Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies - Vol-1-Isuue-1

Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.
1 (August 2012) Akkal Deo Mishra
Microwave-Coupled Organic Reaction

Enhancement
Akkal Deo Mishra
Abstract
Various heterocyclic compounds have been synthesized in solution,
solid and solvent-free conditions under the support of inorganic solids
like alumina, silica, mont-morillonite k10 clay,etc. by using microwave
irradiations. Normal domestic microwave ovens are used with variety
of organic solvents to synthesize the heterocyclic compounds in one,
two or three steps. A large number of heterocycles of therapeutic
use have been synthesized from commonly available precursers, viz,
pyrimidines, pyranopyrimidines, thiazoles, oxazoles, triazines, pyrazoles,
organomercurials, β-lactams, oxazolones, coumarians, diazoles,
quinolones, etc. The eficiency of microwave reactions over conventional
reactions has been observed through different angles like rate of reaction,
yield, purity, selectivity, limited use of organic solvents, avoidance of use
of hazardous chemicals, molecule economy, eco-friendly green synthetic
methodology. The reactions were accompanied with addition, elimination,
oxidation, reduction, substitution, cyclisation, aromatization, etc. to yield
80-95% of the product within 2-7 minutes.
Keywords: Heterocycles, microwaves, molecule economy, cyclisation, solid support,
azoles, oxazoles, thiazoes, etc.
1. Introduction
Microwave activation as a non-conventional energy source has become a popular and
useful technology in organic chemistry. It makes industrially important organic synthesis
more ecofriendly than conventional reactions (Loupy, et al. 1998).Microwave coupled
organic reaction enhancement (MORE) chemistry can be conducted without an added
solvent if one or more of the reactants is a liquid that absorbs microwaves eficiently.
When the reactants are inactive to microwaves it is necessary to add dipolar solvent
or microwave active inorganic solid support for transferring microwave energy to the
reactants(Varma,1999). It is adequate to add just enough solvent to form slurry at room
temperature in solution phase reactions (Mingos, et al. 1997), whereas the reactants are
adsorbed in solid support in solid state reactions. The growing concern about the effect
of organic solvents and chemical wastes on the environment is attracting attention to
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Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Microwave-Coupled Organic …
non-traditional synthetic approaches that might ‘reduce pollution at the source’. In this
context MORE chemistry techniques are potentially valuable as they reduce the need
for organic solvents and also increase ‘atom economy’ (Thuery, 1992) by improving
product selectivity and chemical yield.
Origin of Microwave Effects
The microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum lies between 1 cm and 1 m and
most domestic and commercial microwave instruments appear at 2.45 GHz. Electronic
energy is converted into microwave radiation by a magnetron in a microwave oven and
the microwaves are guided into the cavity by a waveguide followed by relection by the
walls of the cavity to the reactants. The acceleration of reactions by microwave exposure
results from material-wave interactions leading to thermal effects and speciic effects.
Thermal effects (dielectric heating) can result from dipolar polarization as a consequence
of dipole-dipole interactions between polar molecules and the electromagnetic ield. They
originate in dissipation of energy into heat as an outcome of agitation and intermolecular
friction of molecules when dipoles change their mutual orientation at such alternation
of the electric ield at a very high frequency (2.45 GHz) (Goncalo, et al. 1999). This
energy dissipation in the core of the materials allows a much more regular repartition in
temperature when compared to classical heating. In this range of frequency, the charge
space polarization can also intervene and can be of prime importance with semiconductors
since it concerns materials which contain free conduction electrons. This phenomenon is
essential in heating solid particles, such as variety of mineral oxides or metallic species.
It is particularly convenient that qualitatively, the larger the dielectric constant, the
greater the coupling with microwaves. Thus solvents such as water, methanol, DMF,
ethylacetate, acetone, chloroform, acetic acid and dichloro-methane are all heated when
irradiated with microwaves. Solvents such as hexane, toluene, diethylether, CCl4, etc.,
do not couple and therefore do not heat with microwave irradiation.
Microwaves are relected to the reactants by the walls of the cavity in a microwave
oven. If the microwaves are not absorbed, they may be relected back to the waveguide
and damage the magnetron. Thus, it is essential to have a microwave active “dummy
load” which will absorb excess microwaves and avoid such damage. There are a variety
of methods for carrying out microwave assisted organic reactions using domestic or
commercial ovens.
1.1. Types of Microwave Ovens
Domestic Microwave Ovens
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Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Akkal Deo Mishra
Domestic microwave ovens are readily available at low cost to academic and industrial
chemists, however only a relatively small quantity of the compounds can be synthesized
for research purposes by these ovens (Loupy, et al.1992). The reactions can be carried out
conveniently in open vessels both in solution and solid states, which prevent explosion
caused by super heating of the solvents. Nowadays modiied domestic microwave ovens
are available with improved safety systems. In these microwave ovens, the reaction
vessel is neither sealed nor directly open, thus reactions can be carried out using an
Erlenmeyer lask attached to a relux condenser. There are two advantages of using
this type of system; (i) A wide variety of solvents can be used because the ire hazard
is signiicantly reduced compared to an open vessel system (ii) Reaction can be carried
out under inert conditions.
Commercial Microwave Ovens
The commercial microwave ovens are more expensive for carrying out microwave
assisted organic reactions. The systems have mostly been developed for analytical
applications. This type of system operates with a rotating carousel, so that a number of
reaction vessels can be irradiated and agitated at the same time (Varma, et al. 1993). It is
possible to monitor both the internal temperature and pressure of the reaction. Additional
advantages of this type of system are the incorporation of a ‘microwave active’ dummy
load to protect the magnetron and the more reliable, accurately controlled and continuous
source of microwave irradiation produced, along with temperature monitor. A number
of approaches have been used including the use of ibre optic probe, a gas thermometer,
thermochromic paints and infrared pyrometry (Clark, 1994).
1.2. Types of Microwave Reactions
There are a number of chemical reactions that can be carried out in microwave radiation
in solution and solid states.
Solution-phase Reactions
In this type of reactions, the reagents are dissolved in suitable organic solvents and the
resulting solution is subjected to short periods of irradiation in open or sealed vessels. It
must be noted that the open vessel procedure can only be carried out if neither the solvent
nor the reactants or products are lammable. Otherwise there is a serious risk of ire or
explosion due to sparking. In addition to the signiicant practical simplicity of this type of
procedure, it is sometimes found that volatile reaction byproducts evaporate rapidly thus
avoiding methods for their speciic removal. Reactions may also be carried out in sealed
systems, although there are also limitations to this approach (Cornelis, et al. 1985). It is
essential that one of the components must be microwave active to carry out a thermally
driven reaction in a microwave oven. If neither the reagents nor solvents couple then it may
be possible to use a microwave active additive or supported metal catalyst to generate heat.
3
If the solvents are to be used as the source of heat then they must couple effectively
with microwave radiation. Although various solvents can be used, a number of factors
need to be considered. The type of vessel used may be incompatible with certain solvents
and with open vessel systems lammability and volatility are both important issues. It has
been shown that with microwave irradiation, solvents can be heated above their boiling
points and this superheating leads to rate enhancement for many reactions (Mishra, 2004).
For microwave induced reactions the solvent of choice is one which absorbs microwave
energy eficiently and is therefore heated rapidly under microwave irradiation and which
has a boiling point that is atleast 20-30°C higher than the desired reaction temperature.
Any solvent having high dielectric constant and high boiling point is excellent transfer
medium for a variety of microwave induced organic reactions. N,N-dimethylformamide
(DMF) is an excellent example. Using DMF as solvent, the reaction temperature can
be raised to about 140°C, without much vaporisation of solvent. Other commonly used
solvents are water, ethylacetate, acetone, acetic acid, methanol, dichloromethane, etc.
Hydrocarbon solvents such as hexane, benzene, toluene and xylene, etc. are unsuitable
as energy transfer reaction media since they absorb microwave radiations poorly. The
temperature of 50 ml of several solvents after heating for 1 minute at 560 W is given
below:
Table 1: Desired temperature and boiling point of some solvents
Temperature Boiling points Temperature Boiling points
Solvents Solvents
(°C) (°C) (°C) (°C)
Water 81 100 1-chlorobutane 76 78
Methanol 65 65 1-bromobutane 95 101
Ethanol 78 78 Chloroform 49 61
1-propanol 97 97 Acetone 56 56
1-butanol 109 117 DMF 131 153
1-pentanol 106 137 Diethylether 32 35
1-hexanol 92 158 Hexane 29 68
Acetic acid 110 119 Heptane 26 98
Ethyl acetate 73 77 CCl4 28 77
Solid State Reactions

A number of dry media microwave reactions have been reported to be conducted
in two ways; one in which the reagents are ‘supported’ on a microwave active (or
poorly active) material such as alumina or silica (Mishra, 2011). In this type of
reaction atleast one of the reagents must be polar if the reaction is to be beneited
from microwave irradiation. The second type of dry reaction will utilize a microwave
active solid support, thus the reactants do not have to be microwave active.
4
Solid state reactions are ofcourse very convenient from a practical view point, in general
the reagents and the solid supports are eficiently mixed in an appropriate solvent, which
is then evaporated. The adsorbed reagents are then placed in a vessel and subjected to
microwave irradiation after which the organic products are simply extracted from the
support by washing and iltration. The absence of solvent coupled with the high yields
and short reaction times often associated with reactions of this type make these procedures
very attractive for syntheses.
Alumina, silica, montmorillonite, bentonite, aluminosilicates (KSF and K10 clays and
zeolites) are some of the most widely employed inorganic solid supports, where surface
hydroxyl groups play a major role in solid supported microwave reactions for absorption
and transmission of microwaves(Rajanarendar, et al. 2006). These inorganic oxides
do not absorb microwaves at the 2.45 GHz frequency (Mishra, 2009) and so is not an
obstacle for the transmission of microwaves. Studies of thermal behaviour of alumina
indicate that the temperature reached depends on the quantity of irradiated solid. A
maximum of the absorbed temperature was observed for about 200 g of alumina under
microwave irradiation.
It is to be noticed that a minimum amount of 4 g is necessary to observe an appreciable
thermal effect and 1 g alumina sample cannot reach more than 100°C, even with larger
irradiation times (20 mins.). In the case where solid support does not absorb suficient
energy, considerable energy loss causes overheating of the inner walls of the oven
and of the reaction vessels. This could lead to irreversible damage of the magnetron.
Furthermore, during the initial irradiation, the temperature of various samples (from
4 g to 500 g) does not change much; it remains less than 200°C. After this induction
period, large temperature differences appear depending on the amount of irradiated solid
(Sharma, et al. 2011, Mishra, 2010).
When only small amount of alumina is to be used, an external bath (Caddick, 1995) of
about 150-200 g of alumina should be employed. This bath allows a fast heating of the
reaction mixture and the reaction can occur at temperatures lower than the boiling points
of the products. Use of solid supports in microwave reactions causes ampliication of
reaction activations and reduction in magnetron deterioration hazards.
Synthetic organic chemistry has gained popularity for its diverse applications but the
synthesis by conventional methods is much tedious as it takes more time and consumes
more chemicals. on the top of this it causes environmental pollution. These problems
can be eliminated by using microwave synthetic technology which is pollution free and
economic as well.
Synthesis of bioactive compounds in eco-friendly method by using microwave energy
with high yield and excellent degree of purity is main aim of this study.
2. Experimental Methods
5
Chemical reactions were carried out in Kenstar Microwave over model no. OM9925E
at the frequency 2450 MHz and 800 W. Conventional reactions were carried out in R B
lask itted with air condenser on a calibrated magnetic stirrer. IR spectra were recorded
on Nicolet 5PC FT-IR spectrometer using KBr pellets and the frequency was measured
in cm-1. 1 H NMR spectra were recorded by using CDCl3 solvent on a Brucker 300 MHz
spectrometer with tetramethyl silane as an internal standard and chemical shifts were
measured in ppm. Elemental analysis was performed by means of Heraeus CHN-Rapid
Analyzer and temperature was measured on AZ Mini-Gun Non- Contact IR thermometer
model no. 8868. Melting points were determined on Thomas Hoover melting point
apparatus and are uncorrected. The purity of compounds was checked on silica gel G
plates using iodine vapour as visualizing agent. Oxytetracycline and salicylic acid were
used as standard drugs for the study of antibacterial and antifungal activities respectively.
The chemicals used were purchased from SD Fine Chemicals Co. Ltd.
A large number of heterocycles have been synthesized under microwave irradiation in
solution and solid states with enhanced reaction rates, limited use of organic solvents
and high yield coupled with ecofriendly environment.
(i) Synthesis of pyrimidines
A mixture of aromatic aldehydes, ethylacetoacetate and thiourea was reacted in neat
conditions under microwave irradiation to obtain 2-thioxo-pyrimidines (1) within 2-5
minutes.
(ii) Synthesis of pyranopyrimidines

Michael addition of chalcone (2) to thiobarbituric acids (3) afforded the adduct (4)
followed by cyclization into pyrano[2,3-d]pyrimidine (5) within 2-3 minutes under
alumina supported microwave irradiation.
6
(iii) Synthesis of thiazoles/oxazoles

Microwave assisted condensation of thiourea/urea and substituted bromoacetophenone
using the solid support of K2CO3, for about 2-3 minutes, yielded the corresponding
2-aminothiazoles/oxazoles (6).
(iv) Synthesis of 1,2,4-triazines

Hydrazides (7) on reacting with phenacylbromide (8) using microwave irradiation under
dry conditions yielded corresponding 1,2,4-triazines (9) within 3-6 minutes.
(v) Synthesis of pyrazoles

Aromatic aldehydes were condensed with hydrazides to afford the corresponding
7
hydrazones, which were subsequently cyclized to give pyrazoles (10) under solid
supported microwave irradiation.
µν µν
O R O
R C H 2–C –N H N H 2 + A rC H O R C H 2–C –N H N =C H –A r
5- 7 min N H
Ar N
H
(10)
R = ph enoxy, oc tyl
A r = 2- hydroxyphenyl, 2- hydroxynaphthyl, 3- nitrophenyl,
ph enyl, 4- chlorophenyl, 4- methoxyphenyl
(vi) Synthesis of organomercurials

2-[Arylmercury(II)]-1,4-benzoquinones (11) have been synthesized by the reaction of
arylmercuric chloride with benzoquinone under solid supported microwave irradiation
for 2-3 minutes.
O O
µν Hg R
+ C lH g R
B asic alumina
O O (11)
R = H , C l, M e, O Me
(vii) Synthesis of b-lactams

Quinolines (12) were condensed with octanoic acid hydrazide to give hydrazones (13),
corresponding b-lactams (14).

which were then reacted with chloroacetyl chloride under microwave irradiation to obtain
µν
N F N F
R + C 7H 15 C O N H N H 2 R
5- 7 min
C HO C H =N N H C O C 7H 15
(12) (13)
µν C lC H 2C O C l
N F
R
N N H C O C 7H 15
Cl O
(14)
R = 4- H , 4- M e, 6- M e, 7- M e, 8- M e
(viii) Synthesis of oxazolones

4-Arylidene-2-phenyl-5(4H)-oxazolones (15) have been synthesized under microwave
irradiation starting from hippuric acid and arylaldehydes in acetic anhydride.
8
µν
O A r–C H O
P h–C –N H C H 2C O O H + A r–C H O N O
4- 5 mins.
Ph
(15)
A r = C6H5, C lC 6H 4, 4- MeO C 6H 4, 4- MeC 6H 4,

4- N O 2C 6H 4, 2- O H C 6H 4, 4- Me2N C 6H 4,
3- MeO - 4- O H C 6H 3, 3,4- (MeO )2C 6H 3
(ix) Synthesis of coumarins

A solventless microwave mediated condensation of salicylaldehyde with diethylmalonate
was carried out to obtain coumarin compounds (16) in high yield within reaction time
period of 3 minutes.
µν
C HO C O 2E t
+ C H 2(C O 2E t)2
OH O O
(16)
(x) Synthesis of diazoles

Solvent-free microwave reaction of triethoxymethane with o-aminoaniline in presence
of KSF clay, produced diazoles (17) in good yield of 82%. The reaction time period
was about 3 minutes as compared to 6 hours in conventional reactions.
µν
H 2N N
E tO
E tO C H +
K SF
E tO H 2N N
H
(17)
(xi) Synthesis of quinolones

Aminochalcones (18) were cyclized to tetrahydroquinolones (19) in dry media using
montmorillonite K10 clay as solid support under microwave irradiation within 2 minutes.
H
µν
N H2 Ar N Ar
K 10 C lay
O O
(18) (19)
A r = C 6H 5, C 6H 5C H 2, 4- C H 3C 6H 4, 4- C H 3O C 6H 4, 4- C lC 6H 4, 4- B rC 6H 4
3. Results and Discussion

9
Neat reaction conditions of the reactants yielded pyrimidines 1 through cyclisation within
2-5 minutes in 80-90 percentage of the product. This is a facile reaction over conventional
reaction. Pyranopyrimidines 5 were obtained in two steps under the solid support of
basic and acidic alumina and montmorillonite clay in much shorter reaction time of 2-3
minutes which may be due to effective heat transfer from the solid supports. Similarly,
bicyclic thiazoles and oxazoles 6 have been accounted by condensation of thiourea and
substituted bromoacetophenone in support of potassium carbonate under microwave
irradiation. It is a novel method as potassium carbonate is used as heat absorbent. Dry
condition synthesis of 1,2,4- triazines 9 within 3-6 minutes is an excellent method for the
synthesis of heterocycles. These reactions were accompanied by cyclisation of hydrazides,
which on the other hand undergo cyclisation with aromatic aldehydes through less stable
intermediates to afford pyrazoles 10 under neat conditions. The method has got advantage
of no any use of organic solvent in reaction conditions. Introduction of mercury into the
organic molecule has made the synthesis one step eficient in pharmaceutical chemistry.
β-lactams 14 were obtained as excellent antimicrobial agents from quinolines and acid
hydrazides in two steps in 5-7 minutes. The reaction was associated with easy work-up
and exocyclic condensation. Oxazolones 15 and coumarins 16 were obtained within
3-5 minutes as sole product from easily available precursors. Solvent-less synthesis of
diazoles 17 and quinolones 19 is a peculiar achievement of microwave synthesis which
yielded 82-95 percentages of the products. The structures of the synthesized heterocycles
were conformed from analytical and spectral data. Most of the compounds showed
excellent antimicrobial activities against various bacterial and fungal strains. Synthesis
of various heterocyclic compounds under solid supported microwave irradiation has
proved rapid, eficient, economic and eco-friendly method.
4. Conclusion
Various pyrimidines, pyranopyrimidines, thiazoles, oxazoles, triazines, pyrazoles,
organomercurials, β-lactams, oxazolones, coumarins, diazoles, quinolones,etc. have
been synthesized from commonly available reagents under the solid support of alumina,
montmorillonite, potassium carbonate, etc. by using microwave irradiations. The reactions
either avoided or limited the usage of organic solvents in different reaction conditions
and completed within 2-7 minutes affording 80-95% of the corresponding products in
excellent degree of purity. The compounds showed moderate to excellent antimicrobial
activities.
Enhancement of a chemical reaction as compared to conventional chemistry can manifest
itself in several ways including the following: (i) Highly accelerated reaction rates (ii)
Improved yield (iii) Stereo or regioselectivity (iv) Reduction in side products (v) Limited
amount of solvents (vi) Successful product formation (vii) Simpliication and improvement
of classical synthetic methods.
10
Acknowledgement
The author thanks University Grants Commission, Govt. of Nepal for providing research
grants. Thanks are due to Instrumental Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University
of Delhi, for characterization and synthesis of the compounds.
References
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microwave reactions. Synthesis, 16, 1213-1220.
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American Chemical Society, Washington, DC,
Thuery, J. (1992). Microwaves: Industrial, Scientiic and Medicinal Applications, Artech House Inc.
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Loupy, A., Bram, G., & Sansoulet, J. (1992). Solid supported synthesis of heterocycles. New J. Chem.,
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Lett., 34, 3207-3217.
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Cornelis, A., & Laszlo, P. (1985).An expeditious synthesis of pyrimidines. Synthesis, 16, 909-916.
Mishra, A.D., (2004).Solid supported synthesis of 1, 3, 5-triazines. Journal of Chinese Chemical Society,
51, 27-32.
Mishra, A.D. ( 2011).A new route for the synthesis of quinazolinones. Nepal Journal of Science and
Technology, 12, 133-137.
Rajanarendar, E., Karunakar, D., & Ramesh, P. ( 2006). One –pot synthesis of lactams. Heterocyclic
Communication, 12, 355-363.
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Mishra, A.D. (2010).Solid supported synthesis of pyrimidines. Nepal Journal of Science and Technology,
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Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Women Involvement in …
Women Involvement in Tourism: Special

Reference to Pokhara Sub- Metropolis
Amin Palikhe
Abtstract
The article examines gender roles in tourism employment in Pokhara
Sub Metropolis City, Nepal. Women involvement in tourism sector is
especially concerned with the involvement of women in the tourism ield
as entrepreneur or as an employee and also explores the tourist arrival
rate in Pokhara. Tourism has been emerged as an important industry all
over the world. It is a major sourceof generating revenues and providing
employment.Tourism sector plays signiicant role in terms of employment
generation. The expenses that the tourists make during their travel
and stay can create direct beneits in tourism related services such as
accommodation, hospitality attraction events and transportation; indirect
beneits such as increased income and employment; and induced beneits
such as local income and jobs in the manufacturing and service sector
Tourism has been expanding day by day and has become an industry with
highpotential. Women are also actively participated in various facets of
this industry. Sincetourism is a hospitality industry, the role of women
is looked upon as signiicant andthe trend of women participation is
considerably increased. So, thisarticle is also tried to explore women’s
status in tourism sector and give emphasis to women’s participation to
improve the situation of women in tourism.
Key words: women, involvement, tourism, enhancement, equality
1. Background
The present world has been converted into a global village due to rapid technological
revolution in the ield of communication and transportation. Market economy has now
stretched to tourism business calling for ine-tuning their conventional approach to suit the
changing environment in international tourism market. Every country of world is competing
to attract more tourists from the world. They are trying to prove themselves as the most
attractive tourist destination providing various competing tourist product (Shrestha, 1995;
p. 77-78).Tourism is thus a multifaceted activity and a geographically complex one as
different service are sought and supplied at different stages from the origin to the destination.
Moreover, in any country or region there is likely to be a number of origins and destinations,
with most places having both generating and receiving functions (Sinha, 1996: p.254).
12
Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Amin Palikhe
Tourism has gained importance as the fastest growing industry of the world, particularly
because of multifarious beneits. It ensures to the destinations, to the tourists themselves
and to the global geo-political environment as a whole. In fact, tourism in its broadest,
generic sense can do more to develop understanding among people, provide jobs, create
foreign exchange and raise living standards than any other economic force. The vital
role tourism plays in foreign exchange earnings of the destination countries is especially
note-worthy. However, tourism is more than a mere foreign exchange earner. It is highly
labor intensive, with highest employment multiplier. Again, the economic multiplier of
tourism is also much higher than any other industry. It is the only industry that entails
transfer of money through the movement of people expenditure incurred by the tourists
denotes a direct injection of external purchasing power in to the host economy, creates
environmental and social awareness, helps in correcting regional imbalances within a
destination countries, improves living standard of the destination society and above
all leads to the overall development of the destination regions. In the context of global
geo-polities, tourism is taken as an agent to international understanding. It is for these
multifarious beneits of tourism. In fact, tourism is now of such economic impacts that
states, provinces and countries cherish it and under developed nations sought. Little
wonder that tourism has now become an inseparable part of the development programmes
of almost every country. For the developing countries that are facing the problem of
adverse balances of payment situation on the international front and also such others
problems like unemployment, social and regional disparities, tourism development
seems to be the best solution(Punia, 1997: p.4-5).Tourism not only provides economic
advantages but also contributes for the creation and growth of annual understanding
among people and nations throughout the world. It is equally helpful to develop the
other sectors of the economy. Hotel, travel, trekking, transport and banding services are
directly connected with tourism industry (Khathiwada, 1998: p.3-4). So, tourism has been
identiied as an important source of foreign exchange earnings, as an industry creating
employment opportunities and generating economic growth of the country. Tourism is
included in the integrated system of socio-economic planning. The speciic achievement
of recent years has been the introduction of tourism into system of the country’s physical
development plans in close correlation with the progress of industry, agriculture and
transport (Satyal, 2000: p.iii).
Wall, Cukier and Norris (1996) examine gender roles in tourism employment in Bali,
Indonesia through two case studies. The irst considers the employment of women in
tourism in a newly emerging destination area in the interior of the island. The second
examines the employment of both women and men in selected tourism occupations in
two established coastal resorts. While tourism has provided both women and men with
greater occupational choices, there is differential access by gender to tourism employment
in Bali. Furthermore, in the formal sector, women may be required to have superior
13
qualiications and may be paid less than men in similar positions. At the same time as
gaining access to employment outside the home, many women are expected to maintain
current roles in religious matters and in the home.
Wilkinson and Pratiwi (1995) examine tourism in Pangandaran , a traditional Javanese
ishing village. It uses a gender analysis approach to gender roles and relationships, such as
employment patterns, income, family structure and functions, and child rearing. Tourism
has had both positive and negative impacts, however, these wary between local and non
local, and among socioeconomic classes. Moreover, there have been no development
programs or projects aimed at improving the quality of life of women. These changes are
occurring with little regard to gender roles and relations and to the social, cultural and
economic improvement of that quality of life with the exception of increased income.
Grandon (2007) in his work entitled ‘Early women in tourism’ mentions the involvement
of Nepalese women especially Sherpas in mountain tourism in the form of portering and
cooking during 1920s and 1930s. It was beginning period of mountain tourism in Nepal
and mountaineering was in full swing with competitions among various expedition teams
of Europe to ascend Mt. Everest (Sagarmatha) and other mountains like Annapurna,
Kanchenjunga and Dhaulagiri. However, there was a trend of mountain tourism
labors tomigrate to Darjeeling, India, during 1920s in search of work in the evolving
mountaineering industry, which used to be the base for mountaineering recruitment and
adventure.
Shakeela, Ruhanen, and Breakey (2010), Women are key participants in the tourism
labor market. Maldivian women are recognized as being among the most emancipated in
South Asia and the Islamic world. There is no institutional discrimination along gender
lines in access to education, health services, or for jobs in the public sector (The World
Bank 2004). However, the proportion of women working in the Maldivian tourism
industry is relatively low. This explores one of the key outcomes of a broader study on
the participation of locals in the Maldivian tourism industry. The role of government
in balancing religion, politics, and economy is considered imperative in positively
inluencing local tourism labor market participation and employment for women.
Upadhaya and Upreti, (2008), Women’s participation in mountain tourism in Nepal
that started during 1920s to 1930s with pottering has reached a stage, though in small
numbers, where female trek leaders are leading solo women tourist trekkers, working as
team leaders in mountain expeditions and operating hotels, lodges, restaurants, trekking
and travel agencies from the top management positions. However, the majority of their
involvements are at lower level jobs in various organized sub sectors of tourism. Will
the balanced development of tourism sector be possible without enhancing the equitable
share of women workers in access to and control over the beneits from mountain tourism
14
in a context where more than ifty percent of total population is occupied by women?
There is high need of pro-women (focusing on protecting and safeguarding of women)
tourism policy, action plan and programs to pull mountain women from their smaller
numbers and lower status of participations in mountain tourism, establish equal to men
counterparts in employments and businesses, beneit them of mountain tourism with
fair share & just manners, empower socially and thus help in structural transformation
in mountain society.
UNEP (2007) ,United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) celebrated the
World Tourism Day on 27 September 2007 with the theme ‘Tourism opens doors for
women’ highlighting the role of tourism to serve as ‘an open door’ for women and a
catalyst to gender empowerment through the world. According to International Labor
Organization (ILO) about 46 percent of the work force in the tourism industry is made
up of women. However, this massive and functional female presence is accompanied
by the frequent vertical segregation of women that denies managerial responsibilities to
them. Looking at the lower role and position of women in society, there is potentially
an economic importance for tourism to open door for women and to provide additional
income to help to support families. Under the framework of UNWTO’s own ‘Global Code
of Ethics for Tourism’, UNWTO intends to join forces with United Nations Development
Fund for Women (UNIFEM) to enhance further the role of women in tourism. A decade
long armed conlict (1996 – 2006) in Nepal prior of comprehensive peace agreement
between the Government of Nepal and The Communist Party of Nepal (CPN – Maoist)
in November 2006 had deinitely sidelined and less prioritized the matter of gender in
tourism sector at a stage when the ailing industry was struggling hard to revive.
Acharya (2066) concluded that tourism industry is one of the major sources of Nepalese
economy and its economic beneits can be achieved through a mélange of ways, like;
direct, indirect and induced income; improvement in standard of living; generations of
new employment opportunities, improvement in infrastructural facilities and development
of local enterprises .Tourism industry is growing day by day in Nepal and women are
gradually being encouraged to involve themselves in tourism and its related industries.
But their number and position are far behind their male counterparts. In most cases their
labor contribution is not accounted since they are mostly involved in indirect tourism
business. The social, economic, attitudinal, inancial, institutional, legal and political
obstacles hamper them to move ahead and initiate their business and receive maximum
beneits as per their input and potential. Nepalese women have greater potentiality in
different tourism sectors like Rural Tourism, Village and Agro Tourism, Medical and
Health Care Tourism and Eco-Tourism. It is recommended to increase women’s capability
and conidence for tourism enterprises through supportive social, economic and legal
schemes.
15
Pokhara was generally unknown to tourists until the sixties. The valley had been a
“forgotten land” because of lack of transportation. Ironically Pokhara valley was opened
irst by air in 1953, then by jeep in 1957, and inally by bullock cart in 1962 (Lamsal,
1997: p.27). The natural and cultural attraction of the valley has made it one of the most
frequented tourist locations outside Kathmandu valley. So, the foreign tourists can enjoy
the most impressive landscape and beautiful sights without any discomfort and additional
cost (Shrestha, 2000: p.92). The modern development of tourism in Pokhara was started
after 1960s. Because of limited tourist services like accommodation and transportation,
it was not geared up till 1970s. Only after establishing some tourist standard hotel
like Fishtail Lodge (1969) and New Hotel Crystal (1973) a momentum took off in the
trend it low the visitor and researcher before it has developed as the tourist destination
(Khathiwada, 2000: p. 149-150).
Pokhara is one of the most beautiful places of Nepal from the geographical point of
view. It is starting point for many of Nepal’s most popular trekking and rafting.it is a
second most visited place by tourists. It is the city of tourism development virtually
the tourism industry of Pokhara, have played signiicant roles for its socio-economic
development. Pokhara is rich for natural tourists’ resources. There are a lot of resources
to attract tourists, as it is the place full of natural beauty. All of these facts show that
Pokhara is well-facilitated place for the visitors (Khatiwada, 2000: p.148-149). So,
the natural and cultural attraction of the valley has made it one of the most frequented
tourist locations outside Kathmandu valley. So, the foreign tourists can enjoy the most
impressive landscape and beautiful sights without any discomfort and additional cost.
That’s why the study mainly focuses on employment generation by tourism in Pokhara
specially women employment as entrepreneur or employee in the tourism sector through
development of tourism industry with the participation of women in this sector. In
traditional societies, they were conined to the four walls of houses performing household
activities. In modern societies, they have come out the four walls to participate in all
sorts of activities. The global evidences like academics, politics, administration, social
work and so on. Now, they have started plunging into industry also and running their
enterprises successfully. Therefore, it seems in the itness of the context to study about
the development of women participation in the country.No doubt, tourism was started
with the origin of human being; Human travel has started since monadic times when
they traveled and migrated for food and shelter due to natural compulsion. The industrial
revolution brought a signiicance change in ield of travel. From the valley’s point of
view, the signiicance of the study lies in identifying and highlighting the employment
situation in tourism for women and its occupational position.
The macro objective of this study has to examine tourist arrival and women’s involvement
in tourism industry in Pokhara.
16
- To analysis tourist arrival in pokhara

