamental AZA criterion for membership
is that education be affirmed as core to an institution's mission. All accredited public institutions are
expected to develop a written education plan and to regularly evaluate program effectiveness.
The inclusion of animals (native, exotic and domestic) in educational presentations, when done correctly,
is a powerful tool. CEC's Program Animal Position Statement describes the research underpinning the
appropriate use of program animals as an important and powerful educational tool that provides a variety
of benefits to zoo and aquarium educators seeking to convey cognitive and affective messages about
conservation and wildlife.
Ongoing research, such as AZA's Multi-Institutional Research Project (MIRP) and research conducted by
individual AZA institutions will help zoo educators to determine whether the use of program animals
conveys intended and/or conflicting messages and to modify and improve programs accordingly and to
ensure that all program animals have the best possible welfare.
When utilizing program animals our responsibility is to meet both our high standards of animal care and
our educational goals. Additionally, as animal management professionals, we must critically address both
the species' conservation needs and the welfare of the individual animal. Because "wild creatures differ
endlessly," in their forms, needs, behavior, limitations and abilities (Conway, 1995), AZA, through its
Animal Welfare Committee, has recently given the responsibility to develop taxon- and species-specific
animal welfare standards and guidelines to the Taxon Advisory Groups (TAG) and Species Survival
Plan® Program (SSP). Experts within each TAG or SSP, along with their education advisors, are charged
with assessing all aspects of the taxons' and/or species‟ biological and social needs and developing
Animal Care Manuals (ACMs) that include specifications concerning their use as program animals.
However, even the most exacting standards cannot address the individual choices faced by each AZA
institution. Therefore, each institution is required to develop a program animal policy that articulates and
evaluates program benefits. The following recommendations are offered to assist each institution in
formulating its own Institutional Program Animal Policy, which incorporates the AZA Program Animal
Policy and addresses the following matters.
The Policy Development Process
Within each institution, key stakeholders should be included in the development of that institution's policy,
including, but not limited to representatives from:
 the Education Department
 the Animal Husbandry Department
 the Veterinary and Animal Health Department
 the Conservation & Science Department
 the Behavioral Husbandry Department
 any animal show staff (if in a separate department)
 departments that frequently request special program animal situations (e.g., special events,
development, marketing, zoo or aquarium society, administration)

Additionally, staff from all levels of the organization should be involved in this development (e.g., curators,
keepers, education managers, interpreters, volunteer coordinators).
To develop a comprehensive Program Animal Policy, we recommend that the following components be
included:
I. Philosophy
In general, the position of the AZA is that the use of animals in up close and personal settings, including
animal contact, can be extremely positive and powerful, as long as:
1. The use and setting is appropriate.
2. Animal and human welfare is considered at all times.
3. The animal is used in a respectful, safe manner and in a manner that does not misrepresent or
degrade the animal.
4. A meaningful conservation message is an integral component. Read the AZA Board-approved
Conservation Messages.
5. Suitable species and individual specimens are used.
Institutional program animal policies should include a philosophical statement addressing the above, and
should relate the use of program animals to the institution's overall mission statement.
II. Appropriate Settings
The Program Animal Policy should include a listing of all settings both on and off site, where program
animal use is permitted. This will clearly vary among institutions. Each institution's policy should include a
comprehensive list of settings specific to that institution. Some institutions may have separate policies for
each setting; others may address the various settings within the same policy. Examples of settings
include:
I. On-site programming
A. Informal and non-registrants:
1. On-grounds programming with animals being brought out (demonstrations,
lectures, parties, special events, and media)
2. Children's zoos and contact yards
3. Behind-the-scenes open houses
4. Shows
5. Touch pools
B. Formal (registration involved) and controlled settings
1. School group programs
2. Summer Camps
3. Overnights
4. Birthday Parties
5. Animal rides
6. Public animal feeding programs
II. Offsite and Outreach
1. PR events (TV, radio)
2. Fundraising events
3. Field programs involving the public
4. School visits
5. Library visits
6. Nursing Home visits (therapy)
7. Hospital visits
8. Senior Centers
9. Civic Group events
In some cases, policies will differ from setting to setting (e.g., on-site and off-site use with media). These
settings should be addressed separately, and should reflect specific animal health issues, assessment of
distress in these situations, limitations, and restrictions.

III. Compliance with Regulations

All AZA institutions housing mammals are regulated by the USDA's Animal Welfare Act. Other federal
regulations, such as the Marine Mammal Protection Act, may apply. Additionally, many states, and some
cities, have regulations that apply to animal contact situations. Similarly, all accredited institutions are
bound by the AZA Code of Professional Ethics. It is expected that the Institution Program Animal Policy
address compliance with appropriate regulations and AZA Accreditation Standards.
IV. Collection Planning
All AZA accredited institutions should have a collection planning process in place. Program animals are
part of an institution's overall collection and must be included in the overall collection planning process.
The AZA Guide to Accreditation contains specific requirements for the institution collection plan. For more
information about collection planning in general, please see the Collection Management pages in the
Members Only section.
The following recommendations apply to program animals:
1. Listing of approved program animals (to be periodically amended as collection changes).
Justification of each species should be based upon criteria such as:
o Temperament and suitability for program use
o Husbandry requirements
o Husbandry expertise
o Veterinary issues and concerns
o Ease and means of acquisition / disposition according to the AZA code of ethics
o Educational value and intended conservation message
o Conservation Status
o Compliance with TAG and SSP guidelines and policies
2. General guidelines as to how each species (and, where necessary, for each individual) will be
presented to the public, and in what settings
3. The collection planning section should reference the institution's acquisition and disposition
policies.
V. Conservation Education Message
As noted in the AZA Accreditation Standards, if animal demonstrations are part of an institution's
programs, an educational and conservation message must be an integral component. The Program
Animal Policy should address the specific messages related to the use of program animals, as well as the
need to be cautious about hidden or conflicting messages (e.g., "petting" an animal while stating verbally
that it makes a poor pet). This section may include or reference the AZA Conservation Messages.
Although education value and messages should be part of the general collection planning process, this
aspect is so critical to the use of program animals that it deserves additional attention. In addition, it is
highly recommended to encourage the use of biofacts in addition to or in place of the live animals.
Whenever possible, evaluation of the effectiveness of presenting program animals should be built into
education programs.
VI. Human Health and Safety
The safety of our staff and the public is one of the greatest concerns in working with program animals.
Although extremely valuable as educational and affective experiences, contact with animals poses certain
risks to the handler and the public. Therefore, the human health and safety section of the policy should
address:
1. Minimization of the possibility of disease transfer from non-human animals to humans, and vice-
versa (e.g., handwashing stations, no touch policies, use of hand sanitizer)
2. Safety issues related to handlers' personal attire and behavior (e.g., discourage or prohibit use of
long earrings, perfume and cologne, not eating or drinking around animals, smoking etc.)
AZA's Animal Contact Policy provides guidelines in this area; these guidelines were incorporated into
accreditation standards in 1998.

VII. Animal Health and Welfare

Animal health and welfare are the highest priority of AZA accredited institutions. As a result, the
Institutional Program Animal Policy should make a strong statement on the importance of animal welfare.
The policy should address:
1. General housing, husbandry, and animal health concerns (e.g. that the housing and husbandry
for program animals meets or exceeds general AZA standards and that the physical, social and
psychological needs of the individual animal, such as adequate rest periods, provision of
enrichment, visual cover, contact with conspecifics as appropriate, etc., are accommodated).
2. Where ever possible provide a choice for animal program participation, e.g., retreat areas for
touch tanks or contact yards, evaluation of willingness/readiness to participate by handler, etc.)
3. The empowerment of handlers to make decisions related to animal health and welfare; such as
withdrawing animals from a situation if safety or health is in danger of being compromised.
4. Requirements for supervision of contact areas and touch tanks by trained staff and volunteers.
5. Frequent evaluation of human / animal interactions to assess safety, health, welfare, etc.
6. Ensure that the level of health care for the program animals is consistent with that of other
animals in the collection.
7. Whenever possible have a “cradle to grave” plan for each program animal to ensure that the
animal can be taken care of properly when not used as a program animal anymore.
8. If lengthy “down” times in program animal use occur, staff should ensure that animals
accustomed to regular human interactions can still maintain such contact and receive the same
level of care when not used in programs.
VIII. Taxon Specific Protocols
We encourage institutions to provide taxonomically specific protocols, either at the genus or species level,
or the specimen, or individual, level. Some taxon-specific guidelines may affect the use of program
animals. To develop these, institutions refer to the Conservation Programs Database.
Taxon and species -specific protocols should address:
1. How to remove the individual animal from and return it to its permanent enclosure, including
suggestions for operant conditioning training.
2. How to crate and transport animals.
3. Signs of stress, stress factors, distress and discomfort behaviors.
Situation specific handling protocols (e.g., whether or not animal is allowed to be touched by the public,
and how to handle in such situations)
1. Guidelines for disinfecting surfaces, transport carriers, enclosures, etc. using environmentally
safe chemicals and cleaners where possible.
2. Animal facts and conservation information.
3. Limitations and restrictions regarding ambient temperatures and or weather conditions.
4. Time limitations (including animal rotation and rest periods, as appropriate, duration of time each
animal can participate, and restrictions on travel distances).
5. The numbers of trained personnel required to ensure the health and welfare of the animals,
handlers and public.
6. The level of training and experience required for handling this species
7. Taxon/species-specific guidelines on animal health.
8. The use of hand lotions by program participants that might touch the animals
IX. Logistics: Managing the Program
The Institutional Policy should address a number of logistical issues related to program animals,
including:
1. Where and how the program animal collection will be housed, including any quarantine and
separation for animals used off-site.
2. Procedures for requesting animals, including the approval process and decision making process.
3. Accurate documentation and availability of records, including procedures for documenting animal
usage, animal behavior, and any other concerns that arise.