- To analysis the status of women as employee or entrepreneur?
- to analysis the different aspects of women employee such as status of women
employee, working hours, income earn, reason for work, management relationship
etc.
The study in “Women Involvement in Tourism: Special Reference to Pokhara Sub-
Metropolis” is tried to identify and analysis following problems:
- What are the tourist arrival numbers of Pokhara?
- What are the statuses of women as employee or entrepreneur?
- What are the working time, income, opportunities, reason and cause of selecting
tourism sector as employment area?
2. Data and methods
In this research, the population is the tourism businessperson and women worker.The
main response variable for the present analysis is women involvement in tourism sector.
This variable is tourism worker in restaurant, hotels, travel and trekking and money
changer as well. Age is measured by the women’s completed age in years at the time
of the survey. Age is classiied into three groups: 0-19, 20 to 29 years, 30 years and 40
plus. The study area comprises a large number of ethnic groups. However, we have
categorized them into upper caste (Brahmin, Chhetry and Thakuri), indigenous (Gurung,
Magar, Newar, Darai, Rai and other) and lower caste (Kami, Sharki and Pariyar) for
the analytical purpose. Although there are various religious groups (Hindu, Buddhist,
Christian and Muslim) in the study areas, religion is grouped as Hindu and others for
analytical reason. The respondents’ place of residence is a usual place of living at the
time of survey and has been grouped as rural (others) and urban (kaski).The required data
was collected from using structure questionnaire. The questionnaires to them are whether
closed and opened or scaled questionnaire. For the study, all together 52 respondents
have been selected as the sample units16 including hotelsand lodges (56%), restaurant
(25%) and travel and trekking (19%). The response data were analyzed through using
annual rate of percentage method and SPSS program for secondary and primary data
respectively.The primary and secondary data were categorized, tabulated, processed,
analyzed and computed by descriptive analysis. It was presented on the basis of purpose.
SPSS program is developed to analysis the simple regression model. Where Y = a + b
X formula is used to compute the future tourist arrival in Pokhara. Where ‘Y’ = tourist
arrival, ‘a’= constant variable, ‘x’ = years and ‘b’ = yearly increment
17
3. Results and Findings
Table No.1: Regression Results Showing the Regression of Tourist Arrival in

Pokhara
Depen- Regres-
Adjusted T
dent Constant sion coef- R R2 SSE Signiicant
R2 value
variable icient
Tourist 30969.60 15538.90 0.861 0.741 0.713 32093.03 5.078 .001
arrivals
Tourists arrival = 30969.60+15538.90 year
-According to result from the regression, year 2012 might havetourists arrival (30969.60
+ 15538.90 x 12 year) = 217436.4
Table No. 2: Trenmds of Tourist Arrival According to Seasons by Year (2000-2011)

Year month 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Winter 18803 35556 15129 17981 23525 15446 22430 39471 49518 53318 NA NA
Spring 20524 23614 14744 19782 22408 12852 15406 32932 39453 44070 NA NA
Summer 17088 10190 11455 12604 14325 13663 18724 33386 33889 39023 NA NA
Autumn 28680 24371 26127 32212 27435 32051 38239 59388 63783 67116 NA NA
74012
Total 95095 93731 68056 82579 87693 94799 165177 186643 203527 230799 NA
Sources: Tourism Ofice, 2012

- In 2010, 230799 tourist are visited Pokhara. 13.40% increases with compare to
previous year.
- Among the year, 74.24 percent growth in the year 2007 with compare to 2006.
- Maximum decrease rate is 27.39 in the year 2002.
- Autumn and spring is the maximum tourist arrival season for Pokhara.
- From the 0 to 30 years of age women workers are involved in the tourism sector as
worker which is 70 percent.
- Most of the women workers are the second child of family including third, fourth
and so on.
- 53. 80 percent married women are engaged in this sector as employees.
- Small number of family and people is belongs to worker or as employee.
18
- Brahamin and Chhetri are 48% as ethnicity worker group.

- Hindus covers the maximum involvement in tourism as women employees.
- 58.80 percent women worker earn just below the ive thousands only.
- Women from Kaski as an employee in tourism sector are maximum, i. e. 65.4%.
- Within the speciic age group 20 to 29, people from outside the valley as a employee
is more than Kaski, which are from Parbat, Tanahu, Syanga, Baglung etc. but above
the 30 and above age group, it covers from the Kaski district. That is 35.3%
- Waiter employee (61%) is more than other type of employee.
- Most of the women worker are joined this sector after the 2065, i.e. 52.90%
- Work opportunities are either search by self or set by relatives and friend.
- Most of the women worker work almost 10 hours. 58.8% women employee earn just
below the ive thousands only. Where, they have to spend at least 12 hours for that
earning. More than ten thousands are easily earned just performing ten to twelve
hours in the job.
- According to type of business, 90 percent women employee gets just below the ive
thousands and they are almost from the sweeper, and dancer.
- Manager (accountant and other department head) has to perform just 8 hours to earn
maximum ten thousands whereas waiter, sweeper and dancer have to spend at least
10 hours to earn such money.
- Deinitely, earning money is the main objective of any women employee in this sector.
- Easy work is the main cause of selection of tourism related work and 88.5% are
satisied with the job. Likewise, 87.50% owner are also satisied with worker and
almost have good relation with the management or owner of business.
- Who earn below the ive thousands, among the workers, 80% are satisied with the
work involvement in tourism.
- From 2041 to 2069 year, only 12.72 percent are pure tourism women entrepreneurs
in this sector.
- Only 33.87 percent women employees are used by purely this tourism sector, this
percentage from the hotel, lodge, restaurant, and resort.
- 36.74 percent women employees from the travel and trekking agencies related
business in Pokhara.
19
- Among the served hotels, lodge and restaurant, women employees are always low
in the business, it means man are more used as compare to women.
4. Conclusion
Day is gone when women in Nepal remained conined to within four walls of their home
and heir immense strength and potential remained unrecognized and unaccounted for.
Now they are increasingly participating in all spheres of activities. The fact remains that
the citadels of excellence in academic, politics, administration, business and industry
no longer the prerogative of men in Nepal. The general consensus that is emerging
in all discussions relating to the development of women is that promotion of women
entrepreneurs or employment should form an integral part of all development efforts. The
indings reveal some interesting facts regarding the proile of women worker’ i.e. with
regarding to age group, family size, marital status, income level, causes of working in
the tourism sector, selection criteria of work, satisfaction level, relationship between the
management and worker as well as working hours of women employees in this sectors.
During the survey, 0 to 30 years of age women workers are involved in the tourism
sector as worker. Most of the women workers are the second child of family. Maximum
married women are engaged in this sector as employees and small number of family is
belongs to worker or as employee. Brahamin and Chhetri are always maximum with
compare to other ethnicity worker group and Hindus covers the maximum involvement
in tourism as women employees. 58.80 percent women worker earn just below the ive
thousands only. More than ifty percent women belongs to Kaski district whereas 30 and
above age group, it covers from the Kaski district. That is 35.3%. Within the speciic age
group 20 to 29, people from outside the valley as a employee is more than Kaski, which
are from Parbat, Tanahu, Syanga, Baglung etc. but waiter employee is more than other
type of employee. They are searched the job either self or set by relatives and friend.
They have to work almost 10 hours. 58.8% women employee earn just below the ive
thousands only. Where, they have to spend at least 12 hours for that earning. More than
ten thousands are easily earned just performing ten to twelve hours in the job. But 90
percent women employee gets just below the ive thousands and they are almost from
the sweeper, and dancer. Whereas manager (accountant and other department head) has
to perform just 8 hours to earn maximum ten thousands
In 2011 year 230799 tourist are visited Pokhara. That is 13.40% increased with compare
to previous year. Whereas autumn and spring are the maximum tourist arrival season for
Pokhara. Through the regression models from the SPSS program is predicted that the
tourist arrival in Pokhara will be 217436.4 in number.
Money is the main objective of any women employee. Easy work is the main cause of
selection of tourism related work and almost has good relation with the management or
20
owner of business. 80% are satisied with the work involvement in tourism.
From 2041 to 2067 year, only 12.72 percent are pure tourism women entrepreneurs in
this sector. During the 26 year period, only 33.87 percent women employees are used by
purely this tourism sector, this percentage from the hotel and lodge, restaurant, and travel
and trekking. Whereas, 36.74 percent women employees from the travel and trekking
agencies related business in Pokhara.
5. Recommendation
- Tourist arrival in Pokhara is so luctuating year to year; it seems that the promotional
activities are quit general to attract the tourist in Pokhara. Focus should be given to
strong promotional program like “JauHaiPokhara”.
- There should be needed to deep study about the seasonality of tourist arrival in Pokhara.
- It is required to help foster the growth of independent, self-suficient, decision making
and acting women in tourism sector by encouraging self-empowerment and capacity
building act.
- In gender point of view, women empowerment program will help to address country’s
poverty alleviating initiative positively by tourism.
- Enabling policies for promoting and protecting women’s employment with high
privilege and provisions in Tourism.
- Increase public awareness of the interrelation between tourism and its beneicial role
for women.
- Providing women tourism entrepreneurs with the necessary training tools to enhance
to integrate pro-people sustainable tourism (PPST) practices in their entrepreneurs.
- The majority of the target should be to provide beneits to those women who belong
to low-income, unskilled or semi-skilled groups from minorities.
- The need of time is to form a join forum consisting private sectors, the government
bodies, internationals bodies, NGO’s, INGO’s, tourism associations and research
organizations for collaborative and innovative development of tourism ensuring
increased participation of local women.
- On the contrary of insuficient information base to ascertain the magnitude of both
positive and negative implications of tourism women, more research and study should
be initiated and promoted.
- Government of Nepal has to formulate the plan and polices relating to involvement
of women entrepreneur in tourism sector.
21
- According to labor law, government has to support and implement the rules and
regulation regarding to minimum remuneration and working hours.
- In the present stage high level employment opportunity is necessary for empower
of women and support are necessary from the tourism related irms.
- At last but not the least, government, tourism stakeholders, hotels association, travel
and trekking and restaurant association need to support women entrepreneurship and
employee.
Acknowledgement
This research work could never have been completed without the invaluable co-
operation and assistance of many individuals and organizations. It is a matter of great
pleasure and privilege for me to express my profound regarding and gratitude to Janapriya
Research and conculatancy Centre for providing me to inance and research opportunity,
Janapriya Multiple Campus, campus chief of Janapriya Multiple Campus, my instructor
Mr S. Khathiwada and members of research committee Dr. Vikash Kumar KC, for the
valuable guidance with exceptional promptness. His wise counsel and guidance provided
me the inspiration to go ahead with this work. I am also indebted to Pokhara Tourism
Ofice, Pokhara for providing me the tourist, entrepreneurs and employees’ data. I express
my thanks to all the respondents who rather ungrudgingly provided me the necessary
information despite their busy work. I also acknowledge my deep sense of gratitude
towards my friends. To acknowledge lastly, I could not forget the effort of BBA Sixth
Semester for providing me the valuable support to complete this research work in time.
References
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Kritipur
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Bhatta, C. D. (1997). The Raising Nepal, June 22, Ktm
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Indonesia”, Journal of Development Studeis, vol. 33
Grandon Raman (2007), Nepalese Tourism The Challenges. Kathmandu: Nepal Association of Tour
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Chand and Sons, Delhi
K. C. Tilak. (2000). Migration and it’s Consequences on Tourism with Special Reference to Fewa
Lakeside, Pokhara, Janapragyamanchyr-1, No.1
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Khanka, S. S. (2007). Entrepreneurial Development, Sultan Chand and Sons, Delhi

Khathiwada, S.S. (2000). Tourism in Pokhara Prospects and Problems, Janapragyamanch, Yr-1, No.1
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central department of economics T.U. Kathmandu Nepal.
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Punjabi Bagh, New Delhi-110026
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Delhi-110053
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South Anarkali, Delhi-110051, India
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116-A, South Anarkali, Delhi-110051, India
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Theory and Practice): Women’s participation in tourism, Volume: 2, Emerald Group Publishing
Limited, 61-71
Shrestha, H. P.(1998). Tourism Marketing in Nepal’ Unpublished PH.D. Thesis, Faculty of Management,
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Shrestha, P. (1997). Tourism in Nepal: Problem and Prospects, Unpublished PH.D. Thesis, department
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Annuals of Tourism Research, Vol. 22
23
Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Cultural Life of Pokhreli Muslims
CULTURAL LIFE OF POKHRELI MUSLIMS

Bhanu Kandel
Abstract
The Muslims of Pokhara normally pass a traditional life due mainly to
their strong attachment with the Muslim religion and their traditional
orthodox ways of thinking about the things and the events. But one very
beautiful aspect of the Pokhareli Muslims is that they are not as orthodox
and intolerant to the other religious/cultural groups like the Hindus and
the Buddhists. They are very open minded people. There are some leading
people who very openly attend the Hindu rites, rituals, fairs, festivals
and even the religious congregations. Ali Miya was a great personality,
who would teach the people not to attach to one particular religion but
to humanity. In theory and practice, he adhered to no religion other than
humanism.
Key words: culture, rites, rituals, customs, religion, practices, Hinduism,
Christianity, Islamism, birth, marriage, death, etc.
1. Background
Culture is the way of human life. It is behavior peculiar to human kinds, together with
material objects used as an integral part of this behavior. Thus, culture includes language,
ideas, beliefs, customs, codes, institutions, tools, techniques, works of art, rituals, and
ceremonies (Watson, 2002: 1) among other elements. The existence and use of culture
depends upon an ability possessed by humans alone. People think and behave the different
ways not because anything else but because of the ways they are brought up. Culture,
as Avruch (1998: 264) has deined, is the total life way of a people and an individual
learns from his group.
Culture, as Edward W. Said (1993: xiii) has deined in his book Culture and imperialism,
“is a concept that includes a reining and elevating element, each society’s reservoir
of the best that has been known and thought…”. Samuel Huntington (1996: 34 ), who
conceptualized a post-cold war world divided it into seven civilizations namely Western,
Confucian, Islamic, Hindu, Slavic- orthodox, Latin- American and possibly African.
In fact, culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, moral,
custom and any all other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.
Sometimes it is synonymous with the term civilization and in the totality of the rituals,
24
Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Bhanu Kandel
customs and institutions of a social group.

It is said that it was almost 270 years ago, in 1769 (B.S.), a few Muslims settled at
Kundal, now Kundahar, in Pokhara. By the time of the uniication of Nepal also Moslems
are reported to have fought for the king of Kaski. In this war major Salauddin is said
to have got both of his legs and left hand amputated. So the king of Kaskikot and his
government rewarded him for the bravery . This royal reward was the settlement at the
agricultural area of Kundahar.
There are more than a thousand Moslems living in Pokhara now. Though they have
been one of the main communities in Pokhara and late Ali Miya has been recognized as
the ‘Lok Kabi’ ( folk poet) of Nepali, any proper research regarding their way of living,
cultural rites and rituals, the changes that have come in their social behavior has not yet
been done. How do they living? What are the rites and rituals they follow? What are
the religious or cultural practices they carry on? Is there any impact of global change
on their way of living? These are some prominent questions that need to be answered.
In order that to ind the answer to the questions based on the principles of cultural
studies along with sociology and anthropology this research has been proposed. In this
research the researcher has given a higher priority to religio-cultural rites and rituals and
the changes that are seen in their occupation as such with other socio-anthropological
aspects of their life and living.
The major objectives of the study are:
i) To see the impact of global changes in the way of living on the Moslem
population or the vice-versa.
ii) To study and analyze the mode of social structure and the amalgamation of the
communities around.
2. Methodology
2.1. Universe of the Study
This research will conine itself within Pokhara valley as its study area even if
the materials necessary for the study found anywhere will be given a real value.
a. Data collection Technique
The following techniques have been deployed in order to collect the relevant data
Interview
Field observation
25
Questionnaire
Sampling: Random sampling will be the main tool used in analyzing the data.
Variables and Measures
The researcher aims at studying the changes seen in Muslim community through the
process of acculturation. Therefore the changes of customs and rituals will work as the
main variables in the study.
Techniques of Data Analysis
The usual techniques that are used in social studies have been employed in the process
of data analysis. There is not much of data analysis in cultural study, though. When
necessary, the following steps have been followed:
• Coding
• Annotating
• Labeling
• Selection
• summary
3. Muslim Culture in Pokhara
There are different variables of a culture. To understand a culture one should make a
thorough study of the cultural variables like rituals, rites, performances, practices, fairs
and festivals, food, dress etc. which are discussed as follows in terms of the culture of
Muslims in Pokhara.
3 .1. Ritual Performances
3.1.1. Birth and Life Rites
Islam is the reform form of Sanatani Arabi religion. Muslim culture is based on Arabic
social conditions. The Muslims believe in their one God Allah. Therefore when a woman
wants to give a baby it is desirable that she prays to Allah; if she does it it is believed
the Allah will take the total care for the future of the baby.
3.1. 1.1. Name giving Ceremony
Muslims have these types of name giving ceremonies like that of Hindus, where they
give the name to the baby and they celebrate it as baby’s birthday or after 6-8 days.
Name giving ceremony is called Biladat. Muslims also believe in Chhaiti. Chhaiti or
name giving ceremony is celebrated by the help of Mullah Maullabi. These Mullas or
26
Maullabies give the name for babies as Islam culture, Koran, or the Muslim Angel and
the followers’ name.
3.1.1.2. Chatawan
It is the rite of giving the cereal to the baby for the irst time that is really beautifully
celebrated by the Musalmans. The father or a guardian reads and prays for the welfare of
a newborn baby. At the time of birth, special washing for the baby is done and mothers
perform the rites along with religious ritual and prayers on the 6th, 20th, and 40th days
after birth.
3.1.1.3. Ratjage
When a new baby is born, only after a month Muslim people celebrate Ratjaga that is
celebrated on the sixth night in the name of Chhaiti by the Hinds. At the time they bring
the boy baby in the mosque (place of prostration) and the baby keeps the sweets, fruits,
biscuits and other things in front of the Mulla Maullabi. Mulla Maullabi reads the Fatiha
with Koran.
3.1.1.4. Hakika
This is the most important cultural rite of the Musalmans. It is only celebrated after the 5
years of the birth of a baby. Boys and girls both have compulsorily to perform Hakika. In
a boy’s Hakika Muslims slaughter ( Jafa) 2 goats, a she-goat and a he-goat. At that time
they shave the whole hair of the boy’s head that is known as Jafran in Muslim tongue.
After a shaving, it is balanced. The hair balanced is called Khairat. This balanced hair
is distributed among the Muslim people. They also believe in Japha. Japha means goat’s
meat to be divided into 3 groups. (i) to the family (ii)to the guests (iii)and to the poor
people. These types of customs or rites are celebrated only once in one’s life. So, Hakika,
a grand celebration, depends upon the economic condition of a family. It is a feast of
happiness and cheerfulness.
3.1.1.5. Khatana
This is the most important rite for Muslims. This custom makes the boys, the pure
Musalmans like chudakarma in Hindus. Khatana in not celebrated in even days and
age according to their birth, but there is not religious restriction. Especially Khatna is
celebrated under the age of ive (5) years. Khatana means prepuce of the boy’s penis by
the help of Mulla Maullabi and others. Pokhareli Muslims also observe Khatana during
the period of Muharrum. Most of the Muslims also believe in Khatana for the strength
of health.
Whereas, a girl’s menstrual period is called Haid. A menstruating girl is not supposed to
have been polluting to any one and offend any holy belief and she is allowed to perform
27
her normal domestic duties despite that of the Hindus .

3.1.1.6. Nikaah (Marriage)
Marriages in the Muslims are fully different from those of the Hindus. The marriage of
the Muslims is a very simple affair without the observance of long paraphernalia of the
wedding rites. It is conducted according to their Islamic tradition because Musalmans
believe in one God Allah and Mohammed as a prophet. A Muslim marriage is known
as Nikah ( sadi).
“Muslim marriage is a kind of treaty which has so many characteristics (Aggarwal: 1976).
Marriage in Musalman culture can be held on any day, date or the month of the year. As
the Musalmans do not consult any longer for ixing the auspicious date of marriage. A
Muslim boy can marry with any other Muslim girl except his real sister who has not
suckled the same breasts. Marriage among parallel and cross cousins are permissible.
Generally marriages are held in their own social group. Muslims are very rigid in their
tradition and actual selection of marriage (Majupurias, 1993: 191).
Marriageable age, as the study has shown, for Muslim is 12-16 for a girl and 16-18 for a
boy. Majority of the marriages are monogamous but there is no restriction on a man for
having four (4) wives if the husband entertains such intention. Koran, the holy book of
the Muslims gives permission to a man to keep 4 wives if he chooses. Marriage among
the Muslims is mostly always arranged in a very traditional way in which the parents of
the would-be couple negotiate the marriage. Generally the parents of the boy approach
those of the girl for matrimonial alliance and formal offer and agreement to the proposal
has to take place before some witnesses, and then the marriage is decided. This occasion
is called NISVAT i.e. engagement. The formal wedding, which is sometimes celebrated
up to a year, follows this ceremony.
3.1.1.7. Talak (Divorce)
When Musalman wife and husband do not want to live together, they can leave their
spouses giving Talak to each other. According to Islam religion Husband and wife both
have power of divorce. But in tradition, husband has more rights for Talak. Talak can be
given only through the medium of Kazi, Mulla and Maullabi. When a girl gives Talak,
it is known as open Talak. When a husband gives or says Talak for 3 times (i:e Talak,
Talak,Talak), the talak is supposed to have been done and is true in Muslim society . If
a woman gets divorce and again remarriages it is called Halala. She must wait for 3-4
months that is called Idat.
3.2. Death Rites
When a Muslim person dies, they clean the dead body by three different clothes. If he
28
is male, 2 clothes cover the body and if she is female, 5 clothes cover her. After death,
the Quran is read in the name of dead person for the eternal peace and happiness of the
deceased soul. When Muslims go to funeral, they read the Kalma within quietly. The
dead body is cleaned with boiled water and anointed with camphor and perfume before
being taken to the grave. Musalmans always bury their dead body. Graveyard is known as
Kabrastan. Pokkhareli Muslims have also common graveyard in the North of Kundhara.
When all funeral procession reaches the graveyard Mulla Maullabi and Kazi read the
Namaz. This type of Namaz reading is known as Janaza. Three days after the death they
celebrate Tiza, read the Qurann and give food to the poor people. On the 10th day they
offer a meal to the poor people and other relatives. Chahlum is observed on the 40th
day after the death. Muslim families and society show sorrow for the dead person on the
40th day. It is believed that after that they are puriied. On the 40th day Musalmans throw
the moist pea or corn one by one with reading the Quran. The Muslims in Pokhara do
not make the memorial over the grave and all Muslim people have not sorrow of death.
All the people attending the funerals are seen cheerful and happy from their appearance
because they believe that death is salvation and the person dead is blessed by the God
and he/she joins the companion of God himself therefore there is no need of crying and
weeping for the person joining the great soul.
3.3 Religious Performances
All the Muslims are found to believe in ‘There is but one God and Mohammed is the
Apostle’ (Gibb: 1992). So they always pray Khuda or Allah by LA LLAHA LLLA’LLAH
MUHAMMADDAN, RASULULLAH for the peace. They totally believe in their holy
book Koran. This eternal book Koran represents the eternal speech of God, the expression
of his experience of truth and his will for the Universe. So, it is called the mother of the
books or well preserved tablet . There are ive (5) compulsory duties and works or pillars
derived from Koran for the Musalmans. These ive (5) duties are described shortly below.
i. Iman ( to read the Kalma)
Iman means there is but one God and Mohammed is his Apostle. Therefore Mohammed
is known as the messenger, a Warner, a reformer and a prophet. So, that Musalmans,
are seen to believe in-No God without Alllah; Mohammed is the Paigamber, Allah,
and Apostle. Holy book and resurrection of Paigamber, fortune, good and bad justice,
Heaven and hell are also included in the Kalma. All these aspects are totally followed
by the Musalmans.
3.3.2. Salat (to read the Namaz)
They have the religious practice to set their house and mosque to the direction of Mecca.
They should read Namaz ive times a day and this is called salat or Salah. It is important
29
for Muslims to pray together because Islam is a religion that places great emphasis on
men acting altogether at a place as brothers.
The salat (prayer) is essentially a humble acknowledgement of Allah’s greatness and of
his supreme control of everything for ive times a day. Times of Namaz reading in a day
are morning, afternoon, midday, evening and Night.
But on the Friday afternoons all Muslim males have to attend for the Namaz or pray
compulsorily. The observance of the ritual prayer (salah) is repeatedly emphasized as
one of the essential religious duties. Each bowing or Pakeah has seven movements with
their appropriate recitations.
(i) The recitation of the phrase ‘Allahu Akbar’ God is the greatest, with the hands
open on each side of the face,
(ii) The recitation of the Fatihah or opening Sura of the Quran, followed by another
passage while standing upright,
(iii) Bowing from the hips,
(iv) Straightening up,
(v) Gliding to the knees and a irst prostration with face to the ground,
(vi) Sitting back on the haunches.
(vii) A second prostration.
The set times are at the day-break ( 2 Rakahs), Noon ( 4 Rakhs), mid afternoon ( 4 Rakahs),
after sundet ( 3 Rakahs) and in the early night ( 4 Rakahs). In a mosque ( masjid) or
place of prostration remaining under the leadership of an Imam, a man who is standing
in front of the lines of worshippers sets the timing of each movement.
Ablution before prayers is strictly enjoined and the ritual is deined in nine suras.
When you rise up to prayer, wash your faces and your hands to the elbows and wipe
your heads and your feet to the ankles. This is the lesser Ablution ( wudhu). The greater
ablution ( ghusl) is a complete washing of the body after major pollutions. If no water
is there available, the hand and face may be wiped with ine clean sand. While personal
cleanliness is formally demanded of worshipper, the Koran clearly has indicated the
symbolic meaning, which underlies the practice of ablution.
In the same connection mention is made of the call to prayer (Adhan). The double formula
is repeated by the Muezzin thrice in each of the 5 prescribed daily prayers.
i) Allah Akbar- God is the greatest (4 times).
ii) Ashahdu an la illah illah- I testify there is no God whatever but God ( twice).
iii) Ash- hado Anno Muhammadan rasullaha- I testify Mohammed is the messenger
of God ( twice).
iv) Hayya Alas- Salah- Hasten to prayer (twice).
v) Hayye alal falah- Hasten to salvation (twice).
30
- Or (come to security).
In the early morning, the Muezzin often adds ‘prayer is better than sleep.’ So it needs
to do washing the mouth add nostrils, hands and forearms, rubbing the head and behind
the ears and washing the feet etc.
Muslims never worship the Idols. The mosques have no image or portraits. Each mosque
is to be an open court surrounded by colona- des and unadorned save for Quranic texts.
A Mahrab, a niche showing the direction of Mecca, a pulpit and minaret where the
muazzins utter the call to prayers. Muslim women are restricted to pray in the mosque.
They pray the Allah in their houses.
3.3.3. Zakat (Jakah)
Tax that must be paid annually, by the 2-½ % of income to distribute to the beggars and
people is this zakat. This is a kind of charitable donation given to the poor. In the early
days of Islam it was collected by the authorities and distributed to the poor among the
faithful believers. It was also used to equip the soldiers in the Army in order that they
might gain victory in the Royal wars. Most of the Muslim people want to give Jakah in
the Moharrum month. Especially on the day of Id- ul- itra.
The jakat was the starting point for the development of a community or to this day
the legal faction of the Zakat is maintained as the basis of Governmental taxes and a
distinction was introduced between the Zakat as a compulsory contribution and sadakat
(charity) as voluntary donation giving in addition to the Zakat (Montgomery: 1989).
3.3.4. Roza ( Sawm)
It means fasting popularly known as brat or upabas in the 9th month of the lunar year
Ramadan. It’s a kind of festival when people go without food for a time. ‘Old and sick
people do not necessarily have to fast, but if the sick people recover; they should do so
at a later date. Pregnant women need not fast nor do young children but by the time you
reach my age you are expected to do so’. The close study of the people shows, Musalmans
have a complete abstinence from food and drink during the time of daylight, (4.30 A.M.-
7. 00 P.M.). They eat nothing after the sun rise during the holy month of Ramadan.
3.3.5. Hajj (Pilgrimage)
Both men and women perform the pilgrimage, some arriving Mecca a month earlier in
order to spend the period of fasting in the holy city. Most of the Muslims perform an
optional act of making seven circuits around the Kaaba. Kaaba- a cubic structure lying
on sofa, and Marwa Hill of Arafat. If possible, they sacriice the sheep, camel and other,
kiss the black stone on one of the circuits. There is usually such a crush that only a few
pilgrims get the chance to kiss the stone. It is necessary to reach or visit Mecca for
31
pilgrimage during the lifetime for a Muslim. But only few cases are found that Pokhareli
Muslims have visited Mecca. Some of them visit for Dvaserifdelhi, simarasarif, Azmer.
A Muslim Pilgrimage to return form pilgrimage is known as Hazzi.
Here, all the pilgrimages have a thing in common. They draw people closer together as
Muslims go the Mecca for their Hazz. No matter how rich and how poor a Muslim is,
he must still perform the duties set out in the 5 pillars. Having made their statement of
belief all men stand shoulder to shoulder in the salat, all must fast during the month of
Ramadan, the rich must remember the needs of the poor in paying the Zakat and Sadakat
at the Hajj.
3.4. Fairs and Festivals
All the people living in any part of the world and following any religion of the world
observe some certain fairs and festivals. The Hindus and Muslims living in Nepal too
certainly observe certain fairs and festivals. The most important festivals of the Hindus
are Dashain, Depavali, Basant Panchami, Shivratri, Maghe Sankrantri, Rishi Tarpani Tij,
Ram Navami etc. . Similarly, the Most important Muslim festivals are Id, ul- zuha, Id-ul-
itra, shav-I-barat, Muharrum and Miladun- navi or Barwafat etc. Pokhareli Musalmans
also observe many religious occasions as their fairs and festivals according to holy book
Koran and Islamic Hadith.
3.4.1. Id
It is one of the most important festivals of the Muslims. According to the Hijra Sambat,
Id occurs in Ramjan Month. The most important Roza ( Upabas) are observed by fasting
and praying ive times a day through the entire lunar month of Ramjan. Since the lunar
months fall shorter than the solar months, there is a difference of 10 days at the end of
each year and an entire month arises after every three years. That is known as Ramjan’s
month. It is again moved back one month in every 3rd year. Ramjan month lies in the 9th
month in the Islamic calendar.
Ramjan begins with the irst day of the bright fortnight. But the Roza starts only after
the visible crescent moon in the sky and it is very strictly and very sincerely observed
by the Moslems up to the last day, until the crescent moon reappears at the end of the
month. Every able Muslim body is supposed to observe Roza by fasting from sunrise to
sunset (4.30 Am-8.00 Pm) and by praying at a mosque and house ive (5) times a day.
During the fasting hours they abstain from eating and drinking and also observe various
other austerities but still perform their routine and their occupational works.
On the last day they celebrate the Id- Ul-Fitra. All the Muslim males read the Namaz in
a combined form in the mosque and women in their houses. After that Id-Milan starts
and there is a welcome for the Hindus, Buddhists also long with the Muslims
32
3.4.2. Muharrum or Tajiya

Muharrum is the 1st month in Islamic calendar. Indian and Nepali Muslims primarily
celebrate it. Tajiya is sorrow’s day. Because according to their belief H. Muharrum, Yazia’s
grandson and Ali’s son Hassen Hussain was killed due to crisis of food and water in
Baghdad Karbala. So, it is celebrated during the 10th days in Muharrum months and on its
7th days the Muslims stand the Allamm or lingo, a pillar. Tajiya are also different types
of color in their preparing hours. The Muharrum festival is marked as the Anniversary
of the Martyrdom of Iman Hussain, the Younger son of the daughter of the prophet. This
is also observed by the Shia Musalmans. Tajiya procession is taken out and decorations
are ultimately buried at the Qurbalas although Musalmans in the Terai also play a special
game with stick in the Muharrrum.
3.4.3. Miladun Navi or Barwafat
It is celebrated or associated with the birth of the prophet Mohammed. It falls on the
12th day of the Rabi-al- auwal of the Islamic calendar.
3.4.4. Shab-I- Barat
It is observed by eating ine foods, keeping a vigil for the night, visiting the graves of
dead relatives and praying for the welfare of both the living and the spirits of the deads.
Deoband Muslim group do not believe in shab- I- Baraat.
3.4.5. Bakra-Id
Bakra-id is an important observance of three (3) days beginning on the 10th day of the
Dhu-al- Hijah. Many Muslim people sacriice animals, usually goats, in the Terai and
buffalo in the hills and Pokhara valley, they enjoy the ensuring feast. Some rich people
offer to buy entire animals at times to share with the poorer members of the society.
Prayers are read at speciic times during this observance.
Bakra-Id is also a celebration to start the Hazz or holy pilgrimage to Mecca. Various
ceremonies are celebrated during the cycle of life require the reading of Namaz prayers.
There are so many other festivals in the Muslim calendar that are not much important
from the socio-cultural points of view. Due to the contrast of Deoband and Bareilly group
all the fairs and festivals are not celebrated with each other. Deobands want to celebrate
only the Id, Bakra-Id, and other festivals are not celebrated by the Deabonds. Acording
to Deoband concept – many major worshippings are more opposite to ( khilaf) the
Muslim society and custom in origin. To read the Fatiya also is a kind of disobedience
to the prophet. The Deobands believe in Mohammed as their grand brother but Bareilly
group believes in Rusullah and grand persons. Deobands do not celebrate the death date
or the things like donations ( Dan punya).
33
3.5. Language
Language is another factor which profoundly determines the culture of a group . Language
and regional-group-culture generally tends to be co-extensive. In these two determinants
of cultural diversiication, religion plays a signiicant role. There are different languages
the Muslims of Pokhara speak.
3.5.1. Urdu
Urdu language has been very important in Muslim education; in the mid century reading
and writing Urdu was identiied by Muslim leaders as an important element of what
social scientist are mind to call Islamisation of the Muslim themselves. Establishment
of Osmania University to promote higher education in Urdu was a signiicant event in
the history of the Urdu language although; Jamia and Milla are the two main centers of
Muslim education.
3.5.2. Nepali
Most of the Musalmans in the Terai part of Nepal speak Urdu as their mother tongue, a
language quite closely related to Hindi, but in Kathmandu valley and Hilly parts of Nepal
the Muslims are greatly inluenced by the language spoken in the local area, where they
have been living. Therefore, the Pokhareli Muslims hardly speak pure Urdu language. But
they speak broken Urdu or mixed types of Pharsi language. Most of them communicate
each other in Muslim society by broken Urdu language. But in general 98% Muslims
want to speak Nepali that has been a kind of mother tongue for most of them whereas
they can read and write in Urdu language for Islamic Madarsa and Koran, Hadith.
Expect Urdu as their a kind of oficial religious language for the use of reading
the Koran, Hadith and other religious scriptures and Nepali for the day- to-
day use as the popular lingua- franca, the Muslims of the study area speak
Hindi for different purposes specially for the business and they speak English
too who have gone to the schools and have to deal with the foreign tourists.
3.6. Dress or Fashion
Normally Muslims wear a shirt, paint, pyjamas (loose and tight) and a Turkish cap; put on
a lungi (a sort of lion cloth). But in Pokhara, Muslim boys and girls wear the dress that is
not different from other social dresses. Women have no veil (pardah) system any longer
but most of them put a shawl on their heads. They wear sari, blouse, gold ornaments, pote,
thread, foot wears etc. One interesting thing about the Muslims of the study area is that
they seem to be and they appear (more) fashionable than the other groups whereas they
could have been always putting the veil had they been living in other orthodox countries
rather than Nepal. The Muslim girls very freely wear the western t-shirts and jeans. Even
34
the brides and the grooms also wear Nepalese mixed dress. Normally, Muslim women
do not want to mark red color on their forehead. Even the boys do not wear red dress. It
is perhaps because the red color is specially attached to the Hindu practice. Red mark
and Holi are the taboo for Musalmans, too. But they want to wear white clean clothes
with a certain preference.
3.7. Diet
Muslim people have some restrictions about diet because they must strictly follow the
Islamic customs and laws. Religion does not admit to take alcoholic drinks, touch a pig,
to take the meat of goat, duck, buffalo, hen , cock slaughtered by others than a Muslim
and they can’t play cards and practise adultery, traditionally and religiously. Therefore
Pokhareli Muslims want to eat rice, curry, bread, ish, tea, milk loaves, and vegetable,
buffalo’s meat, simians etc. So Musalmans, principally, are Non- vegetarians. If possible
they must have mutton, ish in each meal . They may eat rice and bread together in a meal
with delicious form. If any Muslim leaves the ways of Koran, he is known as Haram or
the wayward in the society. Muslims can eat cow’s meat but Hindu country Nepal has
restriction over it.
3.8. Family Planning
Any kind of family planning is strictly prohibited in the Muslim culture. A person is
supposed to be cursed by the Allah himself if anyone even thinks about the means
of family planning. More than 90% Muslims do not want to talk about any means of
family planning. It is because Koran and Hadith never allow the check of babies’ birth
and abortion. Therefore, Muslim society has high birth rate than the other groups. Only
few of them in young generation from courageous families have started thinking about
it and have adopted too but hesitate to tell frankly due to the fear of Islamic rules and
Muslim society. It’s a very good thing that they have started using the contraceptives
that is expected to bring a great substantial change in the traditional orthodox ways of
Muslim society.
4. Conclusion
Pokhareli Muslims are so close to Hindus and the Buddhists. Therefore they have adopted
some social practices from the Hindu and Buddhist religions and their culture. Girls have
discarded the pardah system. They can work anywhere as the women of the other religious
groups and as frankly as others they can speak to the others . There is nothing as such
that they are prohibited to look at the males other than the Muslims as they are supposed
to do in other Muslim societies in the rest of the orthodox world around. Most of the
cosmetic shop-ownrs and (foot-path) bangle sellers are the Muslim girls and they are very
nicely carrying over the business. Pokhareli Muslim women give shoulder to shoulder
35
to their husbands for their hard work whereas the Muslim women are never expected
to have a job of their own nor they can come out to the open place having something to
do with in other parts of the world. Being a Miya, the late folk poet, Ali used to go the
Hindu congregations, he even prayed to the Hindu gods because he believed there is
only God whether he is Christ, Allah, Buddha or any Hindu god. What makes them to
be different is we people who are divided into many groups and we have been claiming
to have followed a certain God. The Pokhreli Muslims are really co-operative to the
Hindus and Buddhists. They seem to have adopted the openness of Hindu philosophy
because they are living so peacefully specially due to the religious tolerance and their
feeling of fraternity in them. Almost all fairs and festivals in this part of the country are
participated and celebrated by all the major cultural and religious groups together: the
Hindus, the Buddhists and the Muslims. Hanif Miya says, there is no Christianity, no
Buddhism, no Hinduism nor there is Islamism but Humanism. These Muslims have
even started celebrating the Holi, the festival of the colors as the Muslims of the Terai
have already started enjoying the festival along with the Hindus.
5. Acknowledgement
This dissertation was carried over with the inancial aid of University Grant Commission
in collaboration with Janapriya Research and Consultancy Centre ( JRCC) and supervised
by the expert team led by Dr. Bikash K. C.
References
Aggarwal, G. K. (1876). Indian Social Institution. Agra: Sahitya Bhavan.
Avruch, K. (1998). Culture and conlict Resolution. Washington D C: United States Institute of Peace.
Gibb, H. A. R. (1962). Mohammedanism:an Historical Survey.New york: A Galaxy Book Oxford
University.
Huntington, P. (1996). The clash of civilizations and Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon and
Schhuster.
Majupuria, I. and Majupuria C. (1978). Marriage Customs in Nepal. Katmandu: Indra Majupuria.
Montgomery, J.A. (1991): Religions of the Past and Present. Philadelphia: J.B.B. Lippin Co.
Said, Edward W. (1993). Culture and Imperialism. London: Vintage.
Watson, C. W. ( 2002). Multiculturalism. New Delhi: Viva Books Pvt. ltd.
36
Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Bir Bahadur Karki
Practices and Trends of Small and Micro

Enterprises Development in Nepal
Bir Bahadur Karki
Abstract
With the establishment of Udyog Parishad in 1935 A.D. and Nepal
Kapada Ra Gharelu Ilam parchar Adda in 1939, industries were begin
to established in Nepal, specially cottage industries. On the basis of
nature and classiication of industries, cottage and small industries are
divided into seven groups. Micro enterprises are in on initial stage. It
has not a long history. Government of Nepal, irst time, deined micro
enterprise through industrial policy 2067 B.S.(2010). However, two
different institution i.e. MEDEP and DCSI are working in the sector of
micro enterprise development with aim 'for poverty alleviation micro
enterprise development program' since 1998 and 2010 respectively. With
the help of itted time series model, it is seemed that the increment of these
industries is 1553 each year. Production oriented industries are highest
number on the basis of registered industries whereas service oriented
industries dominated to other types of cottage and small industries in
the context of existing running industries.
Key Words: Poverty Alleviation, Micro-enterprises, Cottage and small industries,
Practice and trends.
1. Background
Small and micro enterprises, (SMEs) have been operated from long-time in Nepal and
played vital role in the context of employment generation, utilization of local resources,
poverty alleviation, and economics growth of the nations. Like developed countries,
Nepalese SMEs can also operate as a backbone of the medium and large scales industries
by supplying necessary semi-inished goods, fabricating parts and other subsidiary goods.
However, backward and forward linkage between these SMEs and medium and large
scales industries are not seemed reciprocal relation. There are more than 244341 SMEs
in Nepal's industrial sector and they employed about 19, 87,387 people, total capital
investment is Rs.14769968 cores till 2012 A.D. (MOI: 2068). According to Nepal Living
Standard Survey (NLSS) 2010/2011 per capital income of Nepalese people is near about
$642 (Rs 41, 659). According to National population census 2011, total population of
Nepal is 266,20,809. Out total population, 48.6 percent are male and 51.4 percent are
37
Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Practices and Trends of…
female. Most of the people i.e. 83 percent people are lived in rural area only 17 people
are lived in urban area. One fourth population i.e. 25.42 percent is still lived under
below poverty line. Now, three year interim plan (FY: 2067/68 to FY: 2069/70) of the
government of Nepal is running. Main goals of the interim plan is to improved in living
standards of people, reduced the population of below poverty line in to 21 percent and to
achieve millennium development goals (MDG) till 2015. (NLSS 111:2068 i.e.2010/11).
According to report on the Nepal Labor Forces Survey (NLFS) 2008, 15 years old or
more than it currently employment are involved in agriculture sector by 73.9 percent
and in non-agricultural sector by 26.1 percent which were 76 percent and 24 percent in
agro-sector and non-agro-sector in last census respectively (CBS: 2008).
The data shows that most of the peoples are involved in agriculture sector for livelihood,
still now. Micro and small industries can be able to generate employment opportunities
and revenue.
Seventeen percent (4.5 Millions) of the total population reside in urban area. Terai
constitutes 50.15 percent of population while hill constitute 43.1 percent and mountain
6.75 percent. Absent population of Nepal is recorded as 1.92 million against 0.76 million
in 2001 (CBS: 2011). Micro and small industries can be operated in rural area and can
be generated revenue for their livelihood.
Micro-Enterprises Development program (MEDEP) was initiated in 1998 with the
technical and inancial support of the United Nations Developments Program (UNDP)
during the government's ninth ive year plan with its main objective of poverty alleviation
through developing micro-enterprises and creating off-farm employment opportunities
for rural poor and socially excluded. (Pun: 2010). Oficially MEDEP is irst institute
which work in the ield of micro enterprises development sector in Nepal.
The goal of MEDEP is to improve the socio-economic conditions of the low-income
families and socially excluded people in Nepal. Similarly, the objective of the program
is to diversify the livelihoods and increase the income of low-income families through
micro-enterprise development and employment generation. (Pun: 2010). MEDEP is able
to improve the socio-economic condition of the low-income families, specially, socially
excluded people in Nepal.
The success of the allo based micro-enterprises in employment and income generation
in Sankhuwasabha district can become the model to initiate such programme in other
parts of Nepal with suficient resources. (Shrestha: 2008). The allo is found all over
Nepal, especially in hill area. It can be used as raw material for allo based garment and
produced different kind of products. Allo based products are highly demanded product
outside country.
38
It has been witnessed that micro enterprises have become increasingly popular in the new
development agenda across the globe and more so in the developing world to address
income and employment opportunities. As through the development of micro-enterprise
the people in rural areas get income and employment (UNDP: 1998).
Doing business takes the perspective of domestic smaller companies and measures the
regulation applying to them through their life cycle economics are ranked on the basis of
9 area of regulation for starting a business, dealing, with construction permit, registering
properly, getting credit, protecting investors, paying taxes, trading across borders,
enforcing, contracts and closing a business (WBIFC: 2011). These criteria are used for
evaluation of industrial scenario and condition of industrial development of the country.
To promote and extent of business sector government should be able to provide
sound business environment such as sound and friendly business environment for
investment and their returns, appropriate rules and regulation for security of investment,
formulated adequate and appropriate strategies and policy for production of goods and
services and their market.(Karki:2011)
Deinition of SMEs
In Industrial policy 2010, irst time in Nepal, deined micro enterprises is:
a) Fixed investment up 00 NRs 200,000 except land and building.
b) Self managed (managed by entrepreneur her/himself).
c) Employment up to 9 person including entrepreneur.
d) Amount of annual transaction less than NRs 2,000,000 and
e) Use of power or energy less than 10 kw if used.
Like it, enterprises using indigenous knowledge and skills, technology, art and culture
consuming up to 10 kw energy are traditional (indigenous) and cottage industries.
Small scale industries deined as enterprises (industries) other than micro traditional
and cottage having investment up to Rs 50 million. (Ministry of industry: 2067).
Industrial policy 1992 deined small industries other than traditional cottage industries
with a ixed capital investment up to an amount of 10 million. (NIDC: 1992). In
1992, industries were classiied, on the basis of division of scale, into four group
i.e. traditional cottage industries, small industries, medium industries and large
scale industries. But, in 2010, industries are classiied on the basis of investment
and nature of industries into ive group i.e. micro enterprises, traditional and other
cottage industries, small scale industries, medium scale industries and large scale
industries.
39
Different types of model and techniques for rural development are used in practices.
Local irms should be made strengthen with appropriate government policies like public
private partnership (PPP), one village one product (OVOP) and regulation and through
implementation of such policies and program, we can able to achieve the goal of poverty
alleviation and to solve unemployment problems. (Karki: 2011)
Historical Background of Industry
During the regime of Prime Minister Judha Samser JBR a powerful development board
called Udyog Parishad was constituted in 1935 A.D. Udyog Parishad was entrusted,
among other things, with the task of developing agriculture, industry and commerce in
the country. After a few years, Nepal Kapada Ra Gharelu Ilam Parchar Adda (hereafter
referred to as the Department of Cottage Industry) was established in 1939, which
undertook many commendable measures for the growth of small and cottage industries
in the country. Some notable changes took place after the signing of an agreement by
His Majesty's Government with the Ford Foundation on April, 28, 1954. Under the
agreement, the Ford Foundation provided inancial as well as technical assistance to Nepal
for development of cottage, village, and small industries in the country (Shrestha:1981).
Gharelu Ilam Centre was established in F.Y.2013/14 B.S. with the aimed of providing
various skills oriented training to people. In F.Y. 2021/22 the Gharelu Ilam Centre was
extension in zone level and district level. In F.Y. 2022/23 the Gharelu Ilam Kendra was
transmitted as part of technical training branch under Cottage and Rural Industry (DCSI:
2068).
Department of cottage and small Industry (DCSI) was established in 2030 BS.
The cottage and small industries development Board (CSIDB) was established
under the cottage and small industries Development Board Act 2031 to provide
effective institutional support for promotion and development of cottage and small
industries in the country. The prime objective of the CSIDB is to assist in the
expansion growth and development of cottage and small industries (IEDI: 1998).
Small and Micro Enterprises(SMEs) have been operated from before long-time and
played vita role in the context of employment generation, utilization of local resources,
poverty alleviation, economic growth of the nations and so on. Despite the spectacular
growth achieved by Nepal's SMEs, not much research has been done on issue related to
their growth structural dynamics, productivity performance and development prospects.
The purpose of this research work is throw light on such issues and examine practices
and trends of SMEs. To conduct research on the topic of practices and trends of small
and Micro Enterprises development in Nepal, some research question are used as bellow:
1. What types of practices of SMEs have been done in Nepal ?
40
2. What is the trend of growth rate of SMEs development in Nepal?

3. What is the scenario between number of registered cottage and small industries
and number of existing running such industries?
Main objective of the research work is to examine the practices and trends of Small and
Micro Enterprise (SMEs) development in Nepal from FY 2064/065 to 2067/68 in Nepal.
Other objectives of the study are as:
I. To analyze number and types of SMEs in Nepal
II. To compare between numbers of registered cottage and small industries and number of
existing running industries
2. Data and Methods
The research is based on descriptive cum analytical research approach. The data are
collected from secondary sources. Secondary data are collected, specially, through
industrial promotion statistics and industrial bulletin published by ministry of industrial,
department of cottage and small industries. Collected data are edited and tabulated as
per required of research. For analysis of data some statistical tools are used. Percentage
and itted time series model are used for data analysis.
Fitted Times Series Model
Y= a+bt is s linear model,
Where, Y= Number of cottage and small industries
a= Number of SMEs in average per year
b= Number of SMEs in incremental basis per year
t= Time in year
3. Results and Discussion
Fitted time series model in which Y is number of cottage and small industries and t is
time (in year). In this model, as t (Year time) increase by 1 year, then the number of
industries increased by 1553.2 (≈ 1553 number). It means per year there is increment
of about 1553 number of cottage and small industries. Between the time period FY
2063/064 to FY 2067/068 i.e. ive year time period no of cottage and small industries
(CSIs) increase by 1553 per year. Whereas, production oriented CSIs is increased by
436. It means per year there is increment of about 436 number of production oriented
cottage and small industries. In the case of energy oriented CSIs, there is decreased of
about -13.8 (≈ -14 number) per year. Like it, 141, 10, 279.5, 696.7 and 4 increment in
41
agro-forestry based industries, mineral industries, tourism industries, service industries

and construction industries respectively. It seems that service oriented industries has
highest increment i.e. 696.7 per year, and followed by production oriented industries,
tourism industries and agro-forestry based industries increment by 436, 279.5 and 141
per year respectively (see annex 1).
On the basis of itted time series model, we can forecast the no of cottage and small
industries for the year 2070. In 2070, Number of cottage and small industries will be
reached 18910.6 and in 2075 the number will be reached 26,675.6. It is a symptom of
increase trend of CSIs in Nepal.
The Scenario of Registered and existing cottage and small industries in Nepal
On the basis of itted time series model, in between FY 2063/064 and FY 2067/068 there
is increment of about 1553 number of cottage and small industries in Nepal. But, the
comparing between no. of registered industries and no. of existing industries till 2010/11,
data shows that all types of cottage and small industries are not increased each year.
Table No. 1
No. of Registered industries and No. of Existing Industries Till 2067/068
(2010/11)
% %
No. of No. of
Subject or class Change
S.N. Registration existing
of industry in %
of Industries Industries
1 Production 81642 48.1 45594 36.4 -44.2%
2 Energy 1182 0.7 291 0.2 -75.4%
3 Age & forest 4450 2.6 4873 3.9 9.5%
4 Tourism 11924 7.0 12294 9.8 3.1%
5 Mineral 1009 0.6 114 0.1 -88.7%
6 Service 60,998 36.0 57,668 46.0 -5.5%
7 Construction 8565 5.0 9585 3.7 -46.5%
Total 169770 100 1254199 100
Source: Industry Bulletin, 2068/069, Year 17, Volume: 1, P-15

The table 1 shows that, out of total registered cottage and small industries, 48.20 percent
industries are concerned with production oriented industries and it has got topmost
ranked. Then after service oriented industries has got second position which occupied
42
35 percent out of total industries. Then after tourism industries 7.0 percent, construction
industries 5.0 percent, agro-forest based industries 2.6 percent, energy oriented industries
0.70 percent and mineral industries 0.6 percent and these industries have got second,
third, fourth, ifth, sixth and seventh position in ranked respectively. Whereas, service
oriented industries has got topmost ranked and occupied 46.0 percent out of total
existing or running cottage and small industries. Like it, production-oriented industries
has got second position and occupied 36.4 percent. Tourism industries increased by 2.8
percent, agro-forest industries increased by 1.9 percent but energy industries decreased
by 0.5 percent, mineral industries decreased by 0.5 percent and construction industries
decreased by 1.30 percent. It means service industries, production industries, tourism
industries and agro-forest based industries are more stable industries in nature and it
also revealed that these types of industries are able to cope with changing environment
and might able to earn proit.
Table No. 2
Number of Entrepreneurs
Creation by Micro Enterprise Development Programme in FY 2067/068
SN District Number of Entrepreneurs

1 Sunari 123
2 Sarlahi 125
3 Parsa 148
4 Chitwan 141
5 Kavre 192
6 Kaski 127
7 Kapilbastu 132
8 Dang 125
9 Banke 125
10 Bardia 125
Total 1313
Source: Industry Bulletin, Year 17, Volume : 1, P-3
The MEDEP is able to created 51,182 micro-entrepreneurs and is able to generated
employment opportunities for 52374 peoples. Out of total employment generated, 33
percent i.e. 17268 and 67 percent 35,076 people are concerned with men and women
respectively.
43
Department of cottage and Small Industry (DCSI) under Ministry of Industry(MOI)

also started and launched micro-enterprise development program in 10 district from F.Y.
2067/68 with the aim of poverty alleviation through micro-enterprise development. In
this year, the department is able to create 1313 entrepreneurs. (MOI: 2069).
Besides MEDEP, department of cottage and small industries also launched micro
enterprise developments program for poverty alleviation from 2067. Table no.2 shows
that some view of entrepreneur creation by DCSI in 10 districts.
4. Conclusions
The practice and trend of small and micro enterprises (SMEs) development in Nepal seems
that it is an initial stage. Fitted time series model presents that SMEs are increasing trends
except energy oriented industries. Average increment of cottage and small industries
is 1553 in number with the comparison of seven different types of cottage and small
industries. Service oriented industries have more increment ratio, then after followed
by production oriented and tourism industries.
In the context of number of registered cottage and small industries, production oriented
industries occupied 48.1percent then after followed by service industries and tourism
industries by 36 percent and 7 percent respectively. Other hand, in the case of existing
running industries, service industries lead by 46 percent to other types of industries,
thereafter, followed by production oriented and tourism industries by 36.4 percent and
9.8 percent respectively. Energy and the mineral industries both occupied less than one
percent.
Under cottage and small industries, seven different types of industries are in practice.
They are production (manufacturing) oriented industries, energy-oriented industries,
agro-forest based industries, tourism industries, mineral industries, service-oriented
industries, and construction-oriented industries. Micro enterprise development program
(MEDEP) was initiated in 1998 with the technical and inancial support of the UNDP
with objective of poverty alleviation through developing micro-enterprise and crating
off-farm employment opportunities for rural poor and socially excluded. DCSI also
launched micro enterprise development program for poverty alleviation from the year
2067 (2010).
References
Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). (2008). Nepal Labor Force Survey. Kathmandu: CBS
CBS. (2011). Preliminary Results of National population census. Kathmandu: CBS

44
CBS.(2011). Nepal Living Standards Survey-2010/11, Statistical Report. Kathmandu:CBS, National

Planning Commission Secretariat.
Department of Cottage and Small Industries (DCSI).(2068).Prospectus. Kathmandu:DCSI
Industrial Enterprises Development Institute (IEDI) (1998). A Report on Organizational Analysis of the
Department of cottage and small industries and CSIDB. Unpublished Report supported by small
business promotion project (SBPP) GTZ. Kathmandu.
Karki, Bir B. (2011). Doing Business and Role of Government for Entrepreneurship Development, The
Journal of Nepalese Business Studies, Vol. VII No. 1 Dec. 2010/2011 (PP 53-62).
Ministry of Industry (MOI). (2067). Industrial Policy -2067. Kathmandu: MOI
MOI, DCSI. (2068). Industrial Promotion Statistics. Kathmandu: MOI, DCSI
Ministry of Industry (MOI), Department of Cottage and Small Industry (DCSI) (2069). Industrial Bulletin,
Year 17, Volume 4.
Pun, Lakshman (2010). Introduction to Micro Enterprise Development Model and Its Achievement in
Nepal, Micro-Enterprise Development for poverty Alleviation. Vol 1 (MEDEP/ UNDP, Ministry
of Industry (MOI).
Shrestha, BP (1981). An Introduction of Nepalese Economy. Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar.
Shrestha, Chandra L. (2008). Allo Based Micro Enterprise for self-employment: A case study of Bala and
Sisuwakhola VDCs of Sankuwassabha District, Nepalese Journal of Development and Rural
studies, a biannual publication, Vol. 5 No.2 (July Dec, 2008) (PP 1-12).
United Nationals Development Programme (UNDP), (1998). Overcoming Human Poverty, New York:
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difference for entrepreneurs. Washington: WBIFC
www.dcsi.gov.np
www.csidb.gov.np
45
Annex No.1
Statement of Cottage and small industries
(on the Basis of Classiication)
(FY 2051/052 to 2067/068)/ (FY 1994/095 to 2010/011)
FY 051/52 to FY
S. Grand
Class 062/63 2062/ 064/65 065/66 066/67 067/68
N. Total
(1994 to 2005/06) 064
1 Production 62559 2967 3290 3988 4092 4746 81642
2 Energy-orient 945 96 39 51 9 42 1182
3 Agro and Forestry 1778 251 377 611 578 855 4450
4 Mineral 259 4 24 654 3 65 1009
5 Tourism 3336 559 920 3983 1419 1707 11924
6 Service-Orient 30139 4653 4480 8025 6649 7052 60998
7 Construction 7261 181 252 410 270 191 8565
Total 106277 8711 9382 17.722 13020 14658 169770
Source: Industrial Promotion Statistics 2068, P-11
46
Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) lji0f' k|;fb zdf{
:gfts txdf cWoog/t ljBfyL{x?df k7g af]w