X. Staff Training
Thorough training for all handling staff (keepers, educators, and volunteers, and docents) is clearly
critical. Staff training is such a large issue that many institutions may have separate training protocols and
procedures. Specific training protocols can be included in the Institutional Program Animal Policy or
reference can be made that a separate training protocol exists.
It is recommended that the training section of the policy address:
1. Personnel authorized to handle and present animals.
2. Handling protocol during quarantine.
3. The process for training, qualifying and assessing handlers including who is authorized to train
handlers.
4. The frequency of required re-training sessions for handlers.
5. Personnel authorized to train animals and training protocols.
6. The process for addressing substandard performance and noncompliance with established
procedures.
7. Medical testing and vaccinations required for handlers (e.g., TB testing, tetanus shots, rabies
vaccinations, routine fecal cultures, physical exams, etc.).
8. Training content (e.g., taxonomically specific protocols, natural history, relevant conservation
education messages, presentation techniques, interpretive techniques, etc.).
9. Protocols to reduce disease transmission (e.g., zoonotic disease transmission, proper hygiene
and hand washing requirements, as noted in AZA's Animal Contact Policy).
10. Procedures for reporting injuries to the animals, handling personnel or public.
11. Visitor management (e.g., ensuring visitors interact appropriately with animals, do not eat or drink
around the animal, etc.).
XI. Review of Institutional Policies
All policies should be reviewed regularly. Accountability and ramifications of policy violations should be
addressed as well (e.g., retraining, revocation of handling privileges, etc.). Institutional policies should
address how frequently the Program Animal Policy will be reviewed and revised, and how accountability
will be maintained.
XII. TAG and SSP Recommendations
Following development of taxon-specific recommendations from each TAG and SSP, the institution policy
should include a statement regarding compliance with these recommendations. If the institution chooses
not to follow these specific recommendations, a brief statement providing rationale is recommended.

Appendix F: Description of Nutrients (U.S. National Library of Medicine)

Protein: Protein is the main building blocks of animal structure on a fat-free basis. In addition to being an
important constituent of animal cell walls, protein is one of the nutrients responsible for making enzymes,
hormones, lipoproteins, and other crucial elements needed for proper bodily functions. Protein also is
essential for building and repairing body tissue, as well as protecting the animal from harmful bacteria and
viruses. Furthermore, protein aids in the transportation of nutrients throughout the body and facilitates
muscle contractions. The requirements for crude protein are effectively requirements for dietary amino
acids. The requirements are based on the needs of the animal, the quality of the protein, the source of the
protein, and the digestibility of the protein available.
Fat: Dietary fat plays an important role in the manufacture of certain hormones. It also plays a crucial role
in a wide variety of chemical bodily functions. Also, fat functions as a concentrated energy source, serves
as a carrier for fat-soluble vitamins (Vitamins A, D, E, and K), and provides essential fatty acids. The
requirements for fat are effectively requirements for dietary fatty acids.
Vitamin A: Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin essential for maintaining good vision and healthy mucous
membranes. It contributes to the differentiation and growth of skin tissue and bone formation (including
teeth), as well as bone remodeling in growing animals, and glycoprotein synthesis. Vitamin A can improve
skin and hair/fur conditions, help to increase resistance to certain infections, and improve fertility in both
genders. In many cases, a vitamin A requirement is effectively a requirement for carotenoids (precursors
to vitamin A).
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid): Vitamin C is a water-soluble antioxidant, which plays an important role in
biochemical oxidation-reduction reactions, as well as in the formation of collagen, an important protein
needed for the formation of skin, scar tissue, tendons, ligaments, and blood vessels. Because of this,
Vitamin C is crucial to an animal‟s ability to heal wounds and repair and or maintain cartilage, teeth, and
bones. It also may reduce infection by increasing immunity.
Vitamin D: Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin necessary for active calcium absorption, calcium metabolism
and resorption from bone. Requirements for vitamin D can be totally or partially met by exposure to
sunlight or artificial UV light (vitamin D is biosynthesized in the skin of animals or in some plant cells upon
exposure to the appropriate wavelength of UV light; 285-315nm).
Vitamin E: Vitamin E is a fat-soluble antioxidant that helps to maintain the structure of cellular and
subcellular membranes by preventing oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids. It also protects tissues from
free radicals, which are substances known to harm cells, tissues, and organs. Vitamin E is essential in the
formation of red blood cells and aids the body in Vitamin K utilization.
Thiamine (B-1): Thiamine is a water-soluble vitamin, which functions as a necessary coenzyme in
carbohydrate metabolism (converting carbohydrates into energy) and is hypothesized to play a role in
nerve or neuromuscular impulse transmission. Thiamine also is important in the proper functioning of the
heart, muscles, and the nervous system.
Riboflavin (B-2): Riboflavin is a water-soluble vitamin. It functions in two coenzymes: Flavin adenine
dinucleotide or “FAD” and flavin mononucleotide. Riboflavin is important for growth and the production of
red blood cells. It also helps the body to release energy from carbohydrates. Microbial synthesis of
riboflavin occurs in the gastrointestinal tract of some animals, but synthesis appears to be dependent on
the type of animal and the source of dietary carbohydrate.
Niacin (Nicotinic Acid): Similar to Riboflavin, niacin is a water-soluble vitamin which functions in two
coenzymes: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide or “NAD” and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
phosphate or “NADP”. Niacin plays a crucial role in assisting the normal functioning of the digestive, skin,
and nerve systems. Like riboflavin, niacin helps the body to convert energy from food. The niacin
requirement of many animals theoretically could be satisfied by synthesis of the vitamin from the amino
acid tryptophan. However, removal rate of an intermediate in the pathway to create niacin is often so
rapid that virtually none is produced.

Pyridoxine (B-6): Pyridoxine also known as B-6 is a water-soluble vitamin, which aids the body in the
synthesis of antibodies by the immune system. It also plays a role in the formation of red blood cells and
helps to promote healthy nerve functions. Pyridoxine is required to produce the chemical activity
necessary for protein digestion.
Choline: Choline is an essential nutrient, which contributes to the function of nerve cells. It is a
component (helps to form phosphatidylcholine, the primary phospholipid of cell membranes) of the
phospholipid lecithin (found in cells throughout the body) and is critical to normal membrane structure and
formation. It also functions as a “methyl donor”, but this role can be completely replaced by excess
amounts of the amino acid methionine in the diet.
Folacin (Folate, Folic Acid, B-9, Pteroylglutamic Acid): Folacin, or folate, is a water-soluble vitamin, which
assists the body in the formation of red blood cells. It also plays a major role in the formation of genetic
material (synthesis of DNA, the hereditary and functioning blueprint of all cells)within all living cells.
Folacin functions as a coenzyme, which is important at the cellular and subcellular levels in
decarboxylation, oxidation-reduction, transamination, deamination, phosphorylation, and isomerization
reactions. Working in conjunction with Vitamin C and B-12, Folacin assists in digestion and protein
utilization and synthesis. This vitamin may be used to increase appetite and stimulate healthy digestive
acids.
Vitamin B-12: Vitamin B-12 is a water-soluble vitamin, which functions as a coenzyme in single carbon
and carbohydrate metabolism. In addition to playing a role in metabolism, B-12 assists in the formation of
red blood cells and aids in the maintenance of the central nervous system.
Pantothenic Acid: Pantothenic acid is a water-soluble vitamin and part of the B vitamin complex. It is
needed to break down and use (metabolize) food. Pantothenic acid also is needed for the synthesis of
both hormones and cholesterol.
Calcium: The mineral calcium (in association with phosphorus) is a major component of the body and is
largely associated with skeletal formation. It is important in blood clotting, nerve function, acid-base
balance, enzyme activation, muscle contraction, and eggshell, tooth, and bone formation and
maintenance. It is one of the most important minerals required for growth, maintenance, and reproduction
of vertebrates.
Phosphorus: In addition to acting as a major component of the body and being largely associated with
skeletal and tooth formation (in conjunction with calcium), phosphorus is involved in almost every aspect
of metabolism (energy metabolism, muscle contractions, nerve function, metabolite transport, nucleic acid
structure, and carbohydrate, fat, and amino acid metabolism). Phosphorus is needed to produce ATP,
which is a molecule the body uses to store energy. Working with the B vitamins, this mineral also assists
the kidneys in proper functioning and helps to maintain regularity in heartbeat.
Magnesium: Magnesium is a mineral, which serves several important metabolic functions. It plays a role
in the production and transport of energy. It also is important for the contraction and relaxation of
muscles. Magnesium is involved in the synthesis of protein, and it assists in the functioning of certain
enzymes in the body.
Potassium: Potassium is a mineral that is involved in both electrical and cellular functions in the body. (In
the body it is classified as an electrolyte.) It has various roles in metabolism and body functions.
Potassium assists in the regulation of the acid-base balance and water balance in blood and the body
tissues. It also assists in protein synthesis from amino acids and in carbohydrate metabolism. Potassium
is necessary for the building of muscle and for normal body growth, as well as proper functioning of nerve
cells, in the brain and throughout the body.
Sodium (salt): Sodium is an element, which the body uses to regulate blood pressure and blood volume.
Sodium also is critical for the functioning of muscles and nerves.
Iron: Iron is a trace element and is the main component of hemoglobin (oxygen carrier in the blood),
myoglobin in muscles (oxygen carrier with a higher affinity for oxygen than hemoglobin), and many
proteins and enzymes within the body. It also functions in immune defenses against infection.