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kqsf] ;ª\If]kLs[t / kl/is[t ?k xf] . efiff af]w cleJolQmsf] dfWod xf] / of] l;kk/s
ljifo xf] . efiffsf ;'gfO, af]nfO, k9fO / n]vfO u/L rf/ l;k x'G5g\ . k7g af]w k9fO
l;k cGtu{tsf] cfbfgfTds l;k xf] . k9]sf ;fdu|L /fd|f];Fu a'lemg] u/L k9\g' ;fy} ;f]
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/ kIfdf ;d]t k|efj kfb{5 . ljBfyL{df kfOg] k7g af]w Ifdtfsf] cWoogn] lzIfs,
k|zf;s, kf7\os|d lgdf{tf, ljz]if1, kf7\o k':ts n]vs nufotnfO{ cfjZos ;"rgf
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. o;sf nflu :gfts txdf cWoog/t ljBfyL{x?af6 k7g af]w Ifdtf k/LIf0fsf
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SofDk;sf] :gfts txdf cWoog/t ljBfyL{x?sf] t'ngfdf klAns SofDk;df :gfts
txdf cWoog/t ljBfyL{x?sf] k7g af]w Ifdtf t'ngfTds ?kdf /fd|f] /x]sf] tyf 5fq
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sflns, cled'vLs/0f, ;/sf/L SofDk;, klAns SofDk;, kf7\oqmd, kf7\o k':ts .
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47
Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) :gfts txdf cWoog/t…
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af]w cEof;df hf]8 lbg' cfjZos x'G5 eg] pRr sIffx?df ;dLIffTds tyf ;[hgfTds af]w ;DaGwL
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48
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pgLx?sf] cleJolQm Ifdtfdf klg uDeL/ c;/ k5{ . k7gaf]wsf] Ifdtfdf x'g] sdhf]/Ln] s]jn eflifs
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!=% cWoogsf] ;Ldfª\sg
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v_ kf]v/f pkdxfgu/ kflnsfleq /x]sf] Pp6f hglk|o ax'd'vL SofDk;sf $% hgf ljBfyL{ / csf]
{ k[YjL gf/fo0f ax'd'vL SofDk;sf %% hgf u/L hDdf !)) hgf ljBfyL{x? dfq .
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ljZn]if0f dfq .
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af]w Ifdtfsf] cWoog o; zf]wd"ns n]vdf ul/Psf] 5 .
@= cWoog ljlw
@=! kl/ro
o; zf]wd"ns n]vdf lzIffzf:q ;+sfo :gfts tx, k|yd jif{df cWoog/t ljBfyL{x?df k7g af]w Ifdtf
klxNofpg] b[li6sf]0f /flvPsf] 5 . cWoog ljBfyL{;Fu ;DalGwt ePsfn] ljBfyL{x?nfO{ g} cWoogsf] s]
49
Gb|ljGb' agfOPsf] 5 . o;y{ cWoogdf d"ntM ;j]{If0f ljlwnfO{ cfwf/ agfOPsf] 5 . cWoognfO{ j:t'ut
agfpgsf nflu hg;ª\Vof klxrfg, k|ltlglw gd'gf 5gf]6, tYofª\s ;ª\sngsf nflu ;fdu|L lgdf{0f, k/
LIf0fsf] sfof{Gjog, ;ª\slnt tYofª\sx?sf] JofVof ljZn]if0f tyf k|:t'tLs/0f h:tf cWoog k|lqmofx?
ckgfOPsf] 5 . cWoogsf s|ddf ckgfOPsf ljlw Pjd\ k|ls|ofsf] ?k/]vf s|dzM cGo pk–zLif{sx?df
ul/Psf] 5 .
@=@= hg;ª\Vof tyf k|ltlglw gd'gf
;do, nfut / ef}uf]lns kl/j]zsf sf/0fn] g]kfne/sf lzIffzf:q ;ª\sfo, :gfts tx k|yd jif{df
cWoog/t ;a} ljBfyL{nfO{ ;d]6\g g;lsg] x'gfn] yf]/}df k"0f{ lbnfpg] p2]Zon] kf]v/f pkdxfgu/kflnsfleq
/x]sf lqe'jg ljZj ljBfno cGt{utsf Ps cfª\lus SofDk; / Ps ;DaGwg k|fKt SofDk;sf :gfts
txdf cWoog/t ljBfyL{nfO{ hg;ª\Vofsf ?kdf lnOPsf] 5 .
k|:t't zf]wd"ns n]vnfO{ a9L e/kbf]{ Pjd\ ljZj;gLo agfpgsf nflu k|ltlglw gd'gf 5gf]6sf s|ddf
k[YjL gf/fo0f ax'd'vL SofDk;sf %% hgf ljBfyL{ / hglk|o ax'd'vL SofDk;sf $% hgf ljBfyL{ u/L
hDdf !)) hgf ljBfyL{nfO{ k|ltlglw gd'gf hg;ª\Vofsf ?kdf lnO{ ltgLx?sf] k7g af]w Ifdtfsf]
cWoog ul/Psf] 5 .
@=#= ;fdu|L lgdf{0f / k/LIf0fsf] sfof{Gjog
cWoog sfo{nfO{ cl3 a9fpgsf nflu cWoogsf] k|s[lt cg';f/ ;fdu|L lgdf{0f ul/G5 . ;fdu|Lx?
k|fylds / låtLos u/L b'O{ lsl;dsf x'G5g\ . k|:t't zf]wd"ns cWoog ljBfyL{sf] k7g af]w Ifdtf;Fu
;DalGwt ePsfn] o;df d"ntM k|fylds ;|f]t ;fdu|Lsf] lgdf{0f u/L pkof]udf NofOPsf] 5 -kl/lzi6–!_.
k7g af]w ;DaGwL ;}4flGts cWoogsf nflu ljleGg zf]wkq, n]v, k':ts, kf7\o k’:ts cflbaf6
ljleGg uBf+z 5gf]6 ul/Psf] 5 . ;fdu|L lgdf{0f u/L cWoog cufl8 a9fpg] s|ddf k|fylds / låtLos
;|f]tsf ;fdu|L ;dfj]z ul/Psf] 5 .
k/LIf0fLo ;fdu|L -ljifout / j:t'ut lnlvt k|Zg_ nfO{ ;DalGwt SofDk;df uO{ ljefuLo k|d'v;Fu ;Dks{
u/L ljBfyL{x?nfO{ cnu sf]7fdf zfGt jftfj/0f ;[hgf u/L dof{lbt ?kdf, k/LIffsf lgod cg';f/
lglZrt ;do tf]sL k/LIf0fsf] k|of]hg cg';f/ k/LIff ;~rfng ul/of] . k/LIffsf] ;dofjlw hDdf ^) ldg]6
tf]lsPsf] lyof] . tf]lsPsf] ;dofjlw ;lsPkl5 pQ/ k''l:tsf ;ª\sng ul/of] .
@=$= tYofª\ssf] k/LIf0f / ljZn]if0f
5gf]6 ul/Psf hg;ª\Vofdf k/LIff ;~rfng ul/ ;s]kl5 ljBfyL{af6 ;ª\sng ul/Psf pQ/s'l~hsf k/
LIf0fsf nflu pQ/k'l:tsf tof/ ul/of] . k|Zg g+ ! sf] uBf+zaf6 ;f]lwPsf kfFr k|ZgdWo] k|lt k|Zgsf] cª\
sef/ % sf b/n] @% cª\s, efiffTj jf Jofs/0faf6 ;f]lwPsf] kfFr ;ª\lIfKt k|ZgdWo] k|lt k|Zgsf] cª\
sef/ % sf b/n] @% cª\s / a'Fbf l6kf]6af6 kfFrj6f a'Fbf l6kf]6sf nflu k|lt a'FbfnfO{ !) gDa/sf b/n]
%) cª\s u/L hDdf !)) k"0ff{ª\sdf pQ/k'l:tsf k/LIf0f ul/of] . k|fKt k|fKtfª\snfO{ lzIf0f ;+:yfsf]
k|slt / lnª\uut cfwf/df ;Dk"0f{ ljBfyL{x?sf] k|ltztfª\s / dWodfg lgsflnPsf] 5 . To;}u/L k|ltzt
50
/ dWodfgsf cfwf/df ;du| / ;d"xut ljBfyL{x?sf] k7g af]w Ifdtfsf] JofVof ljZn]if0f ul/Psf] 5
;fy} ;du| / ;d"xut cfwf/df ljBfyL{x?sf] k|fKtfª\sdf s] slt leGgtf 5 eg]/ t'ngf ug{sf nflu dfgs
ljrng lgsflnPsf] 5 . o;/L ljleGg k|s[of4f/f o; zf]wd"ns n]vnfO{ k"0f{tf lbOPsf] 5 .
#= JofVof, ljZn]if0f / t'ngf
#=!= ;Gbe{
:gfts txdf cWoog/t ljBfyL{x?df k7g af]w Ifdtf ;DaGwL cWoogsf] JofVof / ljZn]if0fnfO{ a9L
j:t'ut / j}1flgs agfpg pQm tYofª\snfO{ k|ltzt u0fgf, dWodfg, dfgs ljrng / ljleGg rnx?sf
lar t'ngfTds ljZn]if0f nufotsf ;fª\lVosLo ljlwx?sf] pkof]u o;sf cGo pkzLif{sx?df s|dzM
ul/Psf] 5 .
#=@= k|ltztsf cfwf/df ;du| ljBfyL{sf] k7g af]w Ifdtfsf] ljZn]if0f
gd'gf 5gf]6 ul/Psf ljBfyL{af6 k|fKt k|fKtfª\s cg'';f/ ;du| k7g af]w Ifdtfsf] k|ltzt u0fgf ubf{ s'n
ljBfyL{ dWo] ) b]lv !) cª\s ;Dd k|fKt ug]{ ljBfyL{ % k|ltzt, !) b]lv @) cª\s Nofpg] ljBfyL{ #
k|ltzt, @) b]lv #) cª\s k|fKt ug]{ ljBfyL{ * k|ltzt, #) b]lv $) cª\s Nofpg] ljBfyL{ & k|ltzt,
$) b]lv %) cª\s kfpg] ljBfyL{ #) k|ltzt, %) b]lv ^) cª\s Nofpg] ljBfyL{ @^ k|ltzt, ^) b]
lv &) cª\s Nofpg] ljBfyL{ @) k|ltzt / &) b]lv *) cª\s Nofpg] ljBfyL{ ! k|ltzt /x]sf] kfOG5
. %) k|ltzt eGbf sd cª\s Nofpg] ljBfyL{ ;ª\Vof %@ /x]sf 5g\ eg] %) k|ltzt eGbf a9L cª\s
Nofpg] ljBfyL{ ;ª\Vof $* b]lvg'n] ;du| ljBfyL{x?sf] k7g af]w Ifdtf sdhf]/ g} /x]sf] kfpg ;lsG5 .
#=#= dWodfg / dfgs ljrngsf cfwf/df ;du| ljBfyL{x?sf] k7g af]w Ifdtfsf] l:ylt ljZn]if0f
;du| dfgs dWodfgeGbf tn dWodfgeGbf dfly
hDdf ;ª\Vof
dWodfg ljrng ;ª\Vof k|ltzt ;ª\Vof k|ltzt
!)) $^=& !*=& $! $! %( %(
dflysf] tflnsf cg';f/ k|ltlglw gd'gf 5gf]6df ;d]l6Psf s'n ljBfyL{x?sf] ;du| dWodfg $^=& 5 eg]
dfgs ljrng !*=& /x]sf] b]lvG5 .
;du| dWodfgnfO{ cfwf/ agfO{ x]bf{ dWodfgeGbf tn $! k|ltzt / dWodfg eGbf dfly %( k|ltzt /x]
sf] b]lvG5 . dflysf] tYofÍ cg';f/ dWodfg eGbf tn / dflysf] cGt/ k|ltzt !* /x]sf] kfOG5 . o;/L
dWodfgeGbf tn / dflysf] k|ltzt cGt/ sd b]lvPsfn] :gfts txdf cWoog/t ljBfyL{x?sf] k7g
af]w Ifdtf ;Gtf]ifhgs /x]sf] b]lvG5 . dfgs ljrng !* nfO{ cfwf/ dfGbf klg ljBfyL{x?sf] k7g af]
w Ifdtf /fd|} dfGg ;lsG5 .
51
#=$ ;du| dWodfg / dfgs ljrngsf cfwf/df ljBfyL{x?sf] k7g af]w Ifdtfsf] ;d"xut l:ylt
s"n ;du| ;du| dfgs ;d"xut dWodfgeGbf dfly dWodfgeGbf tn
;d"x
;ª\Vof dWodfg ljrng ;ª\Vof ;ª\Vof k|ltzt ;ª\Vof k|ltzt
lnª\u
5fq $) !* $% @@ %%
5fqf ^) @* $^=^^ #@ %#=##
!)) $^=& !*=& SofDk;sf] k|s[lt
;/sf/L %% @% $%=$% #) %$=%$
klAns $% @! $^=^^ @$ %#=##
pko{'Qm tflnsfdf ljBfyL{sf] s'n ;ª\Vof !)) hgf /x]sf] 5 . dWodfg $^=& / dfgs ljrng !*=& nfO{
cfwf/ agfO{ ljleGg ;d"xsf] ;d"xut k7g af]w Ifdtfsf] ljZn]if0f ubf{ lgDgfg';f/sf] kl/0ffd b]lvG5 M
dflysf] tflnsfdf b]vfP cg';f/ n}lËs ;d"xsf cfwf/df x]bf{ 5fqtkm{ $) hgf / 5fqftkm{ ^) hgf
ljBfyL{x? o; cWoogdf ;dfj]z ul/Psf] 5 . ;du| dWodfg $^=& nfO{ cfwf/ dfgL tYofª\ssf] ljZn]
if0f ubf{ 5fqtkm{ $% k|ltzt ljBfyL{ dWodfgeGbf dfly / %% k|ltzt ljBfyL{ dWodfgeGbf tn /x]sf] b]
lvG5 . ;du| dWodfgnfO{ cfwf/ dfGbf dWodfgeGbf dfly / dWodfg eGbf tnsf] k|ltztdf s]xL cGt/
ePsfn] 5fqx?sf] k7g af]w Ifdtf sdhf]/ g} /x]sf] kfOG5 . To;} u/L ;du| dWodfg $^=& nfO{ cfwf/
dfg]/ 5fqfx?sf] k7g af]w Ifdtf x]bf{ $^=^^ k|ltzt ljBfyL{x? dWodfgeGbf dfly / %#=## k|ltzt
ljBfyL{x? dWodfgeGbf tn /x]sf] b]lvG5 . o;/L dWodfgeGbf dfly / dWodfgeGbf tn s]xL cGt/
ePsfn] 5fqfx?sf] k7g af]w Ifdtf klg sdhf]/ g} /x]sf] b]lvG5 .
SofDk;sf] k|s[ltsf cfwf/df x]bf{ s'n ;ª\Vof !)) dWo] %% hgf ;/sf/L / $% hgf ljBfyL{x?
klAns SofDk;sf ;dfj]z ul/Psf 5g\ . klAns SofDk;tkm{ ;du| dWodfg $^=& nfO{ cfwf/ dfgL x]
bf{ dWodfgeGbf dfly $^=^^ / dWodfgeGbf tn %#=## /x]sf] kfOG5 . o;/L ;du| dWodfgsf cfwf/
df dWodfgeGbf dfly / tnsf] vf;} cGt/ gePsfn] klAns SofDk;sf ;du| ljBfyL{x?sf] k7g af]
w Ifdtf ;Gtf]ifhgs /x]sf] kfOG5 . To;}u/L ;/sf/L SofDk;sf %% hgf ljBfyL{dWo] ;du| dWodfg
$^=& nfO{ cfwf/ dfgL x]bf{ dWodfgeGbf dfly $%=$% k|ltzt / dWodfgeGbf tn %$=%$ k|ltzt /x]
sf] kfOG5 . o;/L dWodfgeGbf dfly sd ljBfyL{ / dWodfgeGbf tn s]xL a9L ljBfyL{ /x]sf] b]lvPsfn]
klAns SofDk;sf] :gfts txdf cWoog/t ljBfyL{x?eGbf ;/sf/L SofDk;sf] :gfts txdf cWoog/t
ljBfyL{x?sf] k7g af]w Ifdtf t'ngfTds ?kdf s]xL sdhf]/ /x]sf] kfOG5 .
$= pk;+xf/ cyf{t\ lgisif{ / ;'emfj
$=! lgisif{
cg';Gwfgdf JofVof ljZn]if0faf6 lgsflnPsf] lg0f{osf] lgrf]8nfO{ lgisif{sf ?kdf l:jsfl/G5 . lgisif{nfO{
clGtd kl/0ffdsf ?kdf klg o; cWoogsf qmddf kf]v/f p=d=g=kf= sf b'j} SofDk;sf lzIffzf:q ;ª\
52
sfo :gfts tx k|yd jif{df cWog/t !)) ljBfyL{df /x]sf] k7g af]w Ifdtfsf] cWoog ug{sf nflu
k|ZgfjnLsf ;xfotfn] k7g af]w Ifdtfsf] cWoog ul/Psf] 5 . cWoogaf6 k|fKt tYofª\ssf] ljleGg
cfwf/df ljZn]if0f u/L lgisif{ lgsflnPsf] 5 . JofVof ljZn]if0faf6 cfPsf tYox?sf] lgisif{nfO{ tn
k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 M
!= :gfts tx, lzIffzf:q cWoog ;+:yfg k|yd jif{df cWoog/t Pp6f ;/sf/L SofDk;sf %% hgf
ljBfyL{ / csf{] klAns SofDk;sf $% hgf ljBfyL{ u/L hDdf !)) hgf ljBfyL{x?df k7g af]
w Ifdtfsf] cWoog o; zf]wd"ns n]vdf ul/Psf] 5 .
@= cWoogcg';f/ k|ZgfjnL ljt/0f u/L k|fKt cª\ssf cfwf/df pgLx?n] Go"gtd cª\s $ /
clwstd cª\s &) k|fKt u/]sf 5g\, h;sf] k"0ff{ª\s !)) sfod ul/Psf] lyof] .
#= k|ltztdf u0fgf ubf{ klg )–!) cª\s k|fKt ug{] ljBfyL{x? % k|ltzt, !)–@) cª\s k|fKt ug{]
ljBfyL{x? # k|ltzt, @)–#) cª\s k|fKt ug{] ljBfyL{x? * k|ltzt, #)–$) cª\s k|fKt ug{]
ljBfyL{x? & k|ltzt, $)–%) cª\s k|fKt ug{] ljBfyL{x? #) k|ltzt, %)–^) cª\s k|fKt ug{]
ljBfyL{x? @^ k|ltzt, ^)–&) cª\s k|fKt ug{] ljBfyL{x? @) k|ltzt, &)–*) cª\s k|fKt ug{]
ljBfyL{ ;ª\Vof ! k|ltzt /x]sf] b]lvG5 .
$= k|ltztnfO{ t'ngfTds ?kdf x]bf{ klg Go"gtd k|ltzt k|fKt ug{] cyf{t\ ! k|ltzt k|fKt ug{] ljBfyL{
! hgf 5g\ eg] ;aeGbf a9L cyf{t\ #) k|ltzt ;ª\Vof $)–%) cª\s Nofpg]x?sf] b]lvG5 .
%= %) k|ltztnfO{ s]Gb|ljGb' dfgL ljZn]if0f ubf{ %@ k|ltzt ljBfyL{x? %) k|ltzteGbf sd cª\s
Nofpg]x? / $* k|ltzt ljBfyL{x?n] %) k|ltzteGbf a9L cª\s k|fKt u/]sfn] k|ltztsf
cfwf/df ;du| ljBfyL{x?sf] k7g af]w Ifdtf sdhf]/ /x]sf] kfOG5 .
^= ;du| ljBfyL{x?sf] ;du| dWodfgsf cfwf/df k7g af]w Ifdtfsf] dfkg ubf{ dWodfg $^=&
cfPsf] / dWodfgeGbf dfly %( k|ltzt ljBfyL{ / dWodfgeGbf tn $! k|ltzt /xg' ;fy} tn
/ dflysf] cGt/ !* k|ltzt /xg'n] :gfts txdf cWoog/t ljBfyL{sf] kg7 af]w Ifdtf ;Gtf]
ifhgs dfGg ;lsG5 .
&= :gfts txdf gd'gf 5gf}6 ul/Psf ;du| ljBfyL{x?sf] ;d"xut dfgs ljrng !*=& b]lvg'n] pQm
txdf cWoog/t ljBfyL{x?sf] k7g af]w Ifdtfdf w]/} cGt/ kfOFb}g, /fd|} dfGg ;lsG5 .
*= n}lËs ;d"xsf cfwf/df x]bf{ ;du| ljBfyL{ dWo] 5fq ;ª\Vof $) /x]sf]df ;du| dWodfg
$^=& nfO{ cfwf/ dfgL tYofª\ssf] ljZn]if0f ubf{ 5fqtkm{ $% k|ltzt ljBfyL{ dWodfg eGbf
dfly / %% k|ltzt ljBfyL{ dWodfgeGbf tn /x]sf] b]lvG5 . ;du| dWodfgnfO{ cfwf/ dfGbf
dWodfgeGbf dfly / dWodfgeGbf tnsf] k|ltztdf cGt/ ePsfn] 5fqx?sf] k7g af]w Ifdtf
sdhf]/ g} /x]sf] kfOG5 .
(= gd'gf 5gf}6df k/]sf !)) hgf ljBfyL{dWo] 5fqf;ª\Vof ^) sf] k7g af]w Ifdtf kQf nufpFbf
53
;du| dWodfg $^=& nfO{ cfwf/ dfGbf $^=^^ k|ltzt ljBfyL{x? dWodfgeGbf dfly / %#=##
k|ltzt ljBfyL{x? dWodfgeGbf tn /x]sf] b]lvG5 . dWodfgeGbf dfly / tnsf] cGt/ ^=^&
k|ltztdf cGt/ ePsfn] 5fqfx?sf] k7g af]w Ifdtf klg sdhf]/ g} /x]sf] kfOG5 .
!)= t'ngfTds ?kdf pko{'Qm tYofª\ssf cfwf/df 5fq ljBfyL{sf] t'ngfdf :gfts txdf cWoog/t
5fqf ljBfyL{sf] k7g af]w Ifdtf s]xL /fd|f] b]lvG5; ;fy} b'O{ cª\s larsf] dWodfgsf] cGt/n]
klg ;f]xL s'/f :ki6 kfb{5 .
!!= dxfljBfno cyf{t\ SofDk;sf] k|s[ltsf cfwf/df cWoog ljZn]if0f ubf{ klg gd'gf 5gf}6df k/]
sf s"n ljBfyL{dWo] ;/sf/L SofDk; -k[YjL gf/fo0f ax'd'vL SofDk;_ af6 %% hgf ljBfyL{ /
klAns SofDk; -hglk|o ax'd'vL SofDk;_ af6 $% hgf ljBfyL{ lnOPsf]df ljZn]if0fsf cfwf/
df klAns SofDk;sf] :gfts txdf cWoog/t ljBfyL{x?eGbf ;/sf/L SofDk;sf] :gfts
txdf cWoog/t ljBfyL{x?sf] k7g af]w Ifdtf t'ngfTds ?kdf sdhf]/ /x]sf] kfOG5 .
$=@ ;'emfj
æ:gfts txdf cWoog/t ljBfyL{x?sf] k7g af]w Ifdtfsf] cWoogÆ zLif{sdf ul/Psf] zf]wd"ns n]
vaf6 k|fKt lgisif{sf cfwf/df lgDglnlvt ;'emfjx? k|:t't ul/Psf] 5M
!= k7g af]w Ifdtf eflifs af]w Ifdtf ljsf;sf nflu clgjfo{ kIf ePsfn] sIff lzIf0fdf k7g
af]w ;DaGwL sfo{snfknfO{ dxŒjsf ;fy ;dfj]z ug{' k5{ .
@= :gfts txsf ljBfyL{x?df k7g af]w Ifdtf j[l4sf nflu pgLx?sf] :t/ jf tx, cfjZostf,
kf7\oqmdsf] p2]Zo, ?lr, Ifdtf cg';f/sf kf7\oqmd, kf7\o k':ts tyf k"/s ;fdu|Lx?sf] lgdf{0f
/ k|of]udf clwstd Wofg lbg' cfjZos 5 .
#= :gfts txdf cWoog/t ljBfyL{x?sf] k7g af]w Ifdtf sdhf]/ b]lvg'sf] d'Vo sf/0f a]jf:tf,
k9fOnfO{ cf+lzs ?kdf ;do lbOg' / 3f]s]/ hfFrsf nflu tof/L ug{] k|j[lQ x'gfn] o:tf
;d:ofk|lt ljBfyL{x?nfO{ ;r]t agfO{ k7gaf]wsf] hun] cleJolQm IfdtfnfO{ alnof] agfpF5
eGg] wf/0ffsf] ljsf; u/fpg' k5{ .
$= k7gaf]wdf 5fqx?eGbf 5fqfx? t'ngfTds ?kdf /fd|f b]lvg' /fd|} kIf eP tfklg 5fqx?n] ;d]
t pRr dgf]ansf ;fy k9fOnfO{ dxŒj lbFb} w}o{k"j{s a'em]/ k9\g], k9] cg';f/ k|Zgsf] pQ/ lbg],
;fwgf, cEof; / lg/Gt/ nufjsf] kmn:j?k k7g af]w Ifdtfdf ;kmn eO{ eflifs eljio /fd|f]
x'G5 eGg]df 5fq5fqf b'a} ;r]t eO{ :jod\ hfu?stfsf ;fy k7g af]wtkm{ s]lGb|t x'g' k5{ .
%= ;/sf/L SofDk;df cWoog/t ljBfyL{eGbf klAns SofDk;df cWoog/t ljBfyL{x?sf] k7g af]
w Ifdtf s]xL /fd|f] b]lvg'n] lg/Gt/ cWoog cWofkg, sd /fhgLtLs/0f, lg/Gt/ d"Nofª\sg, k7g
af]wsf nflu kf7\o k':ts, ;Gbe{ k':ts, kq klqsf, cflbsf] kof{Kttfh:tf sf/s kIf /x]sfn]
;/sf/L SofDk;x?df klg o:tf kIfx?sf] ;xh pknAwtfsf] jftfj/0f ePdf k7g af]w Ifdtfdf
;dfg / ;'wf/ x'g ;Sg] b]lvG5 .
54
^= g]kfnL efiffnfO{ x]nTj ug{] k/Dk/f, :jod\ ljBfyL{sf] pbfl;gtf, cln cln k9] klg ;lhn}
kf; ug{ ;lsG5 eGg] wf/0ff, sIffdf lzIf0f ubf{ klg lzIfsn] k7g af]w v08nfO{ cWoog ug{
ljBfyL{nfO{ g} nufO{ cfkm" d'Qm x'g vf]Hg] rng h:tf kIfn] klg ljBfyL{x?df k7g af]w Ifdtfsf]
ljsf;df sdL cfPsfn] o:tf kIfdf kof{Kt ;'wf/ Nofpg' kg{] b]lvG5 .
&= k7g af]wnfO{ s]jn k9fO;Fu dfq ;DalGwt g7fgL of] ;'gfO, af]nfO / n]vfO;Fu klg cGt;{DalGwt
x'G5g\ eGg] 1fg / wf/0ff lzIfs ljBfyL{ b'a}df a:g' k5{ / ;f]xL cg';f/ k7g af]wnfO{ Ps sflns
efiff lzIf0fsf l;4fGtsf ?kdf lzIf0f ul/g' k5{ .
*= :gfts txdf cWoog/t ljBfyL{x?df k7g af]w Ifdtfsf] ljsf;sf nflu k7g af]wsf] dd{ /
clek|fo a'em]sf tflnd k|fKt cyf{t\ Pd=P8= lzIfsaf6 k9fOg' kg{], To;f] gePdf cGo g]kfnL
ljifo lzIfs / ljBfyL{nfO{ ;do ;dodf k|lzIf0f, tflnd tyf cled'vLs/0f sfo{zfnfsf
dfWodaf6 k7g af]w Ifdtfdf ;'wf/ Nofpg ;lsG5 .
cfef/ 1fkg
n3' cg';Gwfg sfo{sf nflu zf]w lgb]{zssf ?kdf /x]/ tyf o; zf]wd"ns n]vsf] kl/isf/;Ddsf] uxg
e"ldsfdf a;]/ cd"No ;xof]u ug{' x'g] cfb/0fLo u'¿ ;xk|fWofks 8f= lji0f' k|;fb kf}8]nk|lt cGt/ cfTdfb]
lv g} cfef/ k|s6 ub{5' .
To:t} dnfO{ of] zf]w ug]{ cj;/ k|bfg ug]{ hglk|o ax'd'vL SofDk;sf] cg';Gwfg tyf k/fdz{ ;ldltk|lt
klg xflb{s s[t1tf JoQm ub{5' .
;Gbe{ ;fdu|L ;"rL
clwsf/L, x]dfª\u /fh -@)%#_= g]kfnL efiff lzIf0f, sf7df8f}+ M s'~hn k|sfzg .
uf}td, b]jL k|;fb / nfnfgfy ;'j]bL -@)^%_= af]w, a'Fbf l6kf]6 / ;ª\If]kLs/0f lzIf0f, :gfts tx clgjfo{ g]kfnL kf7\oqmd
cled'vLs/0f uf]i7L_ -@)^%–!!–!* k[=gf=Sof= kf]v/f_ df k|:t't sfo{kq .
uf}td, /fd k|;fb -@)^!_= eflifs cg';Gwfg ljlw, sf7df8f}+ M bLIffGt k':ts e08f/ .
hj/f :jod\ k|sfz / cGo -@)%*_= lzIffdf dfkg / d"Nofª\sg, sf7df8f}|+ M ljBfyL{ k':ts e08f/ .
1jfnL, s[i0f k|;fb -@)^#_= sIff !) df cWoog/t ljBfyL{x?sf] k7g af]w Ifdtfsf] cWoog, :gftsf]Q/ zf]wkq lq=lj=,
sLlt{k'/ .
aGw', r"8fdl0f -@)%@_= cg';Gwfg tyf k|ltj]bg n]vg, sf7df8f}+ M /Tg k':ts e08f/ .
e§/fO{, /fd k|;fb -@)^^_= æeflifs cg';Gwfgdf k|ZgfjnLsf] pkof]uÆ ;Dk|]if0f -cª\s ^_ ;Dk|]if0f k/jf/, g]kfnL efiff
lzIff ljefu, lq=lj= sLlt{k'/ .
e08f/L, kf/; dl0f / nfld5fg] ofbj k|sfz -@)^&_= ;fwf/0f g]kfnL, sf7df8f}+ M ljBfyL{ k':ts e08f/ .
e08f/L, kf/; dl0f , cf]emf /fdgfy / cGo -@)^*_= g]kfnL efiff lzIf0f, sf7df8f}+ M lkgfsn klAns];g .
zdf{, s]bf/ k|;fb / kf}8]n, dfwj -@)^)_= g]kfnL efiff / ;flxTo lzIf0f, sf7df8f}+ M Go' lx/f a'S; OG6/k|fOh]h .
55
kl/lzi6–!
:gfts txdf cWoog/t ljBfyL{x?df k7g af]w Ifdtfsf] cWoog

k|ZgfjnL
ljBfyL{sf] gfd M tx M :gfts k|yd jif{
SofDk;sf] gfd M /f]n g+= M
7]ufgf M ljifo M g]kfnL lzIff
c_ tnsf] uBf+z k9L cGTodf ;f]lwPsf af]w k|Zgx?sf] 5f]6f]5l/tf] pQ/ lbg'xf];\ . %×%Ö@%
Goflos :jtGqtf nf]stflGqs Joj:yfsf] ckl/xfo{ tŒj xf] . gful/s clwsf/ /Iffsf
nflu d'n'sdf sfg'gL zf;g sfod /fVgsf nflu ;+j}wflgs cª\ux?sf] lardf x'g] ljjfbx?sf]
zflGtk"0f{ ;dfwfg ug{sf nflu / ;+j}wflgs ;jf{]Rrtfsf] k|Tofe"ltsf nflu /fHodf Pp6f ;zQm
Pjd\ t6:y cª\usf] cfjZostf kg{] ePsf]n] g} :jtGq Gofokflnsfsf] cjwf/0ff hlGdPsf] xf] .
hgtfsf] t'ngfdf /fHo hlxn] klg anjfg\ / x'G5 . ljwflosf;Fu /fHosf] 9's'6L kl/rfngsf]
zlQm x'G5 . sfo{kflnsf;Fu ePsf] zlQmn] hgtf bdgdf kg{] x'g ;S5 . To:tf] zlQm;Fu lgxTyf
hgtf n8\g ;Sb}gg\ . To;}n] /fHozlQmnfO{ g} k|of]u u/]/ hgtfsf] clwsf/ /Iff ul/g' kb{5
eGg] dfGotf cg'?k :jtGq Gofokflnsfsf] cjwf/0ff ljsl;t ePsf] xf] . GofokflnsfnfO{
sfo{kflnsf jf ljwflosfsf] cfb]z tfd]n ug{] lgsfosf ?kdf dfq kl/sNkgf ug{ vf]lhof]
eg] gful/ssf clwsf/x? ;'/lIft x'g ;Sb}gg\ . k/lge{/, lgb{]lzt / s7k'tnL Gofokflnsfn]
hgtfsf] xslxt ;+/If0f ug{ ;Sb}g . To;}n] hgtfnfO{ /fHozlQmsf] b'¿kof]uaf6 x'g hfg]
;Defljt vt/faf6 arfpg GofokflnsfnfO{ :jtGq /flvg' k5{ eGg] dfGotf :yflkt ePsf] xf] .
/fHozlQmsf] b'¿kof]u / lg/ª\s'ztfsf] cGTo ug{] klxnf] pkfo /fHosf cª\ux? larsf]
zlQm k[ysLs/0f g} xf] . zlQm k[ysLs/0fn] dfq klg kof{Kt gx'g] ePsfn] To;nfO{ sfo{of]
Uo agfpg lgoGq0f / ;Gt'ng agfO{ /fVg cfjZos x'G5 . /fHosf tLg cª\u sfo{kflnsf,
Gofokflnsf / Joj:yflksfsf lardf zlQm k[ysLs/0f / ;Gt'ngsf] ;kmn cEof; b'O{ ;o
afO; jif{ nfdf] cd]l/sL ;+j}wflgs Oltxf; 5 . nf]stflGqs zf;g Joj:yf ePsf ljZjsf
k|d'v d'n'sx? nufot gaf]lbt k|hftflGqs d'n'sn] klg o; dfGotfnfO{ cfTd;ft\ ub{} cfPsf]
kfOG5 . zlQm k[ysLs/0f / ;Gt'ng k|hftGqsf] clgjfo{ tŒj xf] . cd]l/sL ;+ljwfg eGbf kl5
ag]sf] k|mfG;sf] !&(! sf] ;+ljwfgn] zlQm k[ysLs/0f u/L ;Gt'ng sfod ug{ g;Sbf c;kmn
ePsf] pbfx/0f vf]lh /xg' kb{}g .
56
!= af]w k|Zgx?
s_ ;a}eGbf klxn] nf]stflGqs ;+ljwfg slxn] ag]sf] lyof] <
v_ :jtGq Gofokflnsfsf k|d'v sfo{x? s] s] x'g\ <
u_ zlQm k[ysLs/0f eg]sf] s] xf] <
3_ /fHo ;~rfngsf] nflu zlQm k[ysLs/0f lsg cfjZos 5 <
ª_ o; uBf+zsf] pko'Qm zLif{s s] x'g ;S5 <
@= dfly plNnlvt uBf+zaf6 zAb e08f/ / Jofs/0f;DaGwL lgDglnlvt k|Zgx?sf] pQ/
lbg'xf];\ . %×%=@%
s_ cy{ n]Vg'xf];\ M lgxTyf, ljwflosf
v_ k|s[lt–k|Too 5'6\ofpg'xf];\ M lgb{]lzt, gful/s .
u_ ;df;sf] gfd atfpg'xf];\ M s7k'tnL, xslxt
3_ zAbju{ 5'6\ofpg'xf];\ M :jtGqtf, nufot
ª_ cg'R5]bsf] clGtd jfSo ;/n, ld> jf ;+o'Qm s'g xf] <
cf_ tnsf] cg'R5]b k9L To;af6 d'Vo d'Vo kfFr a'Fbf l6Kg'xf];\ . %)
ul/aL g]kfnsf] r'gf}tLk"0f{ hl6n ;d:of xf] . ckf/ k|fs[lts ;Dkbf / pNn]vgLo
;fF:s[lts j}ejn] o'Qm eP/ klg xfdL g]kfnLx? ul/aLs} sf/0f ljZjs} k5f}6] dfgj ;d'bfodf
ulgFb} cfPsf 5f}+ . cem} klg Olyof]lkof h:tf] u[xo'4 / ef]sd/Ln] hh{l/t /fi6«sf] xf/fxf/Ldf
u0fgf x'g' lgZro g} xfdL g]kfnLx?sf] >flkt lgolt / b'ef{Uo xf] . ul/aLsf] sf/0f of] /fi6«n]
y'k|} k|ltefzfnL ;Gtltx?nfO{ kfNg ;ls /x]sf] 5}g . cj;/ / d"Nofª\sgsf cefjdf k|ltef
knfogsf] kL8fn] xfd|f ;r]t dl:tisdf xyf}8f lxsf{O /x]sf] 5, t/ klg xfdL afWotfjz oL ;a}
kL8f lkO /x]sf 5f}+ / rkfO /x]sf 5f}+ . k|fs[lts ;Dkbfn] o'Qm eP/ klg ul/aLsf] rmqm Jo"xaf6
plDsg g;ls /x]sf] g]kfnn] xfd\f] c;Gt'li6 ;fDo ug{ g;Sg' k|:t't b[i6fGt hlQs} :jfefljs xf] .
o;sf nflu of] b]zsf r]tgzLn gful/s xfdL cfkm}+ ul/aL;Fu n8]/ jfT;NodoL g]kfn cfdfsf]
bf]xg ug{ ;Sg' k5{ . jf:tjdf olta]nf xfdL lar ljBdfg å]if, lju|x Pjd\ dtleGgtfsf kmnfd]
c+s'zx? r'F8fn]/ b]zljsf; / ul/aL lgjf/0fsf] xft]dfnf]df cfa4 x'g] ;fd"lxs r'gf}tL xfdL
;fd' ljBdfg 5 . d'n'saf6 ul/aL x6fpg'sf] cy{ s'g} rdTsf/ ug{' xf]Og . To;sf nflu xfdLn]
oxfF ljBdfg k|fs[lts ;Dkbfsf] bf]xg ug{ ;Sg' kb{5 / of] cleofgnfO{ cfh}b]lv ;'? ug{' kb{5 .
o;sf nflu k|To]s gful/sdf ;dk{0f / Pstfsf] vfFrf] 5 . ul/aL lj?4 ;/sf/n] cufl8 ;fg{]
k|To]s of]hgfdf kfOnfdf kfOnf ldnfP/ cufl8 a9\of}+ eg] xfd|f] 3/ cfFugdf ;'vsf] lbof] ;lNsg
a]/ nfUg] 5}g .
57
Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) g]kfnL pkGof;df gf/L kfqx?sf]…
g]kfnL pkGof;df gf/L kfqx?sf] gf/LjfbL ljb|f]xL :j/

-!((!–@)@) ;fn;Dd_
lji0f' k|;fb kf}8]n
;f/
;flxTosf] nf]slk|o ljwf pkGof;df ;dfhsf ljleGg ;d:ofx?sf] ulx/f] lg/LIf0f u/L
To;sf] snfTds k|ltkfbg ug{] k|rng 5 . o; cg'?k lkt[ ;TtfTds g]kfnL ;dfhdf
gf/Lx?sf k|z:t Joyfdo syf b]lvPsf 5g\ / ltgnfO{ @)@) ;fn;Ddsf g]kfnL
pkGof;x?df klg k|z:t} :yfg lbOPsf] 5 . o:tf sltko pkGof;df gf/LkL8f dfq}
geO{ kL8sk|lt gf/Lx?sf] ljb|f]xL :j/ klg k|:t't ul/Psf] kfOG5 . ltg} pkGof;x?sf]
oxf“ ljleGg zLif{sdf s|dzM cWoog u/L lgisif{ lgsflnPsf] 5 . o; cg';f/ ‘e|d/’,
‘:jf:gLdfG5]’ / ‘cg'/fwf’sf s|dzM dfof, d}of“gfgL / cg'/fwf gf/L kfqx? gf/LjfbL
ljb|f]xL :j/ k|If]k0fsf b[li6n] a9L dxTTjsf b]lvPsf 5g\ . logn] gf/Ljfbsf km/s km/s
k|sf/sf] ;d]t k|ltlglwTj ub{5g\ . oLdWo] klg ‘e|d/’sL dfofaf6} gf/LjfbL ljb|f]xL :j/sf]
yfngL ePsf] 5 / of] pbf/ gf/Ljfb cg'?ksf] 5 . o;nfO{ g} o; ;dosf cTolws
pkGof;x?n] cg';/0f klg u/]sf 5g\ . dfofs} rl/qsf] km/s 9ª\udf u'0ffTds ljsf;
kl5Nnf] ‘cg'/fwf’ pkGof;sL cg'/fwfdf ePsf] 5 .
d'Vo zAbx? M gf/LjfbL g]kfnL pkGof;, gf/LjfbL ljb|f]x, ljb|f]xL :j/, gf/L kfq, pbf/ gf/Ljfb,
dfS;{jfbL gf/Ljfb, cl:tTjjfb, e|d/, :jf:gLdfG5], cg'/fwf .
!= k[i7e"ld
pkGof; ;flxTosf] gjLg / a9L nf]s lk|o ljwf dflgG5 . g]kfnL ;flxTodf klg of] clxn] w]/} n]lvg]
/ kl9g] ljwfs} ?kdf lrlgb}“ cfPsf] 5 . of] ;dfh / hLjg;“u Psbd} lgs6 /xg] x'“bf o'u hLjgk|lt
;r]t kf7sx?sf] o;df ljz]if cfsif{0f /x]sf] kfOG5 . g]kfnL pkGof; !((! ;fnaf6} g]kfnL ;dfh /
hLjgsf] ljifo j:t'df s]lGb|t x'“b} cfPsf] b]lvG5 . o;n] g]kfnL ;dfh / hLjgsf ljljw /x:ox?nfO{
snfTdstfsf ;fy lnlka4 ub}{ cfPsf] 5 . æ;flxTo ;dfhsf] bk{0f xf]Æ eGg] sygnfO{ o;n] w]/} xb;Dd
k'li6 u/]sf] kfOG5 .
g]kfnL ;dfh lkt[;Ttf k|wfg 5 . oxf“sf ;fdflhs, ;f+:s[lts, wfld{s, z}lIfs, cfly{s, /fhgLlts h:tf
cg]s If]qdf k'?ifsf] gf/Lk|ltsf] k|e'Tj b]Vg ;lsG5 . ;do s|ddf To; l:yltdf s]xL ;'wf/ x'“b} cfP klg
kof{Kt ;'wf/sf] l:ylt eg] cem} klg b]lv ;lsPsf] 5}g . of] ;d:of klZrddf klg g/x]sf] xf]Og . gf/L
lj/f]wL sd{ Toxf“ ;'?df k|z:t lyof] / g} gf/Lx?n] To;sf lj?4 ;ª\ul7t eP/ k|lt/f]w klg u/] . To;df
58
Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) 8f= lji0f' k|;fb kf}8]n
;r]t, lzlIft / dfgjtfjfbL k'?ifx?n] klg pgLx?nfO{ kof{Kt ;3fP . kmntM gf/L lje]bsf w]/} ;d:of
Toxf“ l56} ;dfwfg eP . hxf“af6 gf/LjfbL cfGbf]ng yfngL ePsf] lyof] cfh Toxf“ of] k|;ª\u g} ck|f;flª\
us h:tf] eP klg xfdL sxf“ eg] of] ;d:of cem} 68\sf/f] cj:yfdf /x]sf] 5 . sfg'gL tyf gLltut ;'wf/
eg] xfdL sxf“ klg w]/} g} ePsf] 5 t/ Jojxf/df nfu' eg] Tolt x'g ;s]sf] 5}g . clxn] klg /fhwfgLd}
gf/LnfO{ af]S;Lsf] cf/f]kdf cf“vf kmf]g]{, d/0ff;Gg cj:yfdf k'¥ofpg] h:tf r/d s|"/ Jojxf/ u/]sf 36gfx?
a]nfa]]nfdf 5fkfdf cfO /x]sf x'G5g\ . cfh klg g]kfnL gf/Lx? 3/]n' lx+;f, ;fj{hlgs If]qdf ;Gqf;,
wfld{s, ;f+:s[lts If]qdf pk]Iff, cfly{s / z}lIfs If]qdf cj;/sf] Go"gtf, 3/]n' wGbfd} ;Lldt /fVg] kl/kf6L
h:tf cg]sg ;d:ofdf clNemPsf 5g\ . g]kfnL ;dfhsf] lkt[;Ttfsf] ulx/f] / dha't ;~hfnnfO{ g]kfnL
gf/Lx?n] /fd|f];“u lsgf/f nufpg ;ls /x]sf 5}gg\ . oxL lkt[;Ttf / gf/Ljfbsf] åGåfTds kl/l:yltnfO{
g]kfnL sltko pkGof;df !((! af6} k|ToIf / ck|ToIf ?kdf b]vfP/ gf/L ;dfgtfsf] :j/nfO{ kf]if0f ug{] sfd
x'“b} cfPsf] 5 . ;'?sf eGbf kl5Nnf pkGof;x?df of] kIf cem ;3g aGb} cfpg' :jfefljs g} xf] lsgeg]
;dfhdf gf/L lzIff a9L ;an aGb} hf“bf lzlIft gf/Lx?n] cfk"mk|lt x'g] u/]sf] o:tf] cdfgjLo lje]bnfO{
cem ;zSt ?kdf lj/f]w klg ub}{ cfPsf 5g\ . ;flxTodf b]lvPsf] pQ/ cfw'lgstfjfbL cfGbf]ngsf] Pp6f
dxTTjk"0f{ kIf pk]lIft, ;LdfGtLs[t, ;d:ofu|:t jf s]Gb|eGbf aflx/ kfl/Psf ;d'bfok|ltsf] ljz]if nufa x'g'
xf] . o;n] klg xfd|f] h:tf] lkt[;Ttf k|wfg ePsf] ;dfhsf cfVofgsf/x?nfO{ gf/LjfbL n]vg ug{ a9L k|]l/t
u/]sf] kfOG5 . oxL k[i7e"lddf !((! b]lv @)@) ;fn;Ddsf g]kfnL sltko pkGof;x?sf gf/L kfqx?n]
gf/LjfbL ljb|f]xL :j/ ;~rf/ ub}{ k|s6 ePsf 5g\ . o; n]vdf ltg}sf] ;ª\If]kdf n]vfhf]vf ul/Psf] 5 .
@= ;d:of syg
lkt[;Ttf k|wfg g]kfnL ;dfhdf gf/L lj/f]wL sd{x? ;dfhsf ljleGg If]q;“u ;Da4 eP/ k|s6 ePsf
5g\ . g]kfnL gf/Lx?df k|ToIf To;sf] df/df kl/ /x]sf] kfOG5 . To;nfO{ sltko lg/If/, ljkGg / lg/Lx
gf/Lx?n] Psf]xf]/f] ;x]/ a;]sf x'G5g\ . hlt g} kL8f ;xg' k/] klg pgLx?;“u lj/f]w ug]{ cfTdan x'“b}g
t/ sltkon] eg] To;sf] lemg} :j/df eP klg lj/f]w u/]sf] kfOG5 . To:t} ;r]t / lzlIft gf/Lx?n] eg]
cfk"mk|lt ePsf] cdfgjLotfnfO{ 68\sf/f] 9ª\udf lj/f]w u/]sf] klg kfOG5 . ;dfhsf] o:tf] k|ltlaDanfO{
@)@) ;fn;Ddsf g]kfnL pkGof;x?df s] s;/L k|If]k0f ul/Psf] 5 eGg] s'/fsf] n]vfhf]vf jf dfkg ug'{
g} o; n]vsf] d'Vo ;d:of xf] . To;}n]
s= g]kfnL efiffsf @)@) ;fn;Ddsf gf/LjfbL ljb|f]xL :j/ k|:t't ug{] dxTTjk"0f{ pkGof;x? s'g s'g
x'g\ <
v= ltgdf gf/LjfbL ljb|f]xL :j/sf] k|If]k0f s'g s'g gf/L kfqn] u/]sf 5g\ < /
u= ltgsf] gf/LjfbL ljb|f]xL :j/ s] s:tf] :j?ksf] 5 / To;nfO{ gf/Ljfbsf] s'g k|sf/df /fVg
;lsG5< eGg] s'/fx?sf] 5fglag u/L lgisif{ k|:t't ug'{ o; n]vsf d'Vo ;d:of ag]sf 5g\ .
59
#= p2]Zo syg
lkt[;Ttf k|wfg g]kfnL ;dfhdf gf/L ;dtfsf] cfsfª\Iff /fvL gf/LjfbL ljb|f]xL :j/ k|:t't ug{] @)@)
;fn;Ddsf g]kfnL pkGof;sf gf/L kfqx?sf] ljb|f]xL gf/LjfbL :j/sf] n]vfhf]vf ug'{ g} o; n]vsf] d'Vo
p2]Zo xf] . To;}n]
s= g]kfnLsf @)@) ;fn;Ddsf gf/LjfbL ljb|f]xL :j/ k|:t't ug{] dxTTjk"0f{ pkGof;x? k}Nofpg],
v= ltgdf gf/LjfbL ljb|f]xL :j/ k|:t't ug]{ gf/L kfqx? lgwf{/0f ug]{, /
u= ltgn] k|:t't u/]sf] gf/LjfbL ljb|f]xL :j/nfO{ cWoog ljZn]if0f u/]/ tL s] s:tf gf/LjfbL k|sf/sf
?kdf /x]sf 5g\ eGg] s'/fx?sf] lgwf{/0f ug'{ g} o; n]vsf pb\b]Zo ag]sf 5g\ cyf{t\ ;d:of
sygdf cfPsf s'/fx?sf] ;dfwfg k}Nofpg' g} o; n]vsf vf; p2]Zo x'g\ .
$= cWoog ljlw
o; zf]wd"ns n]vdf cfPsf ;d:ofx?sf] cWoog ubf{ pkGof; l;4fGt / gf/LjfbL ;flxlTos l;4fGtnfO{
d"n cfwf/ dflgPsf] 5 . :yflkt l;4fGtsf cfwf/df ul/g] cg';Gwfg ePsf] x'b“ f of] n]v d"ntM lgudgfTds
-Deductive_ zf]wljlwdf cfwfl/t 5 . o;df ;fdu|L ;ª\sng k':tsfno ljlwaf6 ul/Psf] 5 .
%= d"n ljifosf] cWoog / ljZn]if0f