Zinc: Zinc also is a trace element that is second only to iron in terms of concentration within the body.
Zinc plays an important role in the proper functioning of the immune system in the body. It is required for
the enzyme activities necessary for cell division, cell growth, and wound healing. It plays a role in the
acuity of the senses of smell and taste. Zinc also is involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates. Zinc is
essential for synthesis of DNA, RNA, and proteins, and it is a component or cofactor of many enzyme
systems.
Manganese: Manganese is essential for carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, for synthesis of one of the
precursors to cartilage formation, and for proper bone formation. Manganese plays a key role in the
growth and maintenance of tissues and cartilage, specifically proper bone development. It particularly
aids in development at the ends of bones where new bone formation takes place. This therefore helps to
reduce the risk of osteoporosis. Manganese also helps to produce certain hormones, metabolizes fat, and
is part of superoxide dismutase (SOD) an antioxidant. Studies on humans have shown that manganese
also may lower the frequency of epileptic seizures and enhance immune functioning.
Copper: Copper is an essential trace mineral present in all body tissues. Copper, along with iron, helps in
the formation of red blood cells. It also helps in keeping the blood vessels, bones, and nervous and
immune systems healthy.
Selenium: Selenium is an essential trace element. It is an integral part of enzymes, which are critical for
the control of the numerous chemical reactions involved in brain and body functions. Selenium has a
variety of functions. The main one is its role as an antioxidant in the enzyme selenium-glutathione-
peroxidase. This enzyme neutralizes hydrogen peroxide, which is produced by some cell processes and
would otherwise damage cell membranes. Selenium also seems to stimulate antibody formation in
response to vaccines. It also may provide protection from the toxic effects of heavy metals and other
substances. Selenium may assist in the synthesis of protein, in growth and development. In humans,
selenium has been shown to improve the production of sperm and sperm motility.
Iodine: Iodine is a trace mineral and an essential nutrient. Iodine is essential for the normal metabolism of
cells. It is a necessary nutrient for the production of thyroid hormones and normal thyroid function.

Appendix G: Small Carnivore Medical Management Guidelines

Ann Manharth, DVM, and Wynona Shellabarger, DVM. 2003. (American Association of Zoo
Veterinarians)
Introduction: The classification “small carnivore” encompasses an extensive variety of animals. The
following recommendations include those for Procyonidae, Viverridae, and Mustelidae. A number of
individual species may already have medical programs thoroughly outlined by veterinary advisors and
these should be reviewed and followed when they vary from the general guidelines below. Species with
individual programs include North American river otters (Lontra canadensis), Asian small-clawed otters
(Aonyx cinerea), black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes), and red pandas (Ailurus fulgens). A list of
veterinary advisors may be found at www.aazv.org.
Pre-shipment: The goals of pre-shipment planning and examination are to ascertain the animal‟s health
before, during, and after shipment and to protect the animal collection at the receiving institution. In order
to do this, communication between sending and receiving institutions is critical. Ideally, this
communication should occur directly between veterinary staffs at the two institutions to minimize
confusion or delays. It is recommended that:
 Records on the animal being shipped should be forwarded to the receiving institution in advance
of the pre-shipment examination.
 The receiving institution should promptly advise the sending institution of any specific testing and
health requirements after review of the records.
 After the pre-shipment examination has been completed, the sending institution should discuss
any concerns with the receiving institution and forward copies of the examination and test results.
 Any problems that may compromise an animal, such as parasitic or bacterial infections, should be
addressed and resolved prior to shipment.
 The pre-shipment examination should ideally occur within 60 days of the shipment unless
interstate shipping requirements or receiving institution requests differ.
 The sending institution should check with the state veterinary office of the receiving institution‟s
state for any testing requirements that may be additional/different than the institutional
requirements (www.usda.aphis.gov).
 A current diet sheet for the animal should be forwarded so that dietary items may be obtained in
advance of the animal‟s arrival.
Records: It is recommended that a standardized, typed (not hand-written) form of record keeping be
used. MedARKS (International Species Information Systems (ISIS), 12101 Johnny Cake Ridge Rd.,
Apple Valley, MN 55124-8151) is used by a majority of institutions and enables a more consistent transfer
of data. When transferring data, both hard copies and disk should be provided to the receiving institution
if MedARKS is available. Medical records should be as complete as possible, including:
1. Medical history
2. Identification (current ARKS record, transponder numbers, tattoos, etc.)
3. Clinical notes (including exam findings, diagnoses, vaccination history, etc.)
4. Parasitology
5. Anesthesia
6. Clinical pathology
7. Treatments (current medications, recent treatments, etc.)
8. Pathology
9. Reproductive status (contracepted, cycle details or abnormalities, etc.)
10. Nutritional information (nutritional deficiencies, supplements, allergies, etc.)
11. Behavioral/social group notes (social traumas, aggression, training for medical procedures, etc.)

12. Any pertinent group history should be included as well, especially if there is a history of infectious
disease within the group or exhibit.
13. As small carnivores are prone to dental disease, a thorough history of dental problems and,
preferably, a dental chart noting extractions, root canals, problems, etc. is recommended.
Identification: All individuals should be permanently identified prior to shipment. Transponder chips are
recommended as a primary method, tattooing may be done in addition (males should be tattooed on the
inner right thigh and females on the inner left). Two main brands of transponders are used and
recommended: 1) Trovan (InfoPet Inc., 415 W. Travelers Trial, Burnsville, MN 55337-2548); and 2)
AVID (Avid, 3179 Hamner Ave., Norco, CA 91760). Chip type and implantation site may be specifically
recommended based on the species (e.g., bridge of nose for otters) or even sex (e.g., AVID behind right
ear for male black-footed ferrets), otherwise the general standard of over the back between the scapulae
to the left of the midline should be applied.
Genetic materials banking: Prior to shipping, it is recommended that genetic materials be banked. This
may provide positive identification should there ever be any question regarding an animal‟s identity (e.g.
transponder loss or breakage). In addition, the materials may serve as a future resource for research.
Methods are detailed at the end of this Appendix.
Examination: Ideally, the pre-shipment examination should occur at least two weeks prior to shipment.
This enables the animal to fully recover from anesthesia and respond to any vaccinations or treatments
given. There is also time for test results to be forwarded to the receiving institution. With most small
carnivores, crating does not require the use of an anesthetic, so this guideline should be not be a
hardship with appropriate planning. A complete pre-shipment examination should include the following,
and results should be documented in the record (photo documentation of specific problems may be
valuable):
1. Physical exam
a. Body weight and body condition scoring (assessment scaled 1-5 or 1-10)
b. Heart rate, respiratory rate, body temperature, hydration status
c. Oral exam: including dental chart documentation. Any problems should be noted and
addressed if possible. Dental cleaning and polishing should be completed if necessary.
d. Ophthalmologic exam
e. Ear exam: appropriate diagnostics should be completed if there is any indication of problems.
Cleaning and treatment should be done if necessary.
f. Auscultation
g. Abdominal palpation
h. Assessment of genitalia, including rectal palpation in both sexes if of a size to permit safely
i. Skin/coat assessment: any problems should be worked up with appropriate diagnostics.
j. Feet/nails
2. Verification of transponder or tattoo (placement/replacement if necessary)

3. Sample Collection
a. Blood
- CBC
- Serum chemistry panel
- Heartworm antigen: recommended if housed outside as many small carnivores are
susceptible to heartworm
- Serum banking (receiving institution may request serum as well)
- Genetic materials banking
- Research requests, if any
b. Urine
- For standard urinalysis, via cystocentesis
- If there are current/historical urinary tract problems, cultures should be submitted
c. Fecal
- Two negative fecals, one week apart, should be obtained prior to shipment
- Fresh direct and float or sedimentation should be completed

- Acid fast staining – if there is a history/indication of cryptosporidiosis

- Culture should be submitted if requested or if there is any history or indication of infectious
bacterial disease (e.g. salmonellosis)
d. Genetic materials
- Blood
- Skin
- Hair
4. Radiographs
a. Chest and abdominal survey radiographs should be completed
b. Any problems (e.g., previous fractures, renal calculi, etc.) should be documented
c. Ideally, a duplicate set of radiographs should be made to go with the animal to the new
institution. This is especially important if there is a problem that is going to need follow-up. A
duplicate set can be made by placing two layers of film in the cassette prior to exposing,
though this is does not provide as good quality films as having copies made. Alternatively,
digital images of the radiographs can be made though quality is not always optimum for
interpretation.
Vaccinations: Vaccinations should be current or updated before the animal is shipped. Once again, if
there is a veterinary advisor or husbandry manual available for the specific species, review this
information in the references or contact the advisor if there are questions. Specifics regarding type/lot of
vaccine and site of injection should be recorded in the animal‟s record. Most recommendations are not
based on scientific studies done on the specific species.
1. Canine Distemper
a. PUREVAX Ferret Distemper Vaccine (Merial Ltd., 3239 Satellite Blvd., Duluth, GA 30096) is
a monovalent recombinant canary pox vectored vaccine. It has been used in a number of
small carnivores with minimal adverse effects and development of titers, which appear to be
protective (see www.aazv.org for recommendations based on Dr. Montali‟s study). A 1ml (IM)
dose should be given at the following frequency:
- Vaccinated adults: annually
- Unvaccinated adults: two vaccinations 3-4 weeks apart, then annually
- Juveniles: three vaccinations, every three to four weeks from 8 to 16 weeks of age (e.g. 8,
12 and 16 weeks)
2. Parvovirus
a. Parvocine (Biocor Animal Health Inc., 2720 North 84 Street, Omaha, NE 68134) is a killed
th
univalent parvovirus vaccine. A 1ml (IM) dose should be given at the same frequency listed
for canine distemper
3. Leptospirosis
a. If leptospirosis has been diagnosed or is endemic in the area, a killed bacterin could be used,
though most of these are currently in combination vaccines.
4. Rabies
a. Only a killed rabies vaccine product should be used. Though it is recommended, use of
rabies vaccines in these species will be extra-label and will not be considered protective in
the event of a bite.
b. Imrab3 (Merial Ltd., 3239 Satellite Blvd., Duluth, GA 30096) is a killed rabies vaccine that
has been used extensively in small carnivores without apparent adverse effects. A 1ml (IM)
dose should be given once at 16 weeks of age, and then annually.
c. PUREVAX Feline Rabies (Merial Ltd., 3239 Satellite Blvd., Duluth, GA 30096) is a live
canarypox vectored, nonadjuvanted recombinant rabies vaccine that is currently being used
at some institutions for small carnivores. A 1ml (IM) dose should be given once at 8 weeks
(or older), and then annually.
5. Feline Panleukopenia
a. AAZV‟s Infectious Disease Notebook notes that some small carnivores are susceptible to
feline panleukopenia and should be vaccinated and many small carnivores have been
vaccinated with a combination product in the past. However, a number of veterinary advisors
do not recommend vaccination for red pandas and black-footed ferrets. Veterinary advisor
recommendations should be followed primarily.

b. If there is significant risk of exposure to feline panleukopenia (e.g., feral cat population),
vaccination should be considered.
c. FPV-1 Feline Panleukopenia Vaccine (Biocor Animal Health Inc., 2720 North 84 Street,
th
Omaha, NE 68134) is a new non-adjuvanted, killed vaccine. This vaccine has been shown to
be safe in pregnant domestic cats A 1ml (SQ) dose should be given at the following
frequency:
- At least two vaccines three weeks apart at/after 12 weeks of age. If started before 12
weeks, give a third vaccine – then annually.
6. Titer Evaluations
a. Distemper, parvovirus, and leptospiral titers can be evaluated by submitting serum to: Cornell
Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Upper Tower
Road, Ithaca, NY 14851-0786, Ph: 607-253-3900
Transport: With the wide variety of species included within “small carnivore”, only general
recommendations will be provided.
1. Crates should be designed so that the animal can assume normal postures, including turning
around. IATA recommendations should be followed. Crates should be of impervious materials as
many small carnivores are diggers or chewers and this will allow for proper disinfection as well.
Some small carnivores are considered “injurious species” (e.g., meerkats) and are required to be
double crated for shipment.
2. Animals should be crated individually to avoid aggression.
3. Animals should only be shipped when the weather is appropriate at all points along the shipping
route. Unplanned delays and errors should be considered as possibilities and risky shipments
(e.g., too hot at site of layover) should be rescheduled. This may be true even for counter-to-
counter shipments.
4. Appropriate temperature ranges will vary by species, but a “safe” window would be between 10-
21°C (50-75°F) for most small carnivores.
5. Methods of providing visual access and water to the animal should be addressed. The crate
should otherwise be secure from tampering.
6. Most small carnivores will not require anesthesia for crating. In the event that anesthesia is
required, the animal should be fully recovered (standing and stable) prior to shipping. Ideally, an
inhalant or reversible anesthetic should be used in these cases.
Quarantine: Quarantine is the next step in assuring the health of the new arrival and the protection of the
animals already in the collection. General quarantine guidelines have been outlined by AAZV and AZA. It
is critical that protocols be developed and followed.
1. Length – minimum of 30 days for small carnivores
2. Examination
a. Visual exam should be performed upon arrival, preferably at uncrating. A body weight can
easily be obtained at this time as well (in the crate).
b. Ideally, a physical exam should be completed during the third week of the quarantine. This
allows the animal to adjust to the environment and dietary changes and allows test results to
come back before the end of quarantine.
- Physical exam, verification of ID, sample collection, and radiographs should be completed
as detailed for pre-shipment.
- Repeating this work will provide a baseline for the animal at the new institution (especially
for radiographs), allow any problems to be rechecked, and potentially reveal new
problems that may have developed during the stress of shipment and quarantine.
- Vaccinations should have been given during pre-shipment if needed, but, if not, should be
given during quarantine before exposure to a new environment.
3. Fecals
a. A minimum of three (3) consecutive negative fecals (fresh direct and float or sedimentation),
each one week apart, should be obtained before clearing from quarantine.
b. Appropriate treatment for any parasites should be administered while in quarantine and three
negative fecals should be obtained post-treatment.

c. Cultures and special stains should be repeated during this time if there has been a history of
infectious disease in this animal or its previous group. In the event of an infectious bacterial
intestinal disease (e.g., salmonellosis), it is recommended that repeated cultures be
submitted (three per week) in order to identify or document the condition.
4. Nutrition
a. Most diets are not going to be identical from one institution to the next. It is recommended
that the sending institutions diet be obtained in advance of the animal‟s arrival. This enables
the receiving institution to provide a familiar diet to the animal upon arrival and for the first
week of quarantine. The sending institution may want to send some of the regular diet with
the animal.
b. After the first week of quarantine, if the animal is doing well, the new diet should slowly be
introduced. If this is done at a rate of approximately 25% of new diet exchanged for old per
week, the animal should be converted to the new diet by the end of quarantine and should
avoid any problems associated with dietary change.
Preventive Health: In order to appropriately ensure the health of small carnivores, it is recommended that
a physical examination take place on a routine basis. The following is recommended for a routine exam:
1. Physical exam: as detailed in pre-shipment
2. Verification of identification
3. Sample collection
a. Blood
- CBC/chem. panel
- HW antigen
- Serum banking
- Research requests
- Viral titers: as there is little information about vaccine titer levels in many of these species, it
is suggested that titers be run opportunistically and documented as to time from
vaccination(s), route, vaccine product and titer level. See above for information on
obtaining titers.
b. Urine: as detailed in pre-shipment
c. Fecals: should be submitted at a minimum of annually; twice annually is recommended
d. Genetic materials should only need to be collected once if preserved properly.
4. Radiographs: chest and abdomen minimally (this is especially important for monitoring renal
calculi in otters)
5. Vaccination: as detailed above
Miscellaneous: Ideally, weights should be recorded monthly (accomplished with the aid of training). In
areas where the animal is housed outside and heartworm is endemic, ivermectin at 0.006mg/kg orally
once a month may be used for prevention. This dose has been used safely and effectively in a number of
small carnivores. Reports of disease issues, adverse drug reactions, etc. should be reported to the
veterinary advisor or TAG on an annual basis, in addition to submission of necropsy reports.
Necropsy: All small carnivores that die should receive a thorough necropsy in a timely manner. This will
help establish cause of death, provide valuable insight into the health of the collection, and help protect
the other animals in the social grouping by delineating any immediate concerns. A complete report,
including histopath and test results, should be submitted to the veterinary advisor on an annual basis.
1. Blood: serum banking
2. Radiographs post-mortem
3. External exam, including weight and description of condition of body
4. Internal exam
a. A detailed written report should be completed.
b. Cultures should be submitted, if indicated
c. Photo documentation, if possible
d. Submission of a representative sample of all lesions AND routine tissues:
- Skin, muscle, sciatic nerve, bone (femur), tongue, salivary gland, eye, brain, pituitary,
trachea, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, esophagus, lymph nodes (thoracic and
abdominal), lung, bronchus, heart, aorta, liver, gall bladder, diaphragm, spleen,