!((! b]lv @)@) ;fn;Dd g]kfnL efiffdf n]lvPsf pkGof;x?sf] k|f/lDes cGj]if0f ubf{ g} bh{gf}F
pkGof;x? n]lvPsf kfOG5g\ . tfklg gf/LjfbL ljb|f]xL :j/ k|s6 ug]{ gf/L rl/q ePsf pkGof; vf]Hbf
nueu b'O{ bh{g hlt pkGof; b]lvG5g\ . tLdWo] ?kdtL -!((!_, e|d/ -!((@_, piff -!((%_, k|folZrTt
-!((%_, of}jgsf] cfFwL -!((^_, k|]d -@))%_, j;GtL -@))^_, dft[Tj / wd{ k':ts -@))&_, sf] c5't
< -@)!!_, :jf:gLdfG5] -@)!!_, nug -@)!@_, ;To ;Gb]z / ljwjf hLjg -@)!#_, 8fs a+unf -@)!$_,
dg -@)!%_, zflGt -@)!%_, ;dosf] x'/L -@)!%_, kNnf] 3/sf] ‰ofn -@)!^_, Ps lrxfg -@)!&_ /
cg'/fwf -@)!*_ pkGof;x? s]xL a9L dxTTjsf b]lvPsfn] o; cWoogsf] 5gf]6df k/]sf 5g\ . tn log}
pkGof;sf gf/L kfqx?sf] gf/LjfbL ljb|f]xL :j/sf] j|mdzM ;ª\lIfKt cg'zLng ul/Psf] 5 .
g]kfnL pkGof;df ;fdflhs hLjg ;Gbe{nfO{ g} d"n ljifo agfP/ To;sf] oyfy{k/s k|:t'lt lbg] sfd
k|ydtM ?kdtL pkGof;n] u/]sf] b]lvG5 . of] cfb{zjfbL b[li6sf]0fdf cfwfl/t ;fdflhs pkGof; ePsfn]
o;df gf/L ;d:ofx? k|z:t b]lvPsf 5g\ -kf}8]n, @)^( M !%)–%$_ tfklg ltgsf] k|ToIf k|lt/f]w oxf“
x'“b} gePsf] t xf]Og, 5 t/ To:tf] k|lt/f]w cfj]uL / cy{xLg l;4 ul/Psf] 5 . pkGof;df cg]s lgx'“ vf]hL
vf]hL a'xf/Ldfly zf;g ug]{ / To;}nfO{ cfˆgf] kf}/v 7fgL ;f;" d08nLdf ;uj{ aofg ug]{ a/fn k'qLsL
;f;" kl08ltgL aHo}n] a/fn k'qLnfO{ df;' rf]/]/ vfg] ;ls{gL h:tf cfIf]k nufp“bf p;n] ;f;"s} cufl8
uP/ eg]sL 5–
s'g t]/f afa'n] l3Rof] P, kflkgL a'9L < p;} kmTt'/ kf] nfp“bL /lx5, P Û tfNrf df/]/
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e08f/leq /fv]sf] vfO{ eGg s;/L ;s]sL < t} /fIf:gL a'9Lsf] ;DklTt vfg' k5{
ca Û d geP t ;+;f/} c8\b}g eg]/ wfs nufp“bL /lx5, 3f]s|fP/ bf]af6f]df k'¥ofP/ cfp“nf
/ yfxf kfpnL a'9Ln] -k[=*(_ .
o;kl5 ‘;ls{gL’ sf] cfIf]k nufPsL ;f;"nfO{ a/fn k'qLn] e't]Ng} k'u]sL 5 / h]7fh'' cfPsf] b]v]kl5 dfq}
5f8]/ eg]sL 5– æ5]/fp6Ln] nfg g;s]sL a'9L b]lv;\, eP gePsf] abgfd ubf{v]l/ s:tf] :jfb kfOg] /x]5
-k[=*(_ <Æ
lgZro g} !((! ;fn k"j{sf] kl/j]zsf a'xf/L gf/Lx?df of] :t/sf] k|ltzf]wL dfgl;stf / Jojxf/ lgs}
pNn]vgLo t 5 t/ pkGof;sf] lgdf{0f o;sf]0faf6 ul/Psf] 5}g . oxf“ t æ;x' ;x' ;x' afa' ;xg} g;s]
klg .Æ eGg] cfbz{ :yflkt ug{ vf]lhPsf] 5 . ?kdtL To:t} ;xgzLn ag]/ cGTodf ljhoL ePsL 5 t/
a/fn k'qL c;xgzLn / pTtfpnL eP/ kl5 lanvaGbdf kg'{ k/]sf] b]vfOPsf] 5 . Tolt dfq} xf]Og ltg}
;f;"sf] kfp ;dft]/ dfkm dfUg' k/]sf] cj:yf b]vfP/ To:tf] c3]{NofO s;}n] gu/f];\ eGg] ;Gb]z ;~rf/ ug{
vf]lhPsf] 5 t/ oxf“ csf]{ kIf klg 5 Tof] s] eg] olb a/fn k'qLsf] To:tf] k|ltzf]w k"0f{ Jojxf/ gx'“bf]
xf] t ;f;" / h]7fh' -?kdtLsf] nf]Ug] 5ljnfn_ b'a} ;xgzLn ?kdtLk|lt klg p:t} lgb{oL alg /xGy] .
To;}n] Pp6f clt /f]Sg csf]{ cltn] sfd t u/]sf] 5 t/ a/fn k'qL :jo+ sfdrf]/, cJofjxfl/s, df}sf kbf{
nfdf]xft ug]{, ljnf;L, 3d08L / :jfFª] x'“bf o;sf] cj:yf ljz]ifsf] ?vf] syg / Jojxf/ ljb|f]xL gf/LjfbL
:t/df p7\g ;s]sf] 5}g . To;/L p7fpg] pb\b]Zo klg pkGof;sf] b]lv“b}g .
g]kfnL pkGof;df gf/LjfbL ljb|f]xL :j/ k|ydtM e|d/ pkGof;sL dfofn] g} k|s6 u/]sf] kfOG5 . pm k9]
n]v]sL pRr lzlIft / ck]Iffs[t v'nf bflh{lnª] ;dfhsL gf/L xf] . To;}n] cfk"m;“u k|]dsf] gf6s u/]/
ljjfx ug{ c:jLsf/ ug]{ OGb| z]v/nfO{ o;n] r/d 3[0ff u/]sL 5 . pm kl5 k5'tfP/ dfkm} dfUg cfP klg
of] k"j{k|]dL;“u ;f]em} af]Ng klg rfx]sL 5}g / eg]sL 5– æaf oL enfbdLnfO{ s]xL eGg] d]/f] dg 5}g . uPsf
s'/f lnP/ km]l/ sNkgf hNkgf ug'{ d Joy{ 7fG5' . d]/f] c¿ eGg] s]xL 5}g -k[=^%_ .Æ kl5 sfg'g k9]sf]
df]xg ljs|dn] dfof;“u z]v/nfO{ Ifdf lbOg' kYof]{ egL ax; ug{ nfUbf dfofn] æcsf{sf] cfr/0fsf] ljrf/
ug]{, GofofwLz x'g vf]Hg]n] PstkmL{ ljrf/ u¥of] eg] Tof] cljrf/ x'g hfG5 . dflg;x? To:tf ljrf/nfO{
cGofo eG5g\===== s'g} lbg tkfO{ hh x'g' xf]nf . To; a]nf of] s'/f :d/0f ug'{ xf]nfÆ -k[=!#&_ eg]/
df]xgnfO{ klg lg:t]h t'NofPsL 5 . o;sf] :jfledfg / lgeL{s :jefjaf6 OGb| z]v/ / df]xg ljs|d b'a}
sfon ePsf 5g\ . dfofsf lktf klg 5f]/Lsf] af]nL / Jojxf/ Ps bd} l7s /x]sf] 7fGb5g\ -k[=^%_ .
pkGof;df of] lzlIft, cfw'lgs, :ki6jfbL, b[9 lgZroL, pbf/, v'a} km/fl;nL / ldi6 eflif0fL rl/qsf ?kdf
k|:t't 5 . 8fS6/L k9]/ ;dfh ;]jfdf nfUg] o;sf] rfxgf b]lvG5 . olt x'“bf x'“b} klg :jR5GbtfjfbL o;
pkGof;n] dfofsf] ljb|f]xL gf/LjfbL rl/qnfO{ eGbf k/Dkl/t cfb{zsf] clts|d0f gug]{, ;xgzLn, a9L
;+odL jL0ffs} rl/qnfO{ a9L dxTTj lbPsf] 5 . pkGof; g} af]n]sf] 5– æjL0ffsf] ?kdf crn zflGt 5,
dfofsf]] ?kdf 5 pTtfn t/ª\u, jL0ff ;/n eP klg rt'/L 5, dfof 5 cfj]z / pdª\udf sfd ug]{, dfof
k|s[ltsL pTtfpnL sGof, jL0ff k|s[ltsL ;+otf sGof -k[=%_ .Æ
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dfof h:t} r~rn], j}zfn', cg'/fuL, lgzª\sf]rL, pbf/ / lgisk6L gf/Lsf ?kdf uf}/L klg b]lvPsL 5 . t/
o;sf] rl/qnfO{ klg pkGof;n] jL0ffsf] ;fk]Iftfdf ckl/dflh{t, 5f8f, cNk lzlIft h:tf ljz]if0fn] ;ª\s]t
u/]sf] kfOG5 -k[=(!—(@_ . lxhf]sf] ;dfhdf dfof, uf}/L h:tf rl/q l;h{gf u/]/ klg ltgnfO{ pTtfpnf jf
5f8f jf ckl/is[t eGg n]vs afWo eP klg cfhsf] ;dfhaf6 x]bf{ eg] tL gf/L :jTj ePsf jf ljb|f]xL
gf/LjfbL rl/qsf ?kdf lrlgG5g\ / tLk|lt pkGof;sf/n] ug'{ kg]{ Gofo ug{ g;s]sf] jf ltgnfO{ s]Gb|Lo
e"ldsf k|bfg ug{ g;s]sf] x'“bf ltgsf] k'gn]{vgsf] cfjZostf af]w klg ug{ yflnPsf] 5 -kf}8]n, @)^( M
!%(–^)_ . o;f] eP klg g]kfnL pkGof;df dfofsf] rl/q lgdf{0f gf/LjfbL ljb|f]xsf b[li6n] lglj{jfb ?kdf
klxnf] pNn]vgLo sfo{ ag]sf] 5 . o; :t/sf] rl/q lgdf{0fnfO{ o;kl5sf w]/} pkGof;n] sfod ug{ ;s]sf
5}gg\ . @)!* ;fndf ‘cg'/fwf’ pkGof; cfPkl5 dfq} dfofsf] gf/L rl/qsf] yk ljsf; x'g ;s]sf] 5 .
x'g t !((# ;fnsf] ‘e|d/’ kl5 @)!* ;fnk"j{sf w]/} pkGof;df gf/L :jTjsf] k|Zg jf gf/LjfbL sf]0fsf]
ljb|f]xL r]i6f To; ;dosf ljleGg pkGof;sf gf/L kfqdf s'g} g s'g} ?kdf b]Vg ;lsG5 . h:t}– !((%
;fnsf] piff pkGof;sL hª\unL piffn] @@ / @$ kl/R5]bdf gf/L :jtGqtf / ;dfgtfsf kIfdf ;xhtfsf
;fy cfˆgf] /fo /fv]sL 5 . @@ kl/R5]bdf lax] u/]kl5 nf]Ug] k'/} cfˆgf] x'g' kg]{, nf]Ug]n] csL{ :jf:gL
Nofpg x'g] eP :jf:gLn] klg csf]{ nf]Ug] vf]Hg lsg gx'g] p;sf] ts{ b]lvG5 . @$ kl/R5]bdf o;n] cfˆgL
lbbL k|efsf] nf]Ug] s}nfzn] cfk"m;“u lax] ug{ jf ;fnL /fVg vf]h]sf] x'“bf To;nfO{ l7s 7fg]sL 5}g .
ljjflxt k'?ifsf] ha dg nfUof] ta lax] x'g ;Sg] eP lbbL k|efsf] klg lax] lsg x'g ;St}g eGg] k|Zg
s}nfz ;fd' /fv]sL 5 -k[=!%)_ . To:t} æhª\undf d}n] hf]8f dfq} b]v]sL 5' ltg slxNo} b]v]sL 5}gÆ
-k[=!%!_ klg eg]sL 5 . clxn] jftfj/0fjfbL gf/LjfbLx?n] dlxnfnfO{ kz'sf] hlt clwsf/ klg /x]g
eGg] h'g ;Gbe{ k|:t't u/]sf 5g\ -kf}8]n, @)^( M &^–&&_ To;sf] cleJolSt oxf“sL piffn] u/]sL 5 .
clglR5t ljjfx ug'{ kg]{ kl/l:yltnfO{ o;n] cfTd;ft u/]sL 5}g . a? d/]sL 5 . To;}n] piffn] k|lt/f]wL
dfgl;stf lnP/ gf/L lj/f]wLx?;“u d'7e]8df pqg g;s] klg cfˆgf] tx / :t/af6 x'g ;Sg] ljb|f]xsf]
efiff / Jojxf/ k|:t't u/]sL 5 . ;Eo egfp“bf] ;dfhsf nflu p;sf syg / Jojxf/ lgs} Joª\UofTds /
nfh dbf]{ t'Nofpg] lsl;dsf /x]sf 5g\ .
!((% ;fns} k|folZrTt pkGof;df a'xf/L kL8s ;f;" d08nLsf lj?4 a'xf/L d08nL lgdf{0f u/]/ ;f;"x?sf]
a'xf/Lk|ltsf] HofbtLk"0f{ Jojxf/sf] cfk"mx? lard} eP klg cfnf]rgf u/]sf] kfOG5 -k[= !(@–(&_ .
cfk"mx?n] c;f/sf] uf]? / wf]aLsf] uwfeGbf klg v6\g' k/]sf], ;f;"x?n] slxNo} klg cfk"mx?nfO{ dflg;
x'g\ eGg] g7fg]sf h:tf cfs|f]zk"0f{ u'gf;fx? a'xf/L ag]sf sdnf, e'jg]Zj/L, s]d/f / ;'zLnfx?n] u/]sf
5g\ . pgLx? leqleq} lgs} b'vL / cfs|f]lzt b]lvG5g\ . :qL lzIffdf pgLx?sf] lgs} rf;f] klg kfOG5 .
s]d/fn] eg]sL klg 5– æ:qL lzIffsf] ljifosf] k':ts x]/]kl5 t xfdL klg xfd|f] clwsf/ olt 5, ;dfhdf
xfd|f] of] :yfg 5, xfdL cwf{lª\ugL xf}“, bf;L xf]Ogf}“, xfdLnfO{ yf]qf] h'Ttf t'Nofpg kfOb}gÙ====== OToflb ;a}
s'/f hflgg] lyof]Æ -k[=!(^–(&_ eg]sL 5 . e'jg]Zj/Ln] klg æxfdL lzlIft geO{ x'“b}gÆ -k[=!(&_, lzlIft
ePkl5 g} ;dfhdf xfd|f] /fd|f] sb/ x'g] 5 eGg] s'/f /fv]sL 5 . o:t} cfˆgf] nf]Ug] c¿lt/ a/flnPsf]
yfxf kfP kl5 pgLx?sf] ;ftf] sf9\g] sfd klg oxf“sf sltko gf/L rl/q -r]k]sL alxgL, 7'nL gfgL, ;Gt'
62
kfWo]sL ;fnL_ x?n] u/]sf 5g\ -k[=!&!–&@_ . ;GtL;“u v'a ulkmP/ a:g] nf]Ug]nfO{ r]k]sL alxgLn] v]tsf]
l8naf6 lxnf]df v“uf/]sL 5 . g]K6]sL k'mk";“u nxl;Psf] cfˆgf] nf]Ug]nfO{ 7'nL gfgLn] 3/af6 unTofP/
lgsfn]sL 5 . k'8\sLnfO{ lnP/ blIf0fsfnL 3'Dg uPsf] nf]Ug]nfO{ ;Gt' kfWo]sL ;fnLn] 3/sf] yfddf af“w]/
vfgfsf ?kdf 3f“; xfn]sL 5 . cfk"mnfO{ rf]nf] kml/of NofO lbg eg]/ k};f lbO{ nf]Ug]nfO{ ;x/ k7fPsL
t/ nf]Ug]n] k};f /08LnfO{ kf];]/ cfPsf] yfxf kfPkl5 p;sL :jf:gLn] an]sf] cu'N6f] nu]/ nf]Ug]sf] d'vd}
emf];]/ ;a} h'“uf 89fO lbPsL 5 . o;/L lgDg dWod ju{sf sltko gf/Lx?df o:tf] rsf]{ ljb|f]xsf] l:ylt
klg b]lvPsf] 5 . To;k|lt pgLx?sf 5f8f nf]Ug]x? nlHht / Ifdfk|fyL{ ag]sf klg 5g\ t/ ;du| To;
;dfhn] eg] gf/Lx?sf] o:tf] sd{nfO{ cg'lrt g} 7fg]sf] 5 . pkGof;n] klg o:tf] gf/L ljb|f]xL :j/nfO{
;dfhsf] Ps ;Gbe{sf ?kdf p7fP klg o;nfO{ ;x|fpg] / d"n kIfsf ?kdf ljsf; ug{ eg] rfx]sf] 5}g .
o;kl5 of}jgsf] cf“wL -!((^_ df k9] n]v]sL gf/L k|]d ljjfxsf nflu ;ª\3if{/t /x]/ ;kmn ePsf]
b]vfOPsf] 5 eg] k|]d -@))%_ df gf/L lzIffnfO{ ljz]if dxTTj lbP/ k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 . ‘k|folZrTt’ df
b]lvg] lzIffk|ltsf] gf/L cfsif{0f o;df cem ;3g ?kdf a9]sf] 5 . ;]t' v8\sfn] cfˆgL kTgL lrl/lj/Lsf]
b'R5/ :jefj clzIffs} sf/0f pTkGg ePsf] 7fg]/ 5f]/L k|]dnfO{ Pd=P= ;Dd k9fpg egL agf/;sf] ljZj
ljb\ofnosf] 5fqfjf;df nu]/ /fv]sf] 5 . k|]dn] klg Toxf“ /x]/ ljZj ljb\ofnosf] lzIffdf pTs[i6tf xf“l;n
t u/]sL 5 . e'jgsL alxgL /fh" klg lzlIft / ;r]t gf/Lsf ?kdf b]lvPsL 5 . ;dfhdf gf/L hflt
kl5 kg'{df ;dfhsf] gf/Lk|ltsf] k"jf{u|x xf] eGg] o;sf] ljZn]if0f 5 . o;n] k/Dkl/t gf/L lj/f]wL ;f]rk|lt
cfs|f]z klg kf]v]sL 5–
x]gf]{;\, xfd|f] ;]jf ug]{ wd{ eGg] t :jfyL{x? kf] x'g\ . of] t c;Eo o'usf] rfnafhL xf] .
:qL hfltn] k9\g x'“b}g, pgLx?n] PSn} b'Sn} 8'nlkm/ ug{ x'“b}g, pgLx?n] /ftf] lbg klt
;]jfdf nflu /xg' kb{5, klt g} k/d]Zj/ x'g\, pgL v';L eP :ju{ kfOG5, pgL a]v';L eP
g/s k'luG5, 3/leq s'lx /x', 3/wGbf u/, h'7f]kL7f] vfp, h:tf] ;'s} oftgf ldnf];\ s]xL
gaf]n, va/bf/, gvfP/ a? al; /fv, ef]s nfUof] geg, leqleq} /f]]un] /Gylgg b]pm,
P]øof eGg cf“ gu/, pkm Û d t ;Demg ;lStg“ . o:tf] of] ;dfhsf] l;s|LnfO{ tf]8tf8
u/]/ k'm6fpg rfxG5' -k[=(&_ .
o:t} cfkm}nfO{ xLg canf 7fGg] gf/L -/hxf“;_ k|lt klg o;sf] /f]if k|s6 ePsf] 5 . o;n] eg]sL 5–
o:t} ;fgf] x'“, canf x'“ eGg] ljrf/n] t gf/L hfltsf] oqf] cwf]ult ePsf] Û k/d]Zj/n]
;[li6 ubf{ s] xfd|f] 6fpsfdf lubL xfln lbPsf 5}gg\ < s] pgsf] of] k|fs[lts rdTsf/
b]Vg] b[li6 lbPsf 5}gg\ / < pgsf] of] dw'/ sn/j ;'Gg] zlSt lbPsf 5}gg\ / < k'?iffy{
ug{ xft lbPsf 5}gg\ ls < pgsf] u'0fufg ug{ cf]7 / pgsf] dw'wf/sf] :jfb lng lha|f]
agfO lbPsf 5}gg\ ls < xfdLdf s] s'/fsf] sdL 5 < s]jn ztfAbL b]lvg\sf] a'9L¿9Ln]
xfdLnfO{ lyr]sf] 5 . x]gf]{;\, h:tf];'s} v/fa s'/f] klg /ftf] lbgsf] cEof;n] c;n}
ag]sf] 5 -k[=(*_ .
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o:t} nf]Ug] d/]/ ljwjf ag]sL gf/LnfO{ ;dfhn] nufpg] klt 6f]s'jLsf] cfIf]k, ljwjLnfO{ cnlR5gf 7fGg]
dgf]j[lTt, :jf:gL d/]df nf]Ug]nfO{ s'g} To:tf] cf/f]k gnufpg] k|rng, p;n] ;xh} csL{ :jf:gL Nofpg
;Sg] ;fdflhs dfGotf h:tf gf/L lj/f]wL k'?ifjfbL x}sdk|lt klg /fh"sf] cfs|f]z cleJoSt ePsf] 5
-k[=((_ . To;}n] gf/LjfbL ljb|f]xL :j/ ;~rf/sf b[li6n] /fh"sf] rl/q a9L dxTTjsf] b]lvPsf] 5 . t/
;du|df pkGof;df o;sf] e"ldsf eg] k|d'v geO{ ;xof]uL k|s[ltsf] dfq} /x]sf] 5 .
o;kl5 /fhgLlts pRr g]t[Tjdf gf/Lsf] ;+nUgtfsf b[li6n] j;GtL -@))^_ pkGof; dxTTjsf] b]lvPsf]
5 . 8Da/];“usf] j;GtLsf] d'b\bf l5Gg] s|ddf dxf/fgL nIdLb]jLn] æj;GtL ca cfˆgf] klt /f]Hg :jtGq
5Æ -k[=(%_ eGg] kIfdf h'g wf/0ff k|s6 u/]sL 5g\ Tof] gf/LjfbL sf]0fsf b[li6n] klg dxTTjsf] b]lvG5 .
o;kl5 ‘dft[Tj / wd{ k':ts’ -@))&_ dWo] ‘dft[Tj’ df ljwjf /dfn] ;fdflhs cg]s nf~5gf ;x]/ eP
klg cfˆgf] ue{sf] ;Gtfg gˆofsL h]nd} uP/ klg ;Gtfg hGdfPsL 5 . o;df afn ljjfx, cgd]n ljjfx
ul/g' x'Gg, ljwjf ljjfxsf] :jLs[lt lbOg' k5{, nf]Ug]n] csL{ :jf:gL Nofpg eP :jf:gLn] klg csf]{ nf]Ug]
vf]Hg' c:jfefljs xf]Og, k'?if ;/x gf/Ln] klg clwsf/ kfpg' k5{ h:tf gf/LjfbL wf/0ff ljb|f]xL /dfsf]
rl/q dfkm{t k|:t't u/sf] kfOG5 . ljifo j:t'nfO{ cf}kGofl;s snfdf Tolt Jojl:yt ug{ g;lsP klg
gf/LjfbL ljb|f]xL :j/ ;~rf/sf b[li6n] o; s[ltsL /dfsf] rl/q dxTTjsf] b]lvG5 .
sf] c5't < -@)!!_ df klg lkt[;Ttfsf kIfkftL cfˆgf] nf]Ug], ;;'/f] / afa'n] ;Ttf / ;DklTtsf cf8df
s] s:tf] 5't / c5'tsf] ;fdflhs cJoj:yf v8f u/]sf 5g\, ltgLx?sf] gf/Lk|ltsf] s:tf] cdfgjLo
ef]ujfbL dfgl;stf /x]sf] 5 eGg] s'/f k9] n]v]sL dfofn] ;a} s'/fsf] cWoog u/L b[9tfsf ;fy k|:t't
u/]sL 5 . dfofsf] k|df0f ;lxtsf] k|:t'ltn] ;a} b'isdL{x? gfª\luPsf 5g\ . ;]gfsf] pRr cf]xbf -hg]{n_
df /x]sf] dfofsf] nf]Ug] b]j]Gb|n] kl5 dfof;“u dfkmL dfu] klg p;n] To:tf] cg}lts gf/L lj/f]wL nf]Ug]nfO{
dfkm ulb{g / p;nfO{ TofUb} eG5] – æltdL h:tf cj;/jfbLx? ltg} gf/Lsf k'Ho aGb5g\ h'g gf/L cfkm"nfO{
cfh;Dd k'?if ju{sf] s7k'tnL ;DemG5g\ . d k'Ho nf]Ug]sL ef]sL 5}g -k[= !)#_.
k/Dkl/t gf/L lj/f]wL lkt[;Ttfsf cf8df x'g] b'isd{ gª\Uofpg] / gf/L :jTjsf] :yfkgf ug]{ b[li6n] o;
pkGof;sf dfof, k|1f kf/ldtf / lqlkl6sf Jojfxf/ / syg lgs} dxTTjsf b]lvG5g\ . dfofn] æaf“r'GHofn
cJojl:yt gLlt pk/ Pp6f gof“ s|flGt NofO 5f8\g] 5'Æ -k[=@$_ eGg] k|lt1f ub{} ;dfhdf gf/Lsf] cj:yfdfly
o;/L k|sfz kf/]sL 5–
lwSsf/ xf] of] la;f}“ ztfAbLdf ;+;f/ s'g pRrtfsf] lzv/df rl9 ;Sof] To;sf] s]xL
Vofn} g/fvLsg xfd|f] of] d'n's hfaf] k'“hLjfbsf] bf;Tjdf n8\ls /x]sf] 5 . :qL hfltn]
:jtGq?kn] cfk\mgf] dfgf] pAhfP/ vfg] s'g} Joj:yf 5}g / k'“hLkltsf] df]hdhf ef]u
co; kfq tL gf/Lju{n] x'g kl/ /x]sf] 5 -k[=@$_ .
o:tf] hl6n kl/l:yltdf k/]sf gf/Lx?sf] cGj]if0f ug{] / ;dfhsf To:tf gf/L kL8s rl/qnfO{ b[9tf ;fy
gUofpg] sfd o;n] u/]sL 5 -kf}8]n, @)^( M !#^–#*_ . To:t} k|1f kf/ldtf / lqlkl6sfsf sygx?n]
klg k/Dkl/t gf/L zf]if0fsf] phfu/ ug'{sf ;fy} wd{ / lkt[;Ttfsf cf8df k'“hLjfbn] gf/LnfO{ s] s;/L bf;
64
t'NofO /x]sf] 5 eGg] :ki6 kf/]sf 5g\ -k[= $@–$$_ . ;dfg sfdsf] ;dfg Hofnf x'g' kg{], gf/Lx? cfly{s
?kdf cfTd lge{/ aGg' kg{], wd{, ;+:s[lt / k/Dk/fsf gfddf ;Rrf cfdf, kltj|tf wd{, :qLx?sf] kljq
st{Jo, ;tLTj h:tf e|ddf gf/Lx? clNemg' gx'g], To;n] gf/LnfO{ s'“jfsf] Eof“s'tf] h:tf] 3/d} ;Lldt
t'Nofpg] s'/fx? klg oxf“ k|:t't klg ul/Psf] 5 . ;fy} gf/Lsf] æhlt kz' hLjg k'“hLjfbdf 5 To;sf]
;x;|f+z klg ;fDojfbdf 5}gÆ -k[=$$_ egL ;fDojfbk|ltsf] rsf{] kIfw/tf klg b]vfOPsf] 5 . olt x'“bf x'“b}
klg s[ltsf] s]Gb|Lo ;Gbe{ eg] gf/LjfbLeGbf hftLo 5't c5'tsf] lg/y{stf l;4 ug'{ lt/} s]lGb|t /x]sf] 5 .
@)!! ;fns} csf]{ pkGof; :jf:gLdfG5] df k/Dkl/t gf/L lj/f]wL lkt[ ;TtfTds ;f]r / To;sf lj?4 ;ª\
ul7t gf/L ljb|f]xsf] :j/ cem ;an ?kdf k|s6 ePsf] kfOG5 . oxf“ d'VotM k'?ifs} 5f8f of}g ;+:sf/ /
c+ztM cfly{s ;d:ofaf6 lklN;P/ gf/Lx? j]Zofj[lTtdf ;+nUg /x]sf b]lvG5g\ . d}of“gfgL / pm;“u ;DalGwt
nLnfb]jL, j;GtL, h'O{x? k'?ifsf] hjh{:t of}g lkkf;' :jefjsf] af/Daf/ l;sf/ ag]/ j]Zof aGg ljjz
b]lvG5g\ eg] gfgLk|f0f cfly{s bf;tfsf sf/0f j]Zof ag]sL 5 . ld;|L, r'nL, bfnlrgL h:tf s]xL gf/Ldf
s'g} afWofTds sf/0f geP klg j]Zof aGg] unt ;+:sf/ b]lvPsf] 5 . oLdWo] d}of“gfgL / p;sf] gf/L p4f/
;+:yf;“u cfa4 gf/Lx? k'?ifåf/f hah{:tL /G8L agfOP tfklg cfk"mx? afx]s c¿ /G8L aGg' gk/f];\ egL
/G8L Joj;fod} nfu]/ ;ª\3if{/t 5g\. logsf] pb\b]Zo ;dfh ;'wf/ b]lvG5 . o;}sf lglDt j;GtLn] cfˆgf]
Hofgsf] cf; df/L g]kfnsf 5f]/L r]nL ljb]zdf nu]/ a]Rg] cGhgf s'df/L / ;'/ k|;fbnfO{ æb]z agfpg]
lhDd]bf/L af]sL, cfbz{sf] 7]s]bf/ / k'/f]lxt eO{ b]zsf] g]t[Tj xftdf ln“b} g]tf eP/ cg]s sNof0fsf]
8ª\sf]Æ -k[=!#!_ ahfp“b} u/]sf] ;efdf uf]nL xfg]/ df/]sL 5 . To;kl5 ;efdf pgLx?sf] b':k|j[lTtsf]
jf:tljstf klg gª\UofPsL 5 . o;/L g} d}of“gfgLn] klg df]tLdfofk|lt r/d cTofrf/ ug]{ k|df]b / sdnf
b'a}nfO{ b'Tsfb}{ uf]nL xfg]/ df/]sL 5 . To;kl5 d}of“gfgLn] cbfntdf pgLx?sf] s/t'tsf] Joxf]/f / cfˆgf]
pb\b]Zo lgeL{stf;fy k|:t't u/]sL 5 . o;n] lgeL{stfk"j{s k'?ifx?sf] /fIf;L k|j[lTt / cfk"m tyf c¿
gf/Ln] ;xg' k/]sf] dfld{s syf eg]] kl5 GofofwLzn] o;nfO{ hGd s}bsf] ;hfo ;'gfP klg cfk"m To:tf]
;hfo ;'gfp“bf v';L gePsf], cfk"m t ePsf] sfg'g cg';f/ lg0f{o ;'gfpg] JolSt dfq} ePsf], sfg'gsf]
q'l6k"0f{ l:yltsf sf/0f To:tf] ;hfo ;'gfpg afWo ePsf] hgfp“5 -k[=!^*_ . To;af6 d}ofb]jLsf] ljb|f]xL
sfo{ unt geO{ sfg'g g} q'l6k"0f{ /x]sf] k'li6 x'G5 .
o; pkGof;sf ljb|f]xL gf/Lx?n] /G8L Joj;fo ;~rfng u/] klg c¿ gf/Lx?nfO{ To:tf] 3[l0ft k];fdf
cfpg' gk/f];\ egL ;ls|o 5g\ . pgLx?sf] egfO 5–
xfdL /G8L h?/ xf}“, t/ /G8L x'gfsf] lglDt /G8L ePsf xf]Ogf}“, ;tL x'g] xfd|f] uj{ / uf}/j
anfTsf/n] r"0f{ eO{ /G8L eO ;lsPsf x'gfn] klg /G8L alg /x]sf xf}“ . t/ /G8L eP/
klg xfd|f] Wo]o / pb\b]Zo ;dfh l;“ufg'{ 5 . ;dfh ;'wf/sf] lglDt cy{sf] klg h?/t 5,
Tof] k"lt{ ug{ xfdLn] c¿ s'g} pkfoaf6 klg ;s]gf}“ -k[=!%!_ .
kl/l:yltn] cfk"mx?nfO{ /G8L k];f ug{ afWo kf/] klg pgLx? gf/L p4f/ ;+:yf lgdf{0f u/]/ j]Zof aGg' kg]{
kl/l:ylt lgoGq0f / Go"gLs/0fdf nfu]sf 5g\ . o;sf lglDt logLx? k/]df JolSt xTof klg ;lhn} u5{g\ .
65
logLx? dWo]sL g]t[ d}ofgfgL xf] / pm æ;dfh vfg] ls/fnfO{ hLp“bf] /fVg' kfk xf] -k[=!^!_Æ eGg] 7fG5] . pm
cem eG5] ædflg; dfg]{, ;dfh dfg]{, b]z dfg]{ o:tf xTof/fnfO{ d af“sL /fv]/ x]l/ /xg ;lStg“ -k[=!^!_ .Æ
æ/G8L ag]/ klg o:t} sf“8f/f]8f ldNsfP/ ;dfh l;“ufg{ d af“lr /x]sL 5' -k[=!^!_ . unt dflg;nfO{ dfbf{
cfk"m ks|fp kl/G5 ls eGg] lk/ klg o;df 5}g lsgeg] cfk"m ks|fpdf k/] klg cfˆgf] gf/L p4f/ ;+:yfdf
To:tf y'k|} ;b:o /x]sf pm b]V5] -k[=!^@_ . lx+;fsf kIfdf o;sf cfˆg} lsl;dsf ts{x? klg 5g\ . h:t}–
ca xfdL dfg'{ lx+;f / gdfg'{ clx+;f eGg] s'/fdf 5}gf}“, a? xfdL sfo/ eO{ cTofrf/nfO{
k|f]T;fxg lbg'nfO{ lx+;f / jL/tf;fy To;sf] b08 lbg] sfdnfO{ clx+;f ;DemG5f}“, lsgeg]
PsnfO{ df/]sf] lx+;fn] nfvf}“sf] ;'/Iff eO{ clx+;f x'g hfG5 -k[=!^&_ . ca dnfO{
cfzf 5, :jf:gL dflg;x? dfly cTofrf/, cgfrf/, cfs|d0f / u'08flu/L ug]{ nf]Ug]
dflg;x?nfO{ cGt ug{ g]kfndf xHhf/ d}of“gfgL x'g]5g\ -k[=!^&_ .
o;/L pkGof;sf] @! kl/R5]bkl5 c/fhs sfd's k'?ifsf] rs|Jo"xdf k/]/ /G8L aGg afWo ePsf gf/Lx?
To;} lgl:s|o eP/ a:g'eGbf To:tf] lj8Djgfk"0f{ kl/l:yltlar klg ;ls|o /x]/ cGo gf/Lx?nfO{ cfk"mn]
h:tf] b'b{zfk"0f{ l:ylt Joxf]g'{ gk/f];\ egL ;ª\3if{zLn b]lvPsf 5g\ t/ pgLx?sf] ljb|f]x a9L JolSt
xToflt/ tflgPsf] 5 . ljb|f]xLx?sL g]t[ d}of“gfgLsf] o;df cfˆg} lsl;dsf ts{ klg b]lvPsf 5g\ .
k/Dkl/t ;tLTjsf] cf:yf af]s]sf gf/Lx? PSsfl; lkt[;Ttfsf cf8df c/fhs sfd's k'?ifx?åf/f
/G8L aGg afWo kf/]sf] kl/l:yltdf jf cf:yf lj3l6t t'NofO lbPsf] cj:yfdf pgLx?df To; lsl;dsf]
cfj]uL cfs|f]z hGdg' / To;}df ;ls|o aGg' dfgjLo dgf]lj1fgsf b[li6n] Tolt c:jfefljs geP klg
j:t'tM ;xL ;dfwfg eg] o:tf] JolSt xTof x'g ;St}g . kfknfO{ 3[0ff u/ kfkLnfO{ xf]Og eGg] -…e|d/Ú
pkGof;sf]_ dfGotf cg';f/ JolStsf unt k|j[lTtnfO{ k/f:t u/]/ pgLx?nfO{ cfˆgf unt sd{k|lt k5'tf]
af]w u/fpg ;s]sf eP d}of“gfgLsf] ljb|f]x cem bL3{ sfnLg x'GYof] . j}rfl/s ?kdf k/f:t ug{lt/ gnfuL
JolSt xTofnfO{ g} ;f]emf] ;dfwfg b]Vg' o; pkGof;sf ljb|f]xL gf/L rl/qsf vf; ;Ldf ag]sf 5g\ . tfklg
k/Dkl/t gf/L lj/f]wL lkt[;Ttfsf cf8df gf/LnfO{ lg/Lx, canf / k'?ifsf] jf;gf k"lt{sf] ;fwg dfq} 7fGg]
3f]/ k|ltufdL, c/fhs / sfd's k'?if ;dfhsf] ;f]rnfO{ eg] pkGof;sf ljb|f]xL gf/L rl/qn] ;f]Rg afWo
t'NofPsf 5g\ . To; cy{df pkGof;sf ljb|f]xL gf/L rl/q k/Dk/fsf ;fk]Iftfdf gjLg / df}lns klg 5g\ .
en} tL slt :jfefljs snfTdstfsf ;fy k|s6 eP/ / ltgsf] b'/ufdL j}rfl/stf s] s:tf] /x\of] eGg]
s'/f eg] ljrf/0fLo g} b]lvPsf] 5 .
o;kl5 @)!@ ;fndf k|sflzt nug pkGof;sf k9] n]v]sf sltko gf/Ln] æoL k'?ifx?sf cwf{ª\lugL
x'g 5f8]/ s6\6/ a}/L x'g' k5{ -k[=$@_Æ, æxfdLn] dft[TjnfO{ k'?ifsf] kl/efiffb]lv cnUu} 5'6\6fP/ cfˆg}
kljq x[bodf :yfg lbg' k5{ -k[=$@_Æ h:tf wf/0ff JoSt u/] klg tL k/Dkl/t cGwljZjf;af6 d'St x'g
g;s]sfn] Jojxf/df To;nfO{ nfu' ug{ ;s]sf 5}gg\ .
o;kl5 b]lvg] ;To ;Gb]z / ljwjf hLjg -@)!#_ df afn ljjfxsf] lgif]w / ljwjf ljjfxsf] :jLs[lt
lbOPsf] 5 . o;df b]lvg] dxTTjk"0f{ :qL rl/q ;'zLnfn] gf/LnfO{ !& jif{;Dd k9fpm / p;s} OR5f cg';f/
66
lax] ug{ b]pm, k'?ifnfO{ lagf sf/0f bf;|f] lax] ug{ gb]pm, gf/Ln] klt l/emfP/ u[x:yL rnfpm, k'q geP b'ef{jgf
g/fvL b]j/;“u hfpm, To;af6 klg geP ;DaGw ljR5]b u/, klt d/]/ p;s} ;t\df a:g g;s] csf]{ lax]
u/, Jolerf/L eg] gxf]pm h:tf :qL lzIff ;~rf/ u/]sL 5 . cf7 jif{d} ljwjf ag]sL d]lbgLsf] rl/q klg
j}rfl/s b[li6n] dxTTjsf] b]lvPsf] 5 . cWoog / lrGtgzLn o;n] zf:qåf/f lgif]w ul/Psf] 7flgg] ljwjf
ljjfxnfO{ zf:qs} ;Gbe{åf/f v08g u/L ljwjf ljjfxsf] j}wtf k|dfl0ft u/]sL 5 / ljwjf cfk"mn] klg
ljjfx u/]sL 5 . o;n] ‘dxfef/t’, ‘dg':d[lt’ h:tf zf:q k|df0fsf cfwf/df k|:t't u/]sf ts{ ;'g]kl5
ljwjf ljjfxsf] lj/f]wL ;'zLnf klg kl5 kIfdf b]lvPsL 5 .
o:t} @)!$ ;fndf k|sflzt 8fs a+unf pkGof;sf ?kf, dfof, a:g]tsL 5f]/L, e'h]NgL / avt] ;fsL{sL
5f]/L k'tnLx?df gf/LjfbL s]xL ljb|f]xL r]tgf b]Vg ;lsG5 . ?kfn] :s'n] lzIff klg kfPsL 5 . pm dlxnf
;ldltdf nfu]/ ;fdflhs ?kdf ;r]t ag]sL 5 / gf/L hfu/0fdf klg ;ls|o b]lvPsL 5 . c¿ eg] lg/If/
5g\ t/ ;fdflhs ?kdf ;r]t / xSsL b]lvG5g\ . cfgf] h8\ofxf nf]Ug]nfO{ xkfg{ xf];\ jf dgk/L ug]{
b/f]ufnfO{ nfTtfn] es'g{ xf];\ dfof kl5 k/]sL 5}g . a:g]tsL 5f]/L e'h]NgL klg ;fx;L 5 . of] afa'n]
vf]lh lbPsf] lgs} a'9f] t/ ;DklTtjfg\ k'?if;“u guO{ tNnf] hftsf] dflgg] eP klg cfk"mnfO{ dfof ug]{
ljkGg e'h]n;“u efu]sL 5 . nf]Ug] ljkGg x'“bf o;n] 3f“; bfp/f u/]/ hLjg latfpg' k/] klg cfk"mnfO{ dfof
ug]{ nf]Ug] kfPsL x'“bf of] v';L b]lvPsL 5 . To:t} avt] ;fsL{sL 5f]/L k'tnL 7'nf] /fhf rGb| k|sfzsf]
ue{ af]s]/ ;dfh jlxis[t ePsL 5 . æ7"nf] /fhfÆsf] OHht 7fgL d'v kmf]/]sL 5}g . ;ft jif{sf] 5f]/f] x'“bf
klg p;sf] afa' nfx'/df 5 egL 6f/]sL 5 t/ ;ft jif{kl5 kms]{sf] rGb| k|sfzn] klg glrg] h:tf] ubf{ eg]
o;n] rGb| k|sfzn] dfq} ;'Gg] u/L eg]sL 5– ælrGg' ePg ls s;f] < d To} k'tnL x'“ h;sf] z/L/ 5'g
x'G5 t/ hft 5f]P hft g} hfG5 -k[=*@_ .Æ k'tnLsf] o; egfOdf k/Dkl/t cfbz{ egfp“bf] rl/q / ;dfh
Joj:yfk|lt ulx/f] Joª\Uo Wjlgt 5 .
o;kl5sf] dg -@)!%_ pkGof;df klg k/Dkl/t lkt[;Ttfsf cf8df x'g] gf/L lj/f]wL b'isd{ / To;af6 cfxt
gf/Lsf sltko cfs|f]z k|;ª\ujz k|s6 ePsf 5g\ . 5f]/Lsf] s'g} ljrf/} ga'emL cfˆgf] OHht arfpg] gfddf
hah{:tL lax] ul/ lbg] cleefjsk|lt wgsf] cfs|f]zk"0f{ u'gf;f] o;/L cleJoSt ePsf] 5–
cfdf dnfO{ ?g lbgf];\, dnfO{ ?g lbgf];\, hfgf];\ tkfO{x? Û tkfO{x?n] cfˆgf] OHht
/fVg d]/f] sGofbfg ug'{ eof] Û d}n] klg st{Jo g} 7fg]/ cfˆgf] alnbfg u/], tkfO{+x?sf]
sfd k"/f eof] Û ca d hLjge/ /f]O /x'“ ls xf“l; /x'“, tkfO{+x?nfO{ s] Û tkfO{+x?af6 t
d bfg eO xfn]F lg -k[=((_ Û
cfˆgf] nf]Ug]sL sfG5L ag]/ lelqg vf]h]sL dgk|lt dª\unf aHo}sf] ;f]emf] cfs|f]z o:tf] 5– ægf7f] vf]Hb}
csf{sf] 3/ 3/df cfpg ;Sg] s:tL gsRr/L k'm“8L -k[=!!%_ .Æ cfk"m;“u k|]d u/] klg afa'sf] s/n] c¿;“u
ljjfx u/]+ egL cfPsf] nsks] k|]dL j;Gt;“u p;sL k|]ldsfsf cfs|f]zk"0f{ u'gf;f klg oxf“ k|s6 ePsf
5g\ -k[=!$#_ . oLeGbf klg ax'kTgL leœofP/ 5f]/f5f]/L klg jo:s eO ;s]sf k|f}9 ;'Aafn] dgdfly cf“vf
uf9]sf] yfxf kfPkl5 p;sf kTgL ;'lAagLx?n] kl/jf/sf ;a} ;b:ox?nfO{ ;ª\ul7t u/L ljb|f]xsf ?kdf
67
u/]sf] r'Nxf] x8tfn cem} dxTTjsf] b]lvG5 -k[=!&(–@))_ . cfˆgf cg}lts nf]Ug]sf] rl/q gª\Uofpg
nfu]sL sfG5L ;'lAagLnfO{ ;'Aafn] pN6f] tF k'm“8LnfO{ s] rf;f] eGb} xft 5f8]sf] x'“bf sfG5L ;'lAagLn]
ædf¥of] afaf, /G8Lsf] kf]On] df¥of] lg df¥of], u'xf/, u'xf/ -k[=!*)_ ∕Æ eg]/ u'xf/ dfUbf h]7L ;'lAagL u'xf/
lbg k'Ub} eg]sL 5– æk'm“8f]n] ;anfO{ k'm“8L b]V5 . o:tf] crfSnL ePkl5 ca of] 3/df cfh xfdL 5}gf}“
ls sf]xL 5}g -k[=!*)_ ∕Æ eGb} 3/df sf]nfxn dRrfp“5g\ / ;'Aafsf] pb\b]Zo k'/f x'g lb“b}gg\ . pkGof;sL
d"n gflosf ‘dg’ n] klg ;dfhsf w]/} kfvG8Lx?;“u h'Wb} lx+8]sL 5 . lgs} cfbz{sf] k|jrg ub}{ lx“8\g] /
cfk"mnfO{ 7'nf] :jfdL dxf/fhsf ?kdf lrgfpg] JolStn] ;d]t p;sf] cl:dtfdf 8fsf 8fNg] pb\b]Zon] xft
;dft]sf] b]v]kl5 dgn] p;nfO{ æ5f]8\ d]/f] xft Û g/fwd, g/kz', gfl:ts, lgr -k[=@#*_Æ eGb} b'Tsf/]sL
5 . clg cGTodf cfk"mnfO{ e'm7f] k|]dsf] :jf“ª\ u/L ue{ af]sfP/ lat/f kf/]sf] cfˆg} df:6/ x[bo /fh dg;“u
k'gM ;DaGw sfod ug]{ pb\b]Zon] cfPsf] eP klg dgn] p;;“u s'g} ;DaGw /fVg grfxL 7f8} lt/:sf/ u/]/
k7fO lbPsL 5 . cGTodf p;n] cfˆgf lktf;“u} cfk"mn] Joxf]/]sf] uy];f] sygdf klg ;dfhsf] s'?ktfnfO{
cfs|f]z k"0f{ nahdf k|:t't u/]sf] g} kfOG5 . h:t}–
d w]/} 7fp“df uP“ af, t/ st} klg cfwf/ kfOg“, st} klg l6Sg ;lsg“ Û wdfsfnfO{ lnP/
x[bo /fhsf] 3/df uP“, Toxf“ p;sL :jf:gLn] emD6]/ rf]sdf klg pleg lbOg Û wfdfn]
dnfO{ pxf“sL eb} uf]bfj/Lsf] 3/df n}hfg' eof], dfG5] x]bf{ Tof] a];} lyO{ t/ Tof] t /fIf:gL
kf] /lx5≤ /fIf;n] dnfO{ emG8} vfPsf] . To;af6 efu]/ Pp6f enfb\dLsf] 3/ k'u]“, Tof]
g/ lkzfr /x]5 . o;} u/]/ d w]/} 7fp“df k'u]“ . st} l;4 dxfTdf, st} :jfdL dxf/fh w]/}
dxfk'?ifx?sf] bz{g u/]“, ;dfh ;'wf/s ;ª\3, gf/L ;]jf ;ª\3, o:t} o:t} w]/} 7fp“df k'u]≤
t/ tL ;a dfG5]sf] ?kdf g/ lkzfr kz' / /fIf;x? cfˆgf] l;sf/ uf“:g kf;f] yfk]/
a;]sf /x]5g\ -k[=@*(_ .
o;/L pkGof;sL d"n gflosf dgn] gf/Lk|ltsf] ;dfhsf] gsf/fTdstf gª\Uofp“b} cfˆgf] To;k|ltsf] ?If
efj ;an 9ª\ud} k|s6 u/]sL 5 . o;f] eP klg o;df unt kl/l:yltk|lt ;f]em} d'7e]8df hfg] dfgl;stf
eg] b]lv“b}g . pkGof;df To:tf] kl/j]z jf kl/l:ylt klg lgdf{0f ul/Psf] 5}g .
‘dg’ s} n]vssf] csf]{ pkGof; zflGt -@)!%_ df eg] gf/L ljb|f]x lgs} d'vl/t kfOG5 . o;df cgd]n
ljjfx cGTo ug{ zflGtn] u/]sf] cfd/0f cgzg, h8\ofxf k'?ifsL csL{ :jf:gL x'g a]nLn] u/]sf] c:jLsf/
/ nf]Ug] :j]R5frf/L eP cfk"m klg :j]R5frf/L x'g lsg gx'g] eGb} j;Gt s'df/Ln] c¿ k'?ifaf6 lng] of}g
;'v gf/LjfbL sf]0fsf ljb|f]xsf ?kdf b]lvP klg a9L ;zSt ljb|f]x zflGts} rl/qdf b]lvPsf] 5 . zflGt
o; pkGof;sL k|d'v rl/q klg xf] . & jif{df %* jif]]{ j[4;“u ljjfx ul/ lbP/ 8]9 jif{kl5 g} ljwjf ag]sL
dft[xLg zflGt ljwjf ePkl5 dfOtd} a:g' k/]sf] 5 / ;f}tgL cfdf nufotsfn] tf/tDo ldnfO lbP/ o;nfO{
/]l8of]sf] 8fO/]S6/ e]if u/]sf] JolStn] anfTsf/ u/]sf] 5 . ;f]xL sf/0f ule{0fL ePsL o;nfO{ ue{ktg u/fpg
anfTsf/Ln] k|oTg u/] klg o;n] dfg]sL 5}g -k[=@(_ t/ a9\bf] ue{ lnP/ ;dfhdf af“Rg klg o;nfO{ ufx|f]
ePsf] x'“bf cfTdxTofsf nflu cu|;/ eO /x]sL a]nfdf /fhgLltsdL{ sdnn] e]6]/ o;nfO{ hLjg ;ª\3if{df
8f]¥ofPsf] 5 / To;kl5 o;df hLjgjfbL ljb|f]xsf] :j/ ;'b[9 x'“b} uPsf] 5 . kl5 o;n] sdn;“u eg]sL 5–
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d klg tkfO{sf] ;fydf nfu]/ ljb|f]x u5'{– cGofosf], cTofrf/sf], kfksf] . tkfO{sf]
;fydf d d}bfgdf pqG5'– sfnl;t n8\5' Û tkfO{“sf] ;fydf nfu]/ d b'vnfO{ ;'v dfG5',
ef]snfO{ t[lKt, d[To'nfO{ lgb|f . d klg of] cTofrf/L ;dfhdf :jf:gLdfG5] eg]sf] s'g
zlSt /x]5– Tof] b]vfp“5' -k[=!!)_ .
o;kl5 of] a9L /fhgLlts ;r]t gf/Lsf ?kdf b]lv“b} uPsL 5 / sdns} ;xof]uL /fhgLltsdL{ ag]sL 5 .
;f]xL s|ddf o;n] hldg ljt/0f, 5fqfjf;, ;fdflhs cgd]n ljjfxsf] lgd"{ntf / /fhaGbL ;fyLx?sf]
5'6sf/fsf dfu /fvL cfd/0f cg;gdf a;]sL 5 -k[=@%$–%^_ . t];|f] dfusf ?kdf /x]sf] cgd]n ljjfxsf]
lgd"{ntfnfO{ :ki6 kfb}{ o;n] eg]sL 5–
;fyLx?, d]/f] t];|f] dfun]– xfd|f] ;dfhsf] afn ljjfx k|yfsf] ofg] cgd]n ljjfxsf]
lj/f]w u5{ . h'g cgd]n ljjfxn] ;dfhnfO{ /f]uL / dxf/f]uL t'NofP/ ;dfhdf emu8f /
czflGt u/fP/ gf/L hfltsf] ;j{gfz / k'?if hfltsf] ljgfz ul/ /x]sf] 5, h'g k|yfn]
:jf:gL dflg;x? pd]/d} ljwjf x'G5g\, lau|G5g\, h;n] ubf{ ljwjf ljjfxsf] hfnL ;afn
p7\b5 . ljwjf eP/ klg :jf:gL dflg;x?n] nf]Ug] dflg;x?sf] 3[0ffsf] kfq aGg' kb{5 .
d]/f] egfO afn ljjfx k|yf dfq aGb ug]{ x}g, To;df t ;a}n] dGh''/ ul/ ;s]sf 5g\ tfklg
rln /x]s} klg 5 . x/Ps k|f}9 / ef]ln of kl;{lt/ dg]{ a'9fx? klg lsg kGw| ;f]x| jif{sL
s]6L g} laxf u5{g\ < pgLx?nfO{ s] clwsf/ o;/L :jf:gL dflg;sf] hLjg;“u v]Ng <
To;}n] o; ;fdflhs cgd]n ljjfxsf] k|yf ;/sf/n] s8f sfjf{xL u/]/ o;sf] lgd"{n
u/fcf];\ -k[=@%%–%^_ .
pkGof;df kf“r lbg;Ddsf] cfd/0f cg;gsf s|ddf o;sf dfusf kIfdf k|z:t hgdt l;h{gf ePsf]
b]vfOP klg :ki6 kl/0fltsf] pNn]v eg] ul/Psf] 5}g .
@)!% ;fnd} k|sflzt ;dosf] x'/LsL 1fgLsf] jSt[Ttfdf klg ænf]Ug]n] of]6} dfq kTgL /fvf];\, of t cfk"mn]
em}+ gf/LnfO{ /fVg] xs b]cf];\ -k[=!&(_Æ, ænf]Ug]n] kfPsf] xs ;/x :jf:gLn] klg kfpg k5{ -k[=!*)_Æ,
æxfdL gf/L hfltx? ca k'?if;“u ba]/ a:g l7s 5}g, hlt hlt bAof] plt plt pgLx?n] xfd|f] lz/df
6]Sg]5g\, l;GsL vfb\g] 5g\ . xfdL ba]/} a;]/ xf], pgLx?n] nfp kfPsf -k[=!*)_Æ eGb} gf/LjfbL ljb|f]xL
cfs|f]z JoSt u/]sL 5 . nf]Ug];“usf] d'b\bf lht]kl5 k|s6 ePsf] 1fgLsf] of] cfs|f]z kl5 p;s} h]n
hfg' kg]{ b'Zrl/qsf sf/0f jf ;du| cf}kGofl;s k|efjsf ;fk]Iftfdf Tolt k|efjL eg] x'g ;s]sf] kfOGg .
o;kl5 b]lvPsf] kNnf] 3/sf] e\mofn -@)!^_ pkGof;df ld;/Lsf] cr]tg ljb|f]x b]vfOPsf] 5 . r]tg
dgn] t pm cfˆgf] j}w nf]Ug] xl/eSt;“u g} a:g rfx]sL 5 t/ JolStTjxLg b'a{n p;sf nf]Ug]sf sf/0f
ld;/Lsf of}gfj]ux? ;dg x'g ;Sb}gg\ . kmntM ;fdflhs b[li6n] abgfd ;x/L u'G8f];“u pm kf]Onf lx+l8
lbP/ k/Dkl/t cfbz{ gf/Lsf] ;+:s[ltnfO{ ljR5]bg u/]sL 5 t/ of] ld;/Lsf] r]tg jf ljj]s lgolGqt ljb|f]x
geO{ cjr]tgsf] :jrflnt 36gfsf ?kdf b]vfOPsf] 5 . To;}n] pkGof;sf] d"n pb\b]Zo gf/LjfbL ljb|f]xL
:j/ b]vfpg'eGbf klg bldt of}g s'07fsf sf/0f pTkGg gf/L dgf]bzf / To;kl5sf] Jojxf/ lg?k0fdf jf
69
gf/L of}g dgf]ljZn]if0fdf s]lGb|t x'g k'u]sf] 5 .
o;kl5 b]lvPsf] Ps lrxfg -@)!&_ pkGof; d"ntM g]kfnL ;dfhsf] ju{ lje]b;“u ;DalGwt eP klg
o;df b]lvg] /~hgf b]jLsf] rl/q gf/LjfbL b[li6n] dxTTjsf] b]lvPsf] 5 . k|f]km];/ lg/~hg /fhsL 5f]/L
/~hgf b]jL cfk\mgf] 3/]n' kl/j]z / cfO=P= tx;Ddsf] cf}krfl/s lzIff klg kfPsL x'“bf gf/L :jTjsf af/]df
;r]t 5 . o;n] ltg j6f ;Gtfgsf] afa' ePsf] cfk\mgf] nf]Ug] 3/sL sfdbf/ / s[ifssL 5f]/L gfgLys'+;“u
;d]t n7fl/Psf] 5gs kfPkl5 cfk\mgf] 8fS6/ nf]Ug]nfO{ /fd|};“u 5f;]sL 5 . h:t}–
— æ;kmf hafkm lbgf];\, tkfO{“sf] s] ljrf/ 5 < tkfO{“ s] x'g vf]Hg' ePsf] 5 < 3/df sfdwGwf ug{]
rfs/gL klg geGg], /f]u hrfpg cfPsL la/fdL klg af“sL g/fVg] . ca t Hofg uP klg ;xGg“ d
tkfO{sf] o:tf] crfSnL . km]l/ o:t} b]v]“ / ;'g]F eg] s]xL u/] klg d af“sL /fVg] 5}g -k[=!!)_ .Æ
o:t} gfgLys+'nfO{ PSn} e]6]/ w]/} -la; kl/R5]bel/_ g} ;DemfPsL 5 . h:t}–
— æTo:tf ltg j6f 5f]/f5f]/Lsf afa', skfndf hf}ltn kfls ;s]sf a'9fl;t klg ltdL h:tL e/e/fp“bL
t?gLn] k|]d ug{] < hft k\mof“Sg' uxtsf]] emf]ndf eg]sf] oxL xf] -k[=!!#_ .Æ
— æo;/L ;f}tf / em8\s]nf 5f]/f5f]/L ePsf] 3/df s;}sL bf];|L kf]yL x'g uP/ lsl~rt\ dfq s'g} :jf:gLdfG5]n]
;'vzflGt kfpg ;s]sf] s'/f Ps hgf dfqsf] k]; ug{ ;S5\of} -k[=!!#_ <Æ
— æxfdL :jf:gLdfG5]n] cfk\mgf] hLjg ef]usf] lglDt ck{g' x'“b}g, xfdL s'g} nf]Ug] dflg;sf] ef]usf lglDt
hGd]sf jf l;h{]sf hLj xf]Ogf}“ -k[=!!#_ .Æ
— æxfd|f] of}jgdf d:tL 5pGh]n dfq xfdL nf]Ug] dflg;x?nfO{ /fd|f nfU5f}“, ld7f x'G5f}“, ufnfdf kfgL
sd x'gf;fy clg of}jgdf d:tfgL ;lsgf;fy xfdL pgLx?nfO{ vNnf] nfUg yfN5f}“ clg b'w glbg]
ufO{ wkfOP em}“ wkfO lbG5g\ -k[=!!$_ .Æ
— ægf/Lsf] d"No ?k / of}jgdf xf]Og, ltgdf s;}sf] xdnf ug{ glbgdf / hLjgdf s'g} bfu cfpg glbg]
rl/qdf 5 -k[=!!&_ .Æ
o;/L gfgLys+'nfO{ ;Demfp“bf klg p;af6 vf;} k|ltls|of gkfPkl5 jf p;sf] cNnf/] kf/f b]v]kl5 /~hgf
b]jL p;sf cleefjssf 3/ uO{ bfh' lzjgf/f+nfO{ alxgLsf] sfo{k|lt ;r]t klg u/fPsL 5 t/ klg p;sf]
nf]Ug]n] gfgLys+'nfO{ s'l6n rfn rnL ;lhn} eufPsf] 5 . kl5 /~hgf b]jLs} ;xof]un] gfgLys'+sf
bfh'x?n] alxgLnfO{ 8fS6/af6 5'6fP/ NofPsf 5g\ . /~hgf b]jL To:tf] nf]Ug]nfO{ ;'wfg{ k|oTgzLn g}
/x]sL 5 . p;af6 cnlUug] ;f]r eg] agfPsL 5}g .
o;kl5sf] cg'/fwf -@)!*_ pkGof;df eg] cg'/fwf :jcl:tTj :yfkgfsf nflu lgs} ;ls|o b]lvPsL
5 . of] ‘e|d/’ pkGof;sL dfofkl5 b]lvPsL To:t} ;r]t / pRr lzlIft gf/L xf] . o;n] klg lzIff ef/t
-bflh{lnª / b]x/fb'g_ d} xf“l;n u/]sL 5 . k/Dkl/t lkt[;Ttfsf cf8df gf/L cl:tTj jf JolStsf] cl:tTj
gsfg]{x?k|lt o;sf] ljb|f]x dfofsf] eGbf cem rsf]{ b]lvPsf] 5 . k|z:t af}l4s Ifdtf ePsL / dgsf]
70
uxg ljZn]if0f ug{ klg ;dy{ o;n] lkt[;Ttfsf cf8df gf/Lk|lt b'Jo{jxf/ ug]{x?sf] / To;af6 cfxft
cfˆgf] dgf]bzfsf] ts{k"0f{ ljZn]if0f k|:t't u/]sL 5 . kl/jf/ / ;dfh g} cfˆgf ljkIfdf vlgPsf] x'“bf
PSnL o;n] a'l4dTtfk"0f{ 9ª\udf k|lt/f]w ug{ g;s] klg cfj]uk"0f{ 9ª\ud} eP klg Psf]xf]/f] k|lt/f]w u/]sL
5 . k9]n]v]sL pRr lzlIft o;sf] ljrf/} ga'emL cfdf / lbbLx?n] if8oGqd"ns 9ª\udf ljjfx u/fpg
vf]]h]sf 5g\ eg] /fd|L b]v]/ 8fO/]S6/ /Tgdfgn] klg o;nfO{ ank"j{s :jf:gL agfpg vf]h]sf] 5 . k9]n]v]sf
pRr kb:y / cfkmGtsf] ;d]t cfk"mk|lt To:tf] 3[l0ft if8oGqk"0f{ v]n b]v]kl5 o;df k|ltzf]wsf] Hjfnf
blGsPsf] 5 . if8oGqk"0f{ 9ª\udf cfk"mnfO{ :jo+j/sf] dfnf klx¥ofpg]s} cufl8 o;n] dfnf Roftr't kf/]/
kmfn]sL 5 . Tolt ubf{ klg cem} cfk"mdfly lub\b] b[li6 /fvL :jf:gL agfpg vf]Hg]nfO{ o;n] xTof g} ug{
vf]h]sL 5 . o;n] eg]sL klg 5 –
dnfO{ if8oGq u/]/ a/afb ug{ rfxg]nfO{ d klg xTof ug{ rfxGy] -k[=(^_ .
d /0frl08sf eO{ xfn]“, clUg :k'mlnª\u em}+ hNg yfn]F / sf]7fdf 3';f/L /fv]sf] rlDsnf]
5'/LnfO{ :kz{ u/]“ . To;sf] xTof u5'{ / o;sf] abnf r'sfp“5' . d}n] tTIf0f} ;ª\sNk u/]“
-!)(_ .
;f]xL cg';f/ of] cu|;/ klg ePsL 5 t/ ;f]r] h;/L xTof g} ug{ eg] ;dy{ ePsL t 5}g . tfklg pgLx?nfO{
3f]/ ckdflgt u/]/ r}gsf] ;f; km]g{ klg lbPsL 5}g . en} To;sf lglDt o;n] a]nf a]nfdf dfgl;s ;Gt'ng
u'dfpg klg k'u]sL 5 . t/ klg kl5;Dd o;sf] ljb|f]x eg] d'vl/t g} 5–
d k'/fgf] 9f“rf ;a} eTsfp“5' jf To;}af6 lslrP/ Wj:t x'G5' . oxL Pp6f pkfo af“sL
5 . To;}n] sf7df8f}“ kmls{b}5', abnf lng -k[=!%@_ .
o; d'6'df abnfsf] efjgf afx]s s]xL 5“b} 5}g -k[=!%(_ .
o:tf o;sf egfOn] o;leq /x]sf] k|ltzf]wL ljb|f]xL cfs|f]zx? g} Wjlgt x'G5g\ .
cfly{s ?kdf ;DkGg ju{sL o;n] pko'St cfw'lgs z}lIfs kl/j]z kfP/ pRr lzIff xf“l;n u/]sL /
zf/Ll/s ?kdf ;d]t Psbd} /fd|L x'“bf o;sf] k|efjzfnL JolStTjaf6 cfg} cfdf / lbbLx? Oiof{n' ag]sf
5g\ eg] lkt[;Ttf d"ns ;dfh Joj:yfsf 6f7f af7f s]xL x}l;ot ePsf 7fGg] k'?ifx? klg o;sf] ?k
b]v]/ e't'Ss ag]sf 5g\ . oxL eP/ cg'/fwfnfO{ 7]ufg nufpg cfdf lbbLx? / 8fO/]S6/ /Tgdfgsf] :jfy{
ldn]sf] 5 . tTsfnLg ;fdGtL lkt[ ;TtfTds ;dfhsf] cf8df pgLx? emg\ anzfnL ag]/ PSnL cg'/fwf;“u
vlgPsf 5g\ t/ gf/LnfO{ :y"n z/L/ dfq} jf jf;gf k"lt{sf] ;fwg dfq} 7fgL p;sf] afx\o ;f}Gbo{ g} ;a}
s'/f dfGg], p;sf efjgf, rfxgf, b[li6sf]0f, ts{ h:tf cfGtl/s s'/fnfO{ s'g} dxTTj glbg], p;sf] :jtGq
klxrfg jf :jcl:tTj g;sfg]{, k'?if cfl>t k|f0fL dfq} 7fGg] h:tf lkt[;Ttfsf gf/L lj/f]wL ;f]rk|lt
cg'/fwfsf] 68\sf/f] lj/f]w / ljdlt pkGof;sf 7fp“ 7fp“df b]lvG5g\ . cg'/fwf h] h:tf] eP klg cfˆgf]
klxrfg cfkm}+ agfpg rfxG5] . ljj]sdf rNg rfxG5] . :jTj u'dfP/ k|fKt x'g] ljnfl;tf jf ;d[l4 o;nfO{
:jLsfo{ 5}g . if8oGqk"0f{ 9ª\udf cfˆgf] cl:dtf ckxl/t x'g yfn]sf] yfxf kfP/ g} of] xTofl/0fL;Dd aGg
71
vf]h]sL 5 . To;}n] o;sf] gf/LjfbL ljb|f]x lgZro g} k"j{jtL{ pkGof;x?sf] eGbf a9L cy{k"0f{ b]lvPsf] 5
t/ o; pkGof;df gf/LjfbL sf]0fsf ;fy} g/gf/Lsf] s'l07t dgf]bzfsf] ljZn]if0f / cl:tTjjfbL sf]0f klg
cem alnof] 9ª\uaf6 k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 -kf}8]n, @)^* M !&$–@!#_ . sltko cj:yfdf oL Ps csf{sf
;+lZni6 klg 5g\ . x/]s dflg;sf km/s km/s ;f]rfO / cfsfª\Iff x'g ;Sg] x'“bf hLjgnfO{ gfKg] / JofVof
ug]{ dfkb08 Pp6f dfq} x'g' x'GgÙ k/Dkl/t lkt[;Ttfsf cg'ufdL gf/Lk|ltsf] lgisif{ dnfO{ :jLsfo{ 5}g, Pp6L
gf/Lsf] lgisif{ c¿df klg To;/L g} nfu' x'G5 eGg] 7fGg' klg l7s xf]Og, d cfˆgf]] :jTj / :jtGqtf dfly
k|xf/ ug]{nfO{ sbflk ;xg ;lStg“, d ldYof, s[lqd / ljjflxt cg'/fwf geO{ :jtGq cg'/fwf dfq x'g rfxG5',
cfTd lg0f{on] d h:tL aG5' Tof] dfq dnfO{ :jLsfo{ 5 h:tf cg'/fwfsf sygn] o;nfO{ cl:tTjjfbL
gf/Lsf ?kdf lrgfPsf 5g\ . o;sf o:tf cl:tTjjfbL b[li6sf]0f / PSnf] ;ª\3if{n] ;a} gf/Lx?nfO{ :jfwLg
/ :jtGq eP/ af“Rgsf lglDt ;ª\3if{zLn /xg clek|]l/t klg u/]sf 5g\ .
^= pk;+xf/
k|:t't zf]wd"ns n]vdf @)@) ;fn;Ddsf g]kfnL pkGof;x?sf gf/L kfqx?sf] ljb|f]xL :j/ cGj]if0f ug{]
s|ddf hDdf !( j6f pkGof;sf To:tf ;Gbe{nfO{ oxf“ s]nfOPsf] 5 . o:tf pkGof;dWo] sltko -?kdtL,
;dosf] x'/L_ df gf/L kL8sk|lt cfs|f]z b]lvP klg To:tf] cfs|f]zk"0f{ ljb|f]x syg ug{]sf] rl/q g} gsf/fTds
x'“bf Tof] :j/ Tolt k|efjL ag]sf] 5}g eg] s'g} -kNnf] 3/sf] e\mofn_ df ljb|f]xL Jojxf/ r]tg dgaf6 geO{
of}g s'07f k|]l/t cjr]tgaf6 ePsf] x'“bf Tof] dgf]ljZn]if0fdf ;fGble{s eP klg oxf“ Tolt ;fGble{s ag]sf]
5}g . To:t} s'g} -j;GtL_ df Oltxf; / /fhgLlt ljifo k|wfg x'“bf, s]xL -dft[Tj / wd{ k':ts, sf] c5't
<, ;To ;Gb]]z ljwjf hLjg_ df cf}kGofl;s ;+/rgf a9L g} b'a{n b]lvFbf, s]xL -piff, k|folZrTt, of}jgsf]
cf“wL_ df b'a{n cf}kGofl;s ;+/rgfsf ;fy} ljb|f]xL :j/ d"n :j/sf ?kdf geO{ k|f;ª\lus ag]/ cfp“bf
clg s]xL -nug, 8fs a+unf_ df ljb|f]xL :j/ k|;ª\ujz dfq} b]lv“bf tL Tolt w]/} k|efjL t ag]sf 5}gg\
tfklg ljb|f]xL :j/sf] lg/Gt/tfsf b[li6n] ltgsf] dxTTj /x]sf] 5 . ltgdf n}ª\lus ;dfgtfsf] :j/ st}
lemgf] / st} 68\sf/f] ?kdf b]lvPsf] 5 . gf/Ljfbsf k|sf/sf b[li6n] x]bf{ tL ;a}h;f] -sf] c5't < afx]s_
pbf/ gf/Ljfbsf] lgs6 b]lvPsf 5g\ . oL afx]ssf cGo pkGof;x? -e|d/, k|]d, dg, zflGt, Ps lrxfg,
:jf:gLdfG5] / cg'/fwf_ df gf/L kfqsf] gf/LjfbL ljb|f]xL :j/ a9L cy{k"0f{ ag]/ cfPsf] 5 .
g]kfnL pkGof;df gf/L kfqsf] gf/LjfbL ljb|f]xL :j/sf] vf; yfngL ‘e|d/’ pkGof;sL dfofaf6} ePsf] xf] .
dfof :jcl:tTj r]tgfn] el/PsL pRr lzlIft rl/q xf] . cfk\mgf] cl:dtf;“u v]njf8 ug{ vf]h]sf] gfos
OGb| z]v/nfO{ o;n] lzi6 9ª\un] b'Tsf/]/ /fd}| k5'tf]df kf/]sL 5 / To:tf ljZjf; 3ftLsf] ;ª\ut k'gM
ug{ rfx]sL 5}g . ;dfh pTyfgdf klg o;sf] ;sf/fTds ;f]r b]lvPsf] 5 . o;sf cleJolSt / Jojxf/
pbf/ gf/Ljfb cg'?ksf 5g\ . o;kl5 clzIffs} sf/0f ;dfhdf gf/L x/]s If]qdf kl5 k/]sf x'g\ eGb} gf/L
lzIffdf ljz]if hf]8 lbP/ n]lvPsf] ‘k|]d’ pkGof;sL /fh" clg gf/L lj/f]wL ;fdflhs s'?ktf lg?k0fdf
s]lGb|t ‘dg’ / ‘zflGt’ pkGof;sf s|dzM dg / zflGt clg ‘Ps lrxfg’ pkGof;sL /~hgf b]jLsf syg
/ Jojxf/ klg pbf/ gf/Ljfb cg's"nsf 5g\ . ‘k|]d’ / ‘zflGt’ pkGof;sf] cf}kGofl;s ;+/rgf eg] b'a{n g}
/x]sf] 5 . o:t} ‘:jf:gLdfG5]’sL d}of“gfgL / p;sf ;xof]uLx? eg] k9]n]v]sf geP klg k'?ifx?sf] cg]s
72
cftª\saf6 u|l;t eO{ ;ª\ul7t ljb|f]xdf nfu]sf 5g\ . ltgsf] ljb|f]x JolSt xTofdf s]lGb|t aGb} uPsf] 5 .
Tof] dfS;{jfbL gf/Ljfbsf] lgs6 b]lvG5 . x'g t dfS;{jfbL gf/Ljfbsf] :ki6 cleJolSt ‘sf] c5't <’ sf
dfof / k|1f kf/ldtfsf sygx?df b]Vg ;lsG5 t/ s[ltsf] cf}kGofl;s ;+/rgf ‘:jf:gLdfG5]’ sf] eGbf klg
a9L g} b'a{n x'“bf Tof] sd dxTTjsf] ag]sf] 5 . ‘cg'/fwf’ pkGof;sL cg'/fwf eg] ‘e|d/’ pkGof;sL dfofs}
ljsl;t ?k h:tL b]lvG5] . o;df :jcl:tTj r]t dfofdf eGbf klg tLj|td /x]sf] 5 . of] cl:tTjjfbL
hLjg b[li6af6 lgld{t ePsL x'b“ f o;n] j}olSts :jtGqtfsf] k|r'/ jsfnt u/]sL 5 . o;df dgf]ljZn]if0fsf]
Ifdtf klg k|z:t} 5 . To;}n] of] pkGof; dgf]ljZn]if0ffTds, cl:tTjjfb / gf/Ljfbsf] lqj]0fL ag]sf] 5 .
;du|df eGbf @)@) ;fn;Dd k"0f{ ;r]t?kdf gf/LjfbL l;4fGtsf] s]Gb|Lotfdf dfq} cfwfl/t eO{ g]kfnL
pkGof; n]lvPsf] gkfOP klg To;nfO{ s]xLdf ;xof]uL / s]xLdf uf}0f :j/sf ?kdf k|:t't ul/Psf] eg]
w]/} g} kfOG5 . gf/LjfbL ljb|f]xL :j/ k|If]k0fsf b[li6n] x]bf{ o; ;dosf pkGof; / ltgsf gf/L rl/qdf
yfngLsf b[li6n] ‘e|d/’ / To;sL dfof, dfS;{jfbL ljb|f]xL :j/sf] lgs6sf b[li6n] ‘:jf:gLdfG5]’ / To;sL
d"ntM d}of“gfgL clg ;3g tfls{s ljGof;sf ;fy gf/L cl:tTj af]w / ljb|f]xsf] tLj|tfsf b[li6n] ‘cg'/fwf’
pkGof;sL cg'/fwfsf] ljb|f]xL :j/ a9L k|efjzfnL b]lvPsf 5g\ . logn] gf/Ljfbsf km/s km/s k|sf/sf]
;d]t k|ltlglwTj ub{5g\ .
d'Vo ;Gbe{ u|Gy
sf]O/fnf, e'jg]Zj/ -@)!#_= ;To ;Gb]z / ljwjf hLjg= kf]v/f M v8\ub]jL sf]O/fnf .
lqkf7L, ;'wf -;g\ @)!@_= g]kfnL pkGof;df gf/Ljfb k4lt / k|of]u= sf7df8f}“ M e[s'6L Ps]8]lds klAns];G; .
yfkf, nLnfWjh -@)$^_= dg= kf“rf}“ ;+=, sf7df8f}“ M ;femf k|sfzg .
————————— -@)%)_= zflGt= ;ftf}“ ;+=, sf7df8f}“ M ;femf k|sfzg .
g]kfn, 3gZofd -;g\ !(*&_= cfVofgsf s'/f= l;nu9L M g]kfnL ;flxTo k|rf/s ;ldlt .
kf08]o, d}g]h/ -;g\ !(*(_= ;flxTos] ;dfh zf:q sL e"ldsf= r08Lu9 M xl/of0ff ;flxTo csfbdL .
kf08], ?b|/fh -@))&_= k|folZrTt= bf]=;+=, sf7df8f}“ M :jo+ .
————————— -@)$^_= ?kdtL= rf}wf}“ ;+, sf7df8f}“ M ;femf k|sfzg .
————————— -@)%)_= k|]d= t];|f]=;+=, sf7df8f}“ M ;femf k|sfzg .
kf}8]n, lji0f' k|;fb -@)^*_= pkGof; ;dfnf]rgf= sf7df8f}“ M e'8L k'/f0f .
——————————————— -@)^(_= gf/LjfbL l;4fGt / g]kfnL pkGof;df o;sf] k|f/lDes ?k= kf]v/f M l;h{gzLn nf]s
tflGqs k|lti7fg .
k|wfg, x[bo rGb| l;+x -@)$&_= :jf:gLdfG5]= ;ftf“} ;+=, sf7df8f}“ M ;femf k|sfzg .
73
–––––––––––––– -@)%^_= Ps lrxfg= b;f}“ ;+=, nlnt k'/ M ;femf k|sfzg .
dNn, df]xg axfb'/ -@)%)_= ;dosf] x'/L= t]=;+=, sf7df8f}“ M ;femf k|sfzg .
dNn, ljho -@)#(_= cg'/fwf= nlnt k'/ M ;femf k|sfzg .