pancreas, stomach, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, ileocolic jxn, colon, adrenal, kidneys,
bladder, ureter, urethra, reproductive organs
- It is recommended that a pathologist familiar with non-traditional species be used for
histopathology.
- Reproductive organs should be submitted to: Dr. Linda Munson, Dept. of VM-PM1,
Haring Hall, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
as a standing request.
e. Frozen set of tissues: heart, liver, kidney, brain, serum, lesions
f. Any stones (uroliths, renoliths, etc.) should be submitted for analysis to: Minnesota
Urolith Center, Dept. of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine,
University of Minnesota, 1352 Boyd Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108
Methods for Banking Genetic Materials: Avoid contamination of genetic samples; wear gloves, clean
equipment, etc. The protocols are listed in preferential order:
1. Whole Blood
A. Minimum required volume: 0.05ml (1 drop)
B. Lysis buffer (all ingredients may be obtained from Sigma)
0.1 M Tris-HCl (pH 8.0) (bring to pH with HCl)
0.1 M EDTA (pH 8.0) (bring to pH with NaOH)
0.1 M NaCl
2% (w/v) SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate)
C. Protocol
- Draw blood; if anti-coagulant is needed, heparin is preferable, but EDTA is acceptable
- Mix 1:1 with buffer (a little more buffer is acceptable) in cryovial
- Label with Animal, ID#, Date, Institution, Sample type (e.g. whole blood with heparin in lysis
buffer)
- Freeze at -57°C (-70°F)
2. Tissue Biopsies (skin with dermis or muscle)
A. Minimum required volume: at least this “” big. Maximum required volume: piece(s) should be
3
no larger than 0.4 cm , section if necessary
B. Place in cryovial
C. Label with Animal, ID#, Date, Institution, Sample type
D. Freeze immediately at -57°C (-70°F)
3. Hair
A. Minimum required amount: 1 follicle; 10-20 preferred. Follicles must be attached.
B. Place follicle ends in a cryovial; with sterile scissors cut follicles into vial. Always use gloves
when handling the hairs.
C. Label with Animal, ID#, Date, Institution, Sample type
D. Freeze immediately at -57°C (-70°F)

Appendix H: Commonly Trained Behaviors for Procyonids (AAZK,

Inc.)
The following list of behaviors was derived using data from a 2003 survey conducted by the American
Association of Zoo Keepers Animal Training Committee (AAZK, ATC). The goal of the survey was to
census the existence and depth of training programs for species in AZA facilities. For each species
trained, each respondent was asked to list trained behaviors, types of reinforcement and conditioned
reinforcers used. Additional information about facility design, training tools, and general comments was
also requested. The ATC hopes that this data will aid in the design of training programs for the Mustelid,
Procyonid, and Viverrid taxa. Where appropriate, these commonly trained behaviors can greatly enhance
the husbandry of species in this group. Not every behavior will work for every animal. The
appropriateness of a behavioral goal for an individual will depend on management policy and building
design of the facility, as well as the needs and disposition of the animal. For questions or comments
about this list or the Trained Behaviors Survey, please contact the AAZK Animal Training Committee at
www.aazk.org.
Survey results pertaining to the list of behaviors: 219 AZA facilities were surveyed. There were 71
respondents. 31 of these train species within the Procyonid taxonomic group. Because many similarities
were found within taxonomic groups, commonly trained behaviors were compiled to serve as a reference
for animal training programs. Of the 31 respondents that train within this group, the percentage that trains
each behavior is listed next to the behavior.
Raccoons % Used Red pandas % Used Ringtails % Used
Paws/feet 25% Belly 33% Target 67%
Separations 50% Paws/feet 67% Stethoscope 33%
Station 50% Sides (torso) 33% Station 67%
Target 75% Shift 83% Belly 33%
Oral meds 25% Station 67% Paws/feet 67%
Squeeze/crate 75% Squeeze/crate 83% Sides (torso) 33%
Climb 50% Scale 83% Station 67%
Carry object 25% Come down 17% Scale 67%
Stand up 50% Target 83% Injection 33%
Nail trim 25% Tactile desensitization 67% Climb 67%
Belly 25% Vaginal swab 17% Shift 33%
Shifting 75% Ultrasound 17%
Hand injection 17%
Oral meds 50%
Ears 17%
Coati % Used Kinkajou % Used
Belly 40% Oral meds 33%
Paws/feet 20% Blood collection 33%
Separations 40% Squeeze/crate 67%
Shift 80% Injection 33%
Station 60% Ophthalmoscope 33%
Squeeze/crate 100% Otoscope 33%
Coati % Used Kinkajou % Used
Scale 60% Stethoscope 33%
Climb 20% Climb 33%
Leash on/off 33%
A to B 33%

Appendix I: Resources for Enrichment and Training

Sue Maher, Institution D
Enrichment
Coe J. 1992. Plan ahead for behavioral enrichment in environmental kaleidoscope: Research,
management, and design. In: Proceedings of the AAZPA Annual Meeting. Wheeling. WV:AAZPA. pp
120-23.
du Bois T. 1992. The Los Angles Zoo environmental enrichment program: We get a lot of help from our
friends. In: Proceedings of the AAZPA Annual Meeting. Wheeling. WV:AAZPA. pp 112-19.
Goss D. 1999. Creating artificial vines for natural zoo displays. AAZK Forum: 26(11):449-51.
Grams K, Ziegler G. 1995. Enrichment companies and products. AAZK Forum: 22(6):210.
Hare V, Worley K. 1995. The shape of enrichment: The first generation. In: Proceedings of the AAZPA
Annual Meeting. Wheeling. WV:AAZPA. pp 180-86.
Harris A. 1998. Enrichment: Trials, tribulations and magic moments. In: Proceedings of the AAZPA
Annual Meeting. Wheeling. WV:AAZPA. pp 271-74.
Houts L. 1999. Folsom City Zoo piñatas. AAZK Forum: 26(5): 177-78.
Houts L. 1999. Utilizing young visitors for behavioral enrichment. In: Proceedings of the AAZPA Annual
Meeting. Wheeling. WV:AAZPA. pp 72-3.
Houts L. 2000. Enhancing animal welfare with limited resources. Proceedings of the AZA Annual Meeting.
Wheeling. WV: AZA.
Houts L, Greaves J. 2000. Enrichment options- Using Graphics to promote enrichment. AAZK Forum:
27(7): 307-08.
Lacinak CT, Turner TN, Kuczaj SA. 1995. When is environmental enrichment most effective? In:
Proceedings of the AAZPA Annual Meeting. Wheeling. WV:AAZPA. pp 324-27.
Lattis R. 2000. Animal welfare and the AZA. Proceedings of the AZA Annual Meeting. Wheeling.
WV:AZA.
Laule G. 1992. Addressing Psychological well being: Training as enrichment. In: Proceedings of the
AAZPA Annual Meeting. Wheeling. WV:AAZPA. pp 415-22.
Laule G, Desmond T. Positive reinforcement training as an enrichment strategy. In: Shepherdson DJ,
Mellen JD, Hutchins M, editors. Second Nature: Environmental enrichment for captive animals.
Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press; 1998. pp. 302-313.
Lindburg D. Enrichment of captive animals through provisioning. In: Shepherdson DJ, Mellen JD,
Hutchins M, editors. Second Nature: Environmental enrichment for captive animals. Washington:
Smithsonian Institution Press; 1998. pp. 262-301.
Markowitz H. Behavioral enrichment in the zoo. New York: van Nostrand Reinhold Company; 1982.
Martin S. 1996. Training as enrichment. In: Proceedings of the AAZPA Annual Meeting. Wheeling. WV:
AAZPA. pp 139-41.
McPhee ME, Foster JS, Sevenich M, Saunders CD. 1996. Public perceptions of behavioral enrichment.
In: Proceedings of the AAZPA Annual Meeting. Wheeling. WV:AAZPA. Pp 248-53.
Mellen J, Shepherdson D, Hutchins M. Epilogue: The future of environmental enrichment. In:
Shepherdson, D, Mellen, J, Hutchins, M, editors. Second nature: Environmental enrichment for
captive animals. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press; 1998. p. 329-336.
Mellen J, Sevenich M. 1999. Philosophy of animal enrichment: past, present, and future. In: Proceedings
of the PAZAAB Conference. Cape Town: South Africa.
Moore D. 1997. AZA Minimum Husbandry Guidelines for Mammals: Mustelids. AZA Mammal Standards
Task Force, 1997. 7pg.
Moore D, Reiss D. 2000. A multi-institutional program addressing welfare, enrichment, husbandry training
and behavioral research. Proceedings of the AZA Annual Meeting. Wheeling. WV: AZA.
Myers M. 1999. Feeder designs at the Audubon Park and Zoological Gardens. AAZK Forum: 26(11):369-
72.
Seidensticker J, Forthman D. Evolution, ecology, and enrichment: Basic considerations for wild animals in
zoos. In: Shepherdson DJ, Mellen JD, Hutchins M, editors. Second Nature: Environmental
enrichment for captive animals. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press; 1998. pp. 15-29.

Sevenich MacPhee M, Mellen J. 2000a. Framework for planning, documenting, and evaluating
enrichment programs (and the Director‟s, Curator‟s, and Keeper‟s roles in the Process). Proceedings
of the AZA Annual Meeting. Wheeling. WV:AZA.
Sevenich MacPhee M, Mellen J. 2000b. Training and enrichment models for avian exhibits. Proceedings
of the AZA Annual Meeting. Wheeling. WV:AZA.
Sheng S. 1992. The ultimate enriched environment. In: Proceedings of the AAZPA Annual Meeting.
Wheeling. WV:AAZPA. pp 124-27.
Shepherdson D. 1992. Environmental enrichment: an overview. In: Proceedings of the AAZPA Annual
Shepherdson D. 1997. The animal‟s perspective: Developing strategies for successful enrichment. In:
Proceedings of the AAZPA Annual Meeting. Wheeling. WV:AAZPA. pp 486-89.
Shepherdson D. Tracing the path of environmental enrichment in zoos. In: Shepherdson, D, Mellen, J,
Hutchins, M, editors. Second nature: Environmental enrichment for captive animals. Washington, DC:
Smithsonian Institution Press; 1998. p. 1-14.
Shepherdson D, Carlstead K. 2000. When did you last forget to feed your tiger? Proceedings of the AZA
Annual Meeting. Wheeling. WV:AZA.
Shepherdson D, Mellen J. 1993. Environmental enrichment: Carrying forth the message. In: Proceedings
of the AAZPA Annual Meeting. Wheeling. WV:AAZPA. pp 216-18.
Shields J. 1995. Behavioral enrichment for the rest of the zoo. In: Proceedings of the AAZPA Annual
Smith C. 1993. An inexpensive simulated thundershower for small enclosures. AAZK Forum: 20(9):322-
23.
Stern S. 1994. Whose life is really being enriched here anyway? Shape of enrichment 3(3).
Widner K. 1994. Initiation of the zoo-wide enrichment program at the Knoxville Zoo. In: Proceedings of
the AAZPA Annual Meeting. Wheeling. WV:AAZPA. pp 51-2.
Williams L. 1996. Ethological considerations for designing behavioral enrichment. Lab Animal. pp 29-33.
Whorley KE, Hare VJ. 1995. An overview of the 1995 Environmental Enrichment Conference. The Shape
of Enrichment. Vol. 4, No. 4, November.
There are also many enrichment resources available on-line and in print, including:
"Enrichment Options" – A regular column featuring brief descriptions of ideas published monthly in the
Animal Keepers' Forum. Published by the American Association of Zoo Keepers, Inc. AAZK
Administrative Office, Susan Chan, Editor. 3601 S.W. 29th Street, Suite 133 Topeka, KS 66614.
Phone: (785) 273-9149, Fax: (785) 273-1980. Email: [email protected]. Website:
www.aazk.org
"The Shape of Enrichment" Newsletter – A newsletter devoted entirely to enrichment of captive wild
animals. Published by The Shape of Enrichment, Inc., V. Hare & K. Worley, (eds.). 1650 Minden
Drive, San Diego, CA 92111. Phone: (619) 270-4273. Fax: (619) 279-4208. E-mail:
[email protected]. Website: www.enrichment.org
The American Association of Zoo Keepers Enrichment Committee www.aazk.org
Disney Animal Kingdom - www.animalenrichment.org
AAZK Enrichment Notebook 3rd ed. 2004 ISBN1-929672-11-X,
www.aazk.org/2004enrichnotebookcd.php.
Fort Worth Zoo‟s Enrichment Online: www.enrichmentonline.org/browse/index.asp
Training
Baker A. 1991. Training as a management tool: Creating the climate and maintaining the momentum. In:
AAZPA Annual Conference Proceedings. Wheeling, W.Va.: American Association of Zoological Parks
and Aquariums. p. 563-568.
Blasko D, Doyle C, Laule G, Lehnhardt J. 1996. Training terms list. Principles of Elephant Management
School. St. Louis: American Zoo and Aquarium Association, Schools for Zoo and Aquarium
Personnel.
Bloomsmith M, Laule G, Thurston R, Alford P. 1992. Using training to moderate chimpanzee aggression.
In: AAZPA Regional Conference Proceedings. Wheeling, W.Va.: American Association of Zoological
Parks and Aquariums. p. 719-722.

Coe J. 1992. Animal training and facility design – a collaborative approach. In: AAZPA/CAZPA Regional
Conference Proceedings. Wheeling, W.Va.: American Association of Zoological Parks and
Aquariums. p. 411-414.
Coe J. 1992. Animal training and facility design – a collaborative approach. In: AAZPA/CAZPA Regional
Dewsbury D. 1978. Comparative animal behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Grandin T. 1995. Thinking in pictures. New York: Vintage book. 222 p.
Hediger H. 1950. Wild animals in captivity. London: Butterworths. 207 p.
Hediger H. 1969. Man and animal in the zoo. London: Routledge and Kegon Paul. 303 p.
Kazdin A. 1994. Behavior modification in applied settings. Pacific Grove CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing
Company. 508 p.
Kleiman D, Allen M, Thompson K, Lumpkin S, editors. 1996. Wild mammals in captivity: Principles and
techniques.
Laule G. 1992. Addressing psychological well-being: Training as enrichment. In: AAZPA/CAZPA Annual
Laule G. 1995. The role of behavioral management in enhancing exhibit design and use. In: AZA
Regional Conference Proceedings. Wheeling, W.Va.: American Association of Zoological Parks and
Lyons J. 1991. Lyons on horses: John Lyons‟ proven conditioned-response training program. New York:
Doubleday. 228p.
Mellen J, Ellis S. 1996. Animal learning and husbandry training. In: Kleiman D, Allen M, Thompson K,
Lumpkin S, editors. Wild mammals in captivity: Principles and techniques. Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press. p. 88-99.
Mellen J, Sevenich MacPhee M. (2001). Philosophy of environmental enrichment: Past, present, and
future. Zoo Biology 20: 211-226.
Pryor K. 1984. Don‟t shoot the dog! Simon & Schuster: New York.
Pryor K. 1995. On behavior. North Bend: Sunshine Books, Inc.
Ramirez K. 1999. Animal training: Successful animal management through positive reinforcement.
Chicago: Ken Ramirez and The Shedd Aquarium. 578 p.
Reichard T, Shellabarger W, Laule G. 1992. Training for husbandry and medical purposes. In: AAZPA
Annual Conference Proceedings. Wheeling, W.Va.: American Association of Zoological Parks and
Reynolds G. 1975. A primer of operant conditioning. Palo Alto: Scott, Foresman and Co.
Sevenich MacPhee M, Mellen J. 2000. Framework for planning, documenting, and evaluating enrichment
programs (and the director‟s, curator‟s, and keeper‟s roles in the process). In: AAZPA Annual
Aquariums.
Shepherdson DJ. 1998. Tracing the path of environmental enrichment in zoos. In: Shepherdson DJ,
Mellen JD, Hutchins, M, editors. Second nature: Environmental enrichment for captive animals.
Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. p. 1-12.
Shepherdson D, Carlstead K. 2000. When did you last forget to feed your tiger? In: AAZPA Annual
Aquariums.
Stevens B, Groff A, Joseph S, Mellen J, Ogden J, Plasse R. 2000. Evolving a new species of animal care
professional: Combining AZA expertise with Disney leadership. In: AAZPA Annual Conference
Proceedings. Wheeling, W.Va.: American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums.
Wilkes G. 1994. A behavior sampler. North Bend: Sunshine Books, Inc.