/fO{ /l;s, cR5f -@)#(_= nug= rf}=;+= w/fg M rGb|/fO{ g]kfnL .
/fO{, lzj s'df/ -@)$%_= 8fs a+unf= 5}6f} ;+=, l;lSsd M hgkIf k|sfzg .
/f0ff, 8fodg zdz]/ -@)%)_= j;GtL= gjf} ;+=, sf7df8f}“ M /Tg k':ts e08f/ .
zdf{, d'lStgfy -@))&_= dft[Tj / wd{ k':ts= sf7df8f}“ M :jo+ .
———————— -@)^%_= sf] c5't <= lå=;+=, kf]v/f M k+= d'lStgfy :d[lt k|lti7fg .
>]i7, sfzL axfb'/ -!((%_= piff= sf7df8f}“ M g]kfnL efiff k|sflzgL ;ldlt .
l;+x, ejfgL eSt -!((^_= of}jgsf] cf“wL= sf7df8f}“ M :jo+ .
l;+x, ?k gf/fo0f -;g\ !(&(_= e|d/= rf}wf}“ ;+=, v;f{ª M sg]{n zdz]/ hª\u l;+x .
-k|ltls|ofsf nflu )^!–%#&(^(÷[email protected]_
74
Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Devilal Sharma
AN ANALYSIS OF EMPLOYMENT TAX ADMINISTRATION