Appendix J: Sample Procyonid Enrichment Items and Techniques

All items should be evaluated by Animal Care staff for safety and appropriateness. Food items should be
accounted for within the individual animal‟s daily nutritional requirements.
COATIS/RACCOONS
Sensory: auditory, visual, olfactory, tactile Foods and feeding

Spices; catnip Cardboard box/tube
Urine/trapping lures Egg carton feeder
Scented lotions Peanut butter (in some type of device)
Body sprays, colognes Honey (in some type of device)
Perfume pages Marshmallows
Listerine, diluted Puzzle feeder
Extracts Piñatas
Audio tapes Jell-O (in some type of device)
Radio Frozen fruit pops
Paper, paint, stickers, etc. on outside of glass Insects (crickets, meal/wax worms) in puzzle
Sun catcher (presented outside of enclosure) Crayfish
Hair/wool or feathers Nuts, berries, dried fruit, cob corn & corn stocks
Snake sheds Squash, including pumpkin; melons
Bubbles Chicken gizzards, breast
Hooves Pile of rocks with diet hidden inside
Broom heads/Astroturf for rubbing & scratching Pinecone feeder
Eggs: hard boiled, scrambled or raw
Diluted essential oils Bones or Nylabones
Hides (see hide protocol) Graham crackers
Pinwheels (outside of exhibit) Hanging log puzzle feeder
Laser Pointer Water cooler jugs w/ food items
Disco ball (outside of exhibit) Blue jean feeder*
Mirror mobile (outside of exhibit) Acrylic sheet feeder*
Lemons* Feeder pan*
Acrylic tube feeder in box*
Manipulative items/toys Hanging frozen corn cobs*
Burlap bag (pillows) stuffed with hay or straw Burlap bag feeder*
Cardboard box/tube
Egg carton (without food) Physical environment
Christmas trees* (unpainted) Sand or sod
Pinecones Straw/hay, blankets
Piñatas (without food) Logs, stumps, branches
Boomer ball Kiddy pool with sand or leaves
Coconuts Large hanging baskets (for animals to sleep in)
Paper bags, sticks
Traffic cone Coke barrel beds
Water cooler jugs w/o food Linen bed sheets
Busy box child‟s toy Water tubs & running water
Fire hose
Phone book Behavioral/Social
Pine boughs* Visual access to contra specifics (DAF animals)
Things to bang together to make noise
Durable balls (i.e. basketballs, etc.)* Visual access to animal decoys, piñatas, etc.)
Frozen Frisbees (water or broth)* Approved Training Programs
Buckets with holes feeder hung in trees* Window walker
Milk crates*

CACOMISTLE/RINGTAIL
Sensory: auditory, visual, tactile, olfactory Foods and feeding

Snake skins Gerbil ball with mealworms inside
Scents - cinnamon and allspice Plastic ball smeared lightly with peanut butter
Urine/Trapping lures Crickets, meal/wax worms in puzzle device
Bath and Body Works body splashes and lotions Bones (if not given on a regular basis)
Perfume pages from magazines Pine cone feeders
Diluted extracts Pile of rocks in a framed box to hide food in
Baby mirrors (unbreakable) Cardboard box/tube feeders
Hooves Buster Food cube
Feathers Egg carton/paper bag feeders
Non-toxic bubbles Boomerball puzzle feeder
Camel hair/wool PVC bug feeder
Herbs Piñatas
Squirrel call Sugar free Jell-O (in some type of device)
Chalk drawings Frozen fruit pops
Paper, paint, stickers, etc. on outside of glass Nyla bones/Healthy edibles
Sun catcher (presented outside of enclosure) Kong toy w/ diet
Diluted essential oils Carved pumpkins w/ diet
Hides (see Hide Protocol) Burlap bags w/ bugs in it
Disco ball (outside of exhibit) Coconut feeder
Mirror mobile (outside of exhibit) Live fish in black tub
Hanging log puzzle feeder
Manipulative items/toys
Paper bags Physical environment
Paper towels Hanging baskets
Small boomer ball Varied substrate
Ferret ball Shredded paper
Piñatas (w/o food) Approved browse
Antlers Snow
Pine cones Kiddy pool
Traffic cones Logs
Newspaper Stumps
Burlap bag pillows Cornstalks
Cardboard boxes/tubes Visual barriers
Phone books Auto misters
Tennis balls Excelsior
Kong toys Sod
Wiggly Giggly Ball Large hanging baskets for animals to sleep in
Fire hose Linen bed sheets
Behavioral/social
Visual access to contra specifics (DAF animals)
Visual access to decoys & stuffed toys
Window walker
Information taken from: Institution N, Institution O‟s Enrichment Online*, Institution K

Appendix K: Reproduction in the Kinkajou (Potos flavus)

By: Rain Westgard, Kristen Noble, Erin Bussom; Institution P (2009)
Kinkajou (Potos flavus) reproduction has not been well studied or documented, either in-situ or ex-situ.
Information for this document comes from personal observations of the kinkajou breeding and training
program at Institution P.
Reproductive Physiology and Behavior: Kinkajous reach sexual maturity around 2 years of age for
males and 3 years for females. Kinkajous are polyestrous and can have more than one offspring in a
single year with a minimum birth interval of 8 months. Estrus is widely variable, even within an individual
throughout the year. Estrus cycles average 40 - 60 days with the female in estrus for approximately 3 - 4
days. With such fluctuations, it is important to track estrus cycles of each female by keeping a record of
estrus beginning and end as well as behavioral or physical changes and breedings. Swelling of the vulva
is typically the only noticeable physical change during estrus. Behaviorally, females may display
increased aggression towards staff during estrus. There may be increased marking and territoriality if
other females are in range of the estrus individual. Due to the strict nocturnal nature of kinkajous, staff
may not even notice behavioral changes.
Copulations between the male and female usually occur at night. The male will approach the female
and nip at her mandible and chin, making a soft chirping call. When the female is ready, she will assume
a lordosis posture and elevate her tail. The male mounts her from behind. He uses the bony protrusions
on his wrists to rub and stroke the abdomen of the female. There may be high pitched squeaks emitted by
both. Copulations can last several minutes. Once the male releases the female, the kinkajous will
separate and engage in genital grooming. Multiple copulations will occur while the female is in estrus.
Assisted reproduction has not been attempted in kinkajous.
Pregnancy: Gestation for a kinkajou is just under 4 months. Physical changes in the female do not
become readily evident until the last trimester. Ultrasound is the most reliable diagnostic tool for detecting
pregnancy early and has been used successfully. It is not recommended to anesthetize a pregnant
female during the last trimester. If the female is to be moved to another enclosure, every attempt should
be made to do so prior to the last trimester. This will provide her ample time to adjust to new
surroundings. The male may be left in with the female, if she does not object; multiple elevated nest
boxes should to be available for her to choose a nesting site away from him, however. The nest boxes
should be dry without substrate or bedding. An external heat source may be used if needed, but ensure
that she can move away from it if she chooses.
During the latter part of the second trimester, a defined bulge will become visible in the female‟s
abdomen. In the last trimester, the female‟s lower abdomen will become much more pronounced as the
baby “drops”. Fetal movement will be observable and fetal activity will increase as parturition draws near.
The female will clear her two inguinal teats a few days prior to parturition and her mammary glands will
swell as milk is letdown. During the entire last trimester, the female‟s appetite and caloric needs also will
increase significantly and her diet should be increased at this time. Typically, the diet should be increased
~35 – 40% (for 2 adults housed together); all dietary items are increased equally. However, there may be
an actual decrease in diet consumption just prior to parturition. The female may experience some
physical discomfort as the fetus grows and occupies more space in her body, so increased stretching and
restlessness may be observed, especially in the last trimester.
Parturition: Behaviorally, the female may exhibit some anxiety and agitation as her pregnancy
progresses. She will drive the male away from her proximity at some point shortly before parturition, often
just a few hours, but occasionally a few days before giving birth. He will stay away from the female and
offspring until the female allows him to return to her nest. This reacceptance can take a couple of days or
a couple of weeks. The female almost always gives birth overnight or during very early morning hours.
She will chew off the umbilicus and consume all membranes and the placenta once it has passed.
Institution P had one kinkajou that occasionally experienced a uterine prolapse following parturition;
however, this does not appear to be a common occurrence. If a prolapse occurs, immediate veterinary
intervention is advised. Every attempt should be made to keep the offspring with the dam for as long as
possible prior to repair of the prolapse and reintroductions should be attempted as soon as the dam has
recovered from anesthesia. The offspring will require supplemental care while the dam is in surgery.

Following parturition, efforts should be made to keep the environment quiet and stable for at least two
weeks, allowing the female to bond with the offspring. Females will aggressively defend the nest if they
feel threatened, so only staff familiar to the kinkajou should work in the area if possible. Husbandry efforts
should be kept to a minimum while maintaining good sanitation. This should continue until the female is
comfortable and relaxed around staff. If the male is present in the enclosure, he will have no active part in
rearing the offspring, but also will defend the nest if the female is threatened.
Kinkajou Young: The newborn kinkajou is altricial and should begin to nurse within a few hours of birth.
Typical birth weights range between 150 and 180 grams. It is not unusual to see the newborn lying away
from the mother in the same nest box for extended periods, especially in hot weather. It will lie next to or
on top of the dam and nurse frequently throughout the day and night and will sometimes favor one teat
over the other. If the diet of the female has not yet been increased, it must be increased to maintain
lactation and provide proper nutrition for the infant. The diet increase should range between 35 and 40%
of the female‟s maintenance diet; all dietary items should be increased equally. If the female loses an
infant, she typically will have an estrus cycle within a few days.
Young kinkajous‟ eyes begin opening at about 1 week of age. Weight should increase steadily
reaching ~200 – 270g at 1 week, 600 – 800g at 6 weeks, and 1.3 – 1.7kg at 6 months when they are
roughly 75% adult size. The young become independently mobile at about 5 to 6 weeks and will begin
showing an interest in solid food being eaten by their mother around 8 weeks of age. At about 10 to 12
weeks of age they will begin to consume solid foods taken from their mother and are typically weaned by
14 to 16 weeks. A young kinkajou will continue nursing as long as the mother allows, even after they have
begun consuming the majority of their calories from solid foods. Food amounts offered should be
increased to accommodate weanlings.

Appendix L: Significant Contributors to Procyonid Care Manual

Bossom E. Central Florida Zoo & Botanical Gardens. [email protected]
Colling C. Sr. Carnivore Keeper, Detroit Zoological Garden. Coati exhibit photo. Tel: (248) 398-0903
Dosch A. Cosley Zoo, Sr. Keeper. [email protected].
Gramieri J. San Antonio Zoo, Mammal Curator. [email protected].
Grant K. Neonate Specialist, Nutrition Advisor, Wildlife Care Center, Eugene, OR.
[email protected]
Henry BA. AZA SCTAG Nutrition Advisor, Cincinnati Zoo & Botanical Garden.
[email protected]
Lombardi D. Columbus Zoo and Aquarium, AZA SCTAG Chair, [email protected].
Maher S. Disney‟s Animal Kingdom, AZA SCTAG Representative, [email protected].
Maslanka M. SCTAG Nutrition Advisor, Smithsonian National Zoo. [email protected]
Neptune D. Utah‟s Hogle Zoo, Behavioral Enrichment Coordinator. [email protected]
Noble K. Central Florida Zoo & Botanical Garden. [email protected]
Pawlicki C. Cosley Zoo, Assistant Zoo Manager. [email protected].
Reed-Smith J. Columbus Zoo and Aquarium, AZA SCTAG [email protected].
Schilling K. Animals for Awareness, extensive coati experience.
[email protected].
Stark B. Toledo Zoo, Curator of Behavioral Husbandry and Research.
[email protected].
Walz D. Utah‟s Hogle Zoo, Behavioral Enrichment Coordinator/Senior Keeper.
[email protected].
Westgard R. Central Florida Zoo & Botanical Gardens. [email protected]

Appendix M: AZA Small Carnivore TAG Necropsy Protocol and Forms
AZA Small Carnivore TAG Necropsy Protocol

I. Recommended Fixed tissues. In addition collect a sample of any lesion. Fix in 10
parts10% neutral buffered formalin to 1 part tissues, samples should be no thicker than 1
cm, and should be fixed for at least 72hrs to ensure adequate fixation.
1. Trachea
2. Lung (several sections including a large airway) Skin
3. Pulmonary/Hilar lymph node
4. Heart (left and right ventricle, septum & atrium
5. Aorta
6. Thymus (if present)
7. Esophagus (2 cm long cross section)
8. Stomach (2 cm long portion of cardia, fundus, and pylorus)
9. Duodenum, jejunum, & ileum (2 cm long cross section)
10. Cecum
11. Colon (2 cm long cross section)
12. Rectum
13. Liver
14. Spleen
15. Mesenteric lymph node
16. Kidneys (cortex and medulla in section)
17. Adrenal (cross section with cortex and medulla)
18. Urinary bladder
19. Prostate
20. Testes (with epididymis)
21. Female reproductive tract (fix whole - leave ovaries attached to uterus, longitudinal
incisions in horns)
22. Skeletal muscle (hindlimb)
23. Tongue (cross section including both mucosal surfaces)
24. Salivary gland
25. Peripheral lymph node (popliteal or prescapular)
26. Bone marrow (2 cm of opened rib or femur – with marrow exposed)
27. Thyroids/parathyroids
28. Brain (if possible whole)
29. Pituitary
30. Both eyes
For neonates also collect placenta and fetal membranes and umbilicus/umbilical area
For aborted fetuses and still births, freeze stomach contents and placenta
Necropsy Exam:
1. Estimate stage of gestation.
2. Measure the Crown to Rump Length: from the highest point on the skull (external
occipital protuberance) to the base of the tail.
3. Note gross appearance of placenta and if it's complete.
4. Examine for congenital abnormalities: limb deformities, cleft palate, hernias,
hydrocephalus, etc.
5. Check if lungs were inflated: pink or dark red color; sink or float in formalin.
6. Observe if the ductus arteriosus is contracted and if the foramen ovale is closed.
7. Determine if suckling has occurred: check stomach for milk curds; and note
amount, viscosity and color of upper and lower GI tract contents.
III. Shipping & Contact Information
Histopathology for the species managed under small carnivores should be submitted to the service
the institution regularly uses (in-house, Northwest ZooPath, etc)
AZA Small Carnivore TAG Necropsy Form

Institution\Owner Veterinarian
_________________________________________ _________________________________________
Address
Pathologist/Prosector ________________________
_________________________________________
Phone# ( ) _____________________________
City State Zip Fax# ( ) _______________________________
Country
_________________________________________
I. Historical Data (Attach additional sheets as needed & attach pertinent medical
records.)
Species: _________________
Stud Book# ISIS#
Age/Birth date: Sex Weight: Acquisition: (Circle)
(Circle) Kg
(Circle) Actual or Estimated M F (Circle) Actual or Captive Born or
Estimated
Wild Captured
Date & Time of Death post mortem interval __________hrs
Site/Enclosure_________________________________________
1. Was animal euthanized? (Circle) Y or N If so, what method? _____________________________
3. Member of Group? (Circle) Y or N Number in Group # Sick # Dead ______
4. Vaccinations:
_____________________________________________________________________________
Additional History: (Signs, stress factors, previous disease, treatments, pertinent feed or feed additives, time period animal was on
premises, clinical lab results).

II. Gross Necropsy Examination

Under appropriate sections, use “NE” for not examined or WNL if no abnormalities are present.
1. External & General Exam (postmortem condition, nutritional status, muscling, subcutaneous fat,
skin, eyes, ears, nose, body orifices).
2. Musculoskeletal Systems (bones, joints, muscling, bone marrow).
3. Body Cavities (thoracic/abdominal cavities, amount of adipose, presence of fluids/exudates,

negative pressure in chest).
4. Respiratory System (pharynx, larynx, nasal passages, trachea, bronchi, lungs, hilar lymph
nodes).
5. Hemic-Lymphatic System (spleen, lymph nodes, thymus)
6. Cardiovascular System (pericardium, heart: valves & chambers, aorta, large vessels
7. Digestive System (Mouth, teeth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, mesenteric
lymph nodes). Neonates: is milk present in the stomach?).
8. Urinary System (kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
9. Reproductive System (ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix, vagina, mammary glands,

placenta/fetuses, testes, penis, accessory sex glands).
10. Endocrine System (thyroids, parathyroids, adrenals, pituitary, pineal gland-if found
11. Nervous System (brain, meninges/dura mater, spinal cord, peripheral nerves

III.Summary Gross Diagnoses
IV. Ancillary Laboratory Test Results

(cytology, urinalysis, fluid/serum analysis, microbiology, parasitology, serology, toxicology, virology, or
others; attach reports as necessary).

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PROCYONID

Procyonid (Procyonidae) Care Manual

Cover Photo Credits:

Association of Zoos and Aquariums 2

Association of Zoos and Aquariums 3

9.2 Institutional Program Animal Plans............................................................................................. 64

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Genus, Species, and Status

Bassariscus astutus Ringtail Not Listed Least Concern PMP

Nasua narica White-nosed Not Listed Least Concern PMP

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The ultimate goal of this ACM is to facilitate excellent

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Table 4: Procyonid species conservation status

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Chapter 1. Ambient Environment

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Chapter 2. Habitat Design and Containment

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Staff training for emergencies must be undertaken and

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Chapter 4. Social Environment

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Institution B Institution E Institution C

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Chapter 6. Veterinary Care

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6.2 Identification Methods

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standards/guidelines (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.7.3;

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 Pre-shipment fecal examinations: direct smear and flotation.

 Heartworm ELISA antigen tests can be conducted annually in animals exposed to

6.6 Capture, Restraint, and Immobilization