WITH REFERENCE TO POKHARA VALLEY
Devilal Sharma
Abstracts
Nepal is one of the least developed countries in the world, which is
not being able to collect necessary government revenue to fulill their
requirement. Because of this reason, the present study has been designed
to highlight the Employment tax reform in Nepal and its administration
system. The government of Nepal has adopted various policies to
strengthen the revenue structure in the context of changing economic
policy. For the restructuring of Income tax system change in existing act
has been made in 2058. As per the opinion of Tax practitioners and Tax
payers, employment tax administration system of Nepal is ineffective.
The causes of ineffectiveness are lack of trained and competent tax
personnel, complicated tax laws, Inadequate economic policy, lack of
proper communication, coordination and direction, undue delay in making
assessment, unnecessary outside pressure etc. The current provisions
made for income tax from employment in Nepal under ITA, 2058 are
complicated for an average tax payer. IRD has not been able to provide
adequate knowledge either to the tax payers or tax administrator; even
it is also fail to effective implementation of the act. In Nepalese context,
employment Tax administration system is ineffective, so for collect the
maximum revenue the Tax administration system must be improved.
Key Words: Employment Tax, Tax Reforms, administrative behaviour, administration
system, Assessee.
Introduction
Nepal is one of the least developed countries in the world, which is not being able to collect
necessary government revenue to fulill their requirement. Due to poor performance on
internal revenue collection and mobilization, it has still depended on foreign grants and
loans to fulill the need for developmental activities, which is not beneicial in the long
run interest of the country.
External sources of fund are foreign grants and loans. This kind of fund is received from
foreign countries and international organizations. External sources of fund are important
for undeveloped and underdeveloped countries. It is used for economic development,
reconstruction, foreign exchange, to recover from crisis condition for productive use etc
75
Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) An Analysis of Employment Tax…
(Dhakal and Luitel, 2002). Internal sources of fund is own source within the nation and
it includes both tax and non-tax revenues. Internal sources are more important and it is
necessary for proper mobilization of internal sources to fulill governments inancing
necessities. Internal source has no obligation towards the third pa rty and is less risky
as compared to the external fund.
Government revenue is the most important source of inancing government expenditure.
To achieve the national objectives the government is required to make and implement
various policies and planning, acts and procedures. Besides these functions revenue
mobilization is one of the most important functions of the government (Bhattarai and
Shrestha, 1997). The income of the government is called government revenue. The
government revenue can be classiied broadly into two groups i.e. tax revenue and non-
tax revenue. Government receives tax revenue as compulsory payment and non-tax
revenue is a conditional sources. Duty fees, penalty, ines and forfeitures receipt from
sales and rent of government services, dividends, interest, royalty and sales of government
property, principle repayment, donation and miscellaneous income etc are the sources
of non-tax revenue. Income tax, sales tax, custom duties, hotel tax, revenue from land
registration etc are the sources of tax revenue. The major sources of internal revenue of
government are tax revenue. In F.Y. 2064/65 the total revenue was Rs.107.62248 Billion
out of which revenue the contribution of non-tax revenue was Rs.19.783843 Billions
and the contribution of tax revenue was Rs.85.155457 Billion out of tax revenue the
contribution of indirect tax was Rs.62.0676 Billion, and the contribution and direct tax
was Rs.23.0877 Billions in F.Y.2064/65 which means that the contribution of Indirect
tax revenue and direct tax revenue was 73% and 27% in total tax revenue respectively
(Annual Report of IRD, 2064/65).
Income tax also helps to increase the consciousness of the people because the people
who have paid the income tax are keen towards public expenditure. It is also helpful for
generating the concept of social responsibility towards the nation. In fact income tax
system has been originated recently as on internal sources to strengthen the sources of
tax for economic growth of a country and to meet the slogan of economic revolution by
searching additional sources of revenue. One of the important characteristics of income
tax system is that it is impartial and just as compared to other taxes. The reason is that
it is imposed keeping in view the capacity of taxpayer to bear the burden of tax. People,
whose income level is under prescribed limit, are exempted from income tax liability.
Income tax is basically charged for two purposes one is for collecting to meet expenses
for public welfare activities and another is to create equalitarian society by minimizing
the economic gap between haves and have not. Income tax is based on the principle of
certainty. It also follows the cannon of economy.
There is a resource gap problem in Nepalese economy. Public expenditure is greater than
public receipts. The resource gap has been widening by every year. For the economic
76
growth of the country, large volume of investment and expenditures on economic activities
are needed. Taxation is looked upon as the most powerful tools of the government for
raising revenue. In the modern world, taxation has been taken as the best effective tools
for raising the ratio of saving to the national income. A country develops through taxation.
It is very useful to equalize the distribution of national economy and to reduce disparity
in the distribution of wealth and income and to maintain economic stability.
There are mainly four reason as why income tax yield is less in developing countries
as compare to developed ones. They are: problem of deining income, problem of
assessing and measuring it, the choice of rate, allowances and deductions and dificulties
of tax collection (Prest, 1995). In Nepalese context our per capita income is very low.
“According to World Bank report 2008, Nepal's per capita income has been US $ 290”
(International Forum Year Book, January 2008). Economic survey 2064/65 published
by ministry of inance states that the per capita income has been reached to US $ 474.
It is one of the lowest in the world. Income distribution is signiicantly inluenced by
disparities in the distribution of assets and income generating opportunities. Lower saving
of individuals has been the major causes for the lower saving of the household and lower
investment. Very low level of revenue generation and relatively higher expenditure in
social and economic infrastructures has been the features of Nepalese economy. As a
result, budget deicit countries to remain at high level. Most of development projects and
programs are inanced through foreign loan and aid leading to problems of increasing
debt servicing.
Nepal has been adopting the income tax system for last four decades and is assessed on
yearly basis. Although the legal provision has been made and updates timely, there are
many problems about income tax such as leakage in tax, feeling of people about tax as a
penalty, lack of consciousness of people, inability of tax administration to cover new tax
payers, delays in computation and collection, lack of accuracy and unity in accounting
system etc. (Khadka, 2001).
The mobilization of revenue has not increased to level in which the level and speed of
our expenditure is rising. To raise the government revenue, this helps to overcome from
the serious bottleneck of resource gap in the process of economic development program.
In this context taxation can be taken as means for resolving this problem by mobilizing
additional resources from domestic sources. The government of Nepal has adopted
various policies to strengthen the revenue structure in the context of changing economic
policy. For the restructuring of Income tax system change in existing act has been made
in 2058. Government is already not able to increase the income tax as per requirement
after the ambitious change in law. Ineficient tax administrative system, widespread
income tax evasion, complication in explanation tax provisions include in tax laws and
lack of awareness political instability and frequent change in government and feelings of
responsibility in taxpayers are appearing as major factors for low contribution of income
77
tax in national revenue. Internal conlict of nation and political instability has affected
the economic system indirectly but very seriously.
There has a big gap between formulation of policies and it's implementation. This study
will analyze the existence of such gap in employment taxation policy. To widen the base
of tax different income should be include within income tax net. To fulill of such gap
how can broaden the tax base under this head need to be examined. So this study has
tried to access how the employment tax administration system of Nepal is and how to
improve the employment tax administration system in Nepal?
Every year, Nepalese government has been presenting deicit budget, there is increment
in resource gap. Most of the development activities depend on bilateral and multilateral
grants and loans. The nation is hardly bearing the burden of the loan and the internal
sources of revenue are not suficient even to meet the ordinary expenses. In this context
the easy and long lasting way to increase revenue to strengthen the internal source in
which employment income tax is one of the major components. It has been contributing
to income tax revenue of the nation being a regular source of income. As this study has
analyzed the employment income tax system and it's contributions to revenue collection,
the inding, conclusions and recommendation of the study will be useful to design and
formulate police by the concerned authorities. Besides, the study will be helpful to the
tax payers, students, economists, planners, tax oficers, tax administrator and research
scholars as reference materials.
The basic objectives of this study is to access the employment tax administration system of
Nepal and to analyze, the way that improve national revenue collection from employment
and suggest the government to improve the no. of employment tax payers in Nepal. So
the government can collect more revenue.
Data and Methods
Descriptive and analytical research design is used to serve the purpose. The population
consists of entire people associated with Inland Revenue ofice Pokhara out of them 50
sample size is selected from different denomination by following the norms of stratiied
random sampling. Persons included in the sample are carefully selected from Tax
Advocate, Tax Expert, Auditor, Tax administrator and so on. The responses have been
divided into two groups. Category A consist of 25 Tax law practitioners and category
B consist of 25 taxpayers. As per the subject matter, a set of questionnaire had been
developed and distributed to two groups of respondents i.e. Tax practitioners and Tax
payer. Tax practitioners comprises of character Accountants, Auditors, policy makers
of IRD, some Tax Experts and legal advisor of income Tax, Tax payers comprises
employees working in various organizations like banks, government ofice, manufacturing
various aspects of employment income. To analyze the data χ2-test and rank correlation
organizations and other private organizations were contacted for the opinions regarding
78
is used.
The degree of relationship between two variables with respect to their respective ranks is
known as "Rank Correlation Coeficient." Researcher has using this tool to calculate the
degree of relationship between Tax practitioners and Tax payers regarding the opinion
of subject matter. This can be expressed as:
6∑ d 2
Rank Correlation (g) = 1 −
n3 − n
Where: d = different between two sets of ranks

n = no. of pair of observations.
Chi-square test is applied to such frequency of occurrence as against the expected ones
without reference to population parameters, which were being done earlier in signiicance
testing. The quantity of χ2describes the magnitude of the discrepancy between theory
and observations. In this study, we used χ2-test in signiicance testing between Tax
practitioners and Tax payers regarding their opinions. It is deined as:
 (O − E )2 
χ -test = ∑  
 E 
2
Where: O = Observed frequencies

E = Expected frequencies
Results and Dsicussion
Effectiveness of employment tax administration system of Nepal
To know the respondents opinion about the employment tax administration system,
the question, ‘In your opinion, How is the employment tax administration system of
Nepal?’ Was asked with the alternatives of a) effective b) Ineffective. The responses
received from the respondents are tabulated and the result has been found that 84% of
the respondents responded in favour of Employment tax administration system of Nepal
is ineffective and rest 16% of respondents responded in favour of effective. Thus, for
the better analysis of Employment tax administration system of Nepal, the test tool Chi-
Square (χ2) was used as:
Null Hypothesis (Ho): There is no signiicant different in between Tax practitioner and
Tax payers for the opinion regarding effectiveness of employment tax administration
79
system of Nepal.
Alternative Hypothesis (H1): There is signiicant different in between Tax practitioner
and Tax payers for the opinion regarding effectiveness of employment tax administrate
system of Nepal.
 (O − E )2 
χ -test = ∑  
 
2
∑ O = 50
E
\ E= = 12 .5
n 4
Degree of freedom = (r-1) (c-1) = (2-1) (2-1) = 1×1=1

\Tabulated value of χ2 at 5% level of signiicant for 1 degree of freedom (d.f) is 3.841.
Since χ2 calculated (28.24) > χ2 tabulated (3.841). Hence Ho is rejected i.e. there is
signiicant different in between Tax practitioner and Tax payers for the opinion regarding
effectiveness of employment tax administration system of Nepal.
A supplementary question was asked to the respondents to suggest the main causes of
ineffectiveness of tax administration system. The responses received from the respondents
are listed as bellows.
Table 1
Causes of ineffectiveness of employment tax administration
system of Nepal
S. Weight Total
Causes Percentage Rank
N. A B Weight
Lack of trained and competent
1. 102 173 275 20.03 1
tax personnel
2. Complicated tax laws 70 150 220 16.01 2
Lack of proper
3. 54 105 159 11.58 4
communication
4. Lack of proper direction 62 78 140 10.20 6
Under delay in making
5. 55 78 133 9.69 7
assessment
6. Unnecessary outside pressure 43 65 108 7.87 8
80
7. Lack of co-ordination 54 103 157 11.43 5

8. Inadequate economic policy 81 100 181 13.18 3
Total 1373 100
Source: Opinion Survey, 2010
The main causes of ineffectiveness of employment tax administration system
ranked in order of preference of respondents are given as below.
i) Lack of trained and competent tax personnel
ii) Complicated tax laws.
iii) Inadequate economic policy.
iv) Lack of proper communication.
v) Lack of co-ordination.
vi) Lack of proper direction.
vii) Undue delay in making assessment.
viii) Unnecessary outside pressure.
Some of the respondents stated other causes, which are corruption, punishment system,
biased reward system etc.
Problems in paying employment income tax
In order to know the employment tax administration system, another issue was 'Did
you feel any problem in paying employment income tax?'. The responses received from
respondents in two alternative Yes or No, was also tabulated and the result was 56%
of respondents’ responses on yes alternative and 44% of respondents responses on No
alternative. Same test statistics was used as above.
Null Hypothesis (Ho): There is no signiicant different on opinion regarding problems
in paying employment tax between Tax practitioners and Tax payers.
Alternative Hypothesis (H1): There is signiicant different on opinion reading problems
in paying employment tax between tax practitioners and tax payers.
Test statistics:
(ad - bc) 2 (a + b + c + d)  a b
χ2 - test =  
(a + b)( c + d )( a + c)( b + d )  c d 
81
(13 × 10 − 12 × 15 ) × 50
2
25 × 25 × 28 × 2
=
(−50 ) 2 × 50
=
385000
125000
=
385000
= 0.327
Degree of freedom (d.f.) = (r-1) (c-1) = (2-1) (2-1) = 1
Tabulated value of χ2 at 5% level of signiicant for 1 d.f is 3.841.
Since χ2 calculated (0.327) < χ2 tabulated (3.841). Hence Ho is accepted i.e. There is no
signiicant different on opinion regarding problems in paying employment tax between
Tax practitioners and Tax payers.
A supplementary question, 'If yes, what kind of problems? was asked to the respondents.
The responses received from them are prioritizing on the base of total weight. The
following list shows the problems in paying employment tax as per the priority which
were assigned by the respondents.
i) Expectation of under taxable payments by tax payers.
ii) Negligence by tax personnel.
iii) In-effective administration.
iv) Lack of suficient tax information.
v) Bad behaviour of tax oficers.
Improvement of Tax administration system
To determine the income tax administration system by collecting suggestion from
respondents the question 'for the improvement of tax administration system, what
suggestion do you have?' was asked. The responses received from the respondents are
listed as below:
82
Table 2
Suggestion to improve the tax administration system
Weight Total
S.N. Causes Percentage Rank
A B Weight
1. Decentralization of authority 130 70 200 11.70 5
Training and seminar to tax
2. 150 178 328 19.18 1
personnel
Effective personnel
3. 110 150 260 15.21 2
management
4. Effective outside pressure 30 62 92 5.38 8
High penalty and ines to
5. 108 115 223 13.04 4
corrupted personnel.
6. Effective co-ordination 80 100 180 10.53 7
7. Clear act, rules and regulation 125 108 233 13.63 3
Proper communication and
8. 127 67 195 11.33 6
direction
Total 1373 100
Source: Opinion Survey, 2010
In above table, it was found that there is some variance between tax practitioners and tax
payers. So to know how much the view of Tax payers and Tax practitioners are related,
we assist comparative analysis. For this analysis we can test Rank correlation coeficient.
So, irst of all, it have to assign ranks to the above igures highest being 1 and lowest as
8. Let R1 be the ranks to Tax practitioners and R2 be the ranks to Tax payers as shown
below. Let d be absolute value of difference between two sets of ranks.
Assignment of Ranks and calculation of Rank correlation coeficient (r) :
6∑ d 2 6 × 54
Rank Correlation (g) = 1 − = 1−
n −n
3
83 − 8
= 1−
324
504
= 0.357
Since the correlation coeficient takes on positive value the two sets of ranks have been
related directly. The numerical value is as low as 0.357. Hence, there is low degree of
83
positive association between two ranking sets i.e. tax practitioner and Tax payers.
Employment tax revenue collection in Nepal
To know the respondents opinion about the revenue collection through employment
tax, we issue a question ‘Do you think that the government success to collect suficient
income tax through employment?’ and the responses received from respondents are
72% and 60% in favour of the question respectively from respondents category A and B.
Null Hypothesis, (Ho): There is no signiicant different regarding opinion to revenue
collection through employment tax between Tax practitioners and Tax payers.
Alternative Hypothesis, (H1): There is signiicant different regarding opinion to revenue
collection through employment tax between Tax practitioner and Tax payers.
Test Statistics:
χ2-test:
(ad − bc ) (a + b + c + d ) a

b

(a + b ) (c + d ) (a + c )(b + d ) d 
2
c
=
(18 × 10 − 7 × 15 ) × 50
2
25 × 25 × 3 × 17
=
=
(75 )2 × 50
350625
= 0.802
Degree of freedom (d. f.) = ( r – 1) (c – 1) = (2 – 1) (2–1) = 1
Tabulated value of χ2 at 5% level of signiicant for 1 d.f. is 3.841.
Hence, χ2 calculated (0.802) < χ2 tabulated (3.841). Since Ho is accepted i.e. there is
no signiicant different regarding opinion to revenue collection through employment tax
between Tax practitioners and Tax payers.
A supplementary question was asked to the respondent ‘if No, How to increase the
employment tax revenue in Nepal?’ The responses received from them are tabulated as
below.
84
Table 3
Suggestion to improve employment tax revenue
Weights Total
S.No Suggestions % Rank
A B Weight
1. By increasing tax rate 9 25 34 4.81 8
2. By reducing exemption limit 19 75 94 13.31 3
By reducing concessions, rebates
3. 21 63 84 11.90 4
and withholding payments
By bringing new tax payers into
4. 58 63 121 17.14 1
tax net
By giving a training to tax admin-
5. istrative and tax payers about tax 49 70 119 16.86 2
laws and regulations
By making proper communica-
6. 42 37 79 11.19 6
tion
By making clear act, rules and
7. 51 32 83 11.76 5
regulations
8. By reducing tax collection costs 33 32 65 9.21 7
By applying high penalty and
9. 12 15 27 3.82 9
ines to corrupted personnel's
Total 706 100
Source: Opinion Survey, 2010.
For assist comparative analysis, we have to calculate Rank correction. So, researcher
have to assign Rank to the above igures as per previous table.
6∑ d 2
n3 − n
\ Rank Correlation (r) = 1 –
6 × 75 450
9 −9
= 1- 3
= 1– = 0.375
720
Since r is nearer to zero. So there is low degree of positive correlation between Tax
practitioner and Tax payers for the opinion to improve employment tax revenue.
85
Broading the base of employment tax

To ind the opinion on broading the base of employment tax there was issues two
alternative Yes or No. The responses received from respondents are 100% in favour.
From the above table, it is clear that, all respondents’ responses on yes alternatives of the
questions ‘Is it effective to broading the base of employment tax’. Thus it can conclude
that by increasing the numbers of employment tax payers, must broading the base of
employment tax.
Researcher has asked a supplementary questions 'If yes, how to increase the no. of
employment tax payers in Nepal? And collected their opinion on priority basis, which
is as follows.
Table 4
Factors for increasing no. of tax payers in Nepal
S. Weights Total
Suggestions % Rank
No. A B Weight
1. By decreasing tax rate 170 162 332 19.55 1
By reducing exemption limit,
2. concessions, rebates and with holding 100 135 235 13.84 4
payments
By making clear act, rules and
3. 128 115 243 14.31 3
regulations
4. By effective implementation of the act 155 110 265 15.61 2
5. Provision of international taxation 47 80 127 7.48 8
Provision for resident and non-resident
6. 58 85 143 8.42 7
persons
Clear classification of sources of
7. 100 105 205 12.07 5
employment income.
8. By applying high penalty and ines 90 58 148 8.72 6
Total 1698 100
Source: Opinion Survey, 2010.
From the above ranking assign by the respondents opinion factors for increasing no.
of tax payers in Nepal is listed as below as per order of preferences.
1. By decreasing tax rate.
2. By effective implementation of the act.
3. By making clear act, rules and regulations.
86
4. By reducing exemption limit, concession, rebates and withholding payments.

5. Clear classiication of sources of employment income.
6. By applying high penalty and ines.
7. Provision for resident and non-resident person.
8. Provision for international taxation.
To ind the correlation between Tax practitioners and Tax payers regarding above opinion
we have to calculate Rank Correlation by assign ranks to the above igure highest being
1 and lowest as 8. Let, R1 be the ranks to Tax practitioners and R2 be the ranks to Tax
payers as shown below. Let d be absolute value of different between two sets of ranks.
6∑ d 2
\ Rank Correlation (r) = 1 –
n3 − n
6 × 16 .5 9
8 −8
= 1- 3
= 1– = 1–0.196 = 0.804
504
Since, there is high degree of positive correlation between tax practitioner and tax payers
regarding factors for increasing no. of tax payers in Nepal.
Findings
On the basis of discussion and analysis in above some important indings of the study
are summarized as below:
 As per the opinion of Tax practitioners and Tax payers, employment tax
administration system of Nepal is ineffective. The causes of ineffectiveness are
lack of trained and competent tax personnel, complicated tax laws, Inadequate
economic policy, lack of proper communication, coordination and direction,
undue delay in making assessment, unnecessary outside pressure etc.
 The perceived problems on employment income tax are expectation of under
taxable payments by tax payers, Negligence by tax personnel, In-effective
administration, lack of suficient tax information, unwanted behaviour of tax
oficers etc.
 ways to improve the tax administration system of Nepal are Training and
seminar to tax personnel, Effective personnel management, clear act, rules and
regulations, High penalty and ines to corrupted personnel, Decentralization of
authority, proper communication and direction, Effective coordination, Effective
outside pressure etc.
87
 Majority of Respondents opined that Government success to collect suficient

income tax through employment. However some of them suggested the way
that improve national revenue i.e. By bringing new tax payers into tax net, By
giving a training to tax administrative and tax payers about the tax laws and
regulations, By reducing exemption limit, By reducing concession, rebate and
withholding payments, By making clear act, rules and regulations, By making
proper communications, By reducing tax collection costs, By increasing tax
rate, By applying high penalty and ines to corrupted personnel etc.
 To broad the base of employment tax, government has to increase the no. of
employment tax payers in Nepal. So, as per the respondents opinion the factors
for increasing no. of employment tax payers are by decreasing tax rate, By
effective implementation of the act, By making clear act, rules and regulations.
Conclusions
In developing countries like Nepal, lack of suficient resources is the main constraint
for national economic development; public expenditure is greater than public receipts.
Taxation is looked upon as the most powerful tools of the government for raising revenue.
So, employment tax is an important source of collecting government revenue.
The current provisions made for income tax from employment in Nepal under ITA, 2058
are complicated for an average tax payer. IRD has not been able to provide adequate
knowledge either to the tax payers or tax administrator; even it is also fail to effective
implementation of the act. In Nepalese context, employment Tax administration system
is ineffective, so for collect the maximum revenue the Tax administration system must
be improved.
References:
Aryal, K.P. & Poudel, S.P. (2004). Taxation in Nepal. 1st edition, Kathmandu: Bhudipuran Prakashan.
Ashan, S.M. (1995). Tax Evasion: The Developing Country Prospective. Asian Development Review, Vol-I.
Bhattarai, I. & Koirala, G.P. (2008). Taxation in Nepal. Kathmandu: Asmita Publication.
Dahal, M.K. (1995). Reviews of Tax System. Kathmandu: Ministry of Finance.
Dhakal, K.D. (1998). Income Tax and House and Compound Tax : Laws and Practice. Kathmandu:
Kamal Prakashan.
Dhakal, N.K. & Luitel, C.P. (2002). Micro Economics, Money, Banking, Public Finance and International
Trade. Kathmandu: Pairawi Prakashan.
Dhungana, B., Kayastha, N.L. & Rai, B.P. (1976). An Analysis of Tax Structure of Nepal. Kathmandu:
CEDA.
Kandel, P.R. (2004). Are tax incentives useful? If so, which one?. Journal of Finance and Development.
Lalitpur: CEDA, Vol.1.
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Kandel, P.R. (2005). Nepalko Bartaman Kar Byabastha. 3rd edition, Kathmandu: Buddha Academic
Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
Khadka, R.B. (1994). Nepalese Taxation: A Path for Reform. Kathmandu: Marburg consults for self help
promotion.
Mallik, B. (2003). Nepalese Modern Income Tax System. Kathmandu: Anita Mallik.
Poudel, S.R. and Timalsina, P.P. (1990). Income Tax in Nepal. Kathmandu: Athrai Enterprises.
Wolff, H.K. and Pant, P.R. (2007). Social Science Research and Thesis Writing. Kathmandu: Buddha
Academic Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
Income tax Act (2002). Kathmandu: Government of Nepal.
Income Tax Rules (2003). Kathmandu: Government of Nepal.
Ministry of Finance (2001). Revenue Consultation Committee report, Kathmandu: Government of Nepal.
Ministry of Finance (2052). Revenue leakage investigation and Control Act, Kathmandu: Government
of Nepal.
http://www.google.com/search?client=irefox-a&rls=org.mozilla%3Aen-US%3Aoficial&channel=s&h
l=en&source=hp&q=income+tax&btnG=Google+Search
http://www.mof.gov.np/publication/budget/2010/surveyeng.php (assessed on...)
http://www.ird.gov.np/overview.php?c=Information&sb=Annual%20Reports
http://www.ird.gov.np/information.php?c=Income%20Tax
http://www.ird.gov.np/information.php?c=Information
http://www.ird.gov.np/overview.php?c=Information&sb=Collection
http://www.google.com.np/search? hl = en & del= en & q = deine: employment & sa= X & ei =
wyGQTMUHh8q 9A93W5f kL& red = OCBMQKAE
http://www.taxhlpattorney.com/articles/employement-taxes.html
http://www.allbusness.com/acconting-reporting/corporate-taxes/ 2709-1.html
http://ryder22.blogspot.com/2009/11/taxation-system-of-bikes-in-nepal-html.
89
Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Micro-inance Service…
Micro-inance Service Delivery in Nepal –A Case of

Micro Enterprises Development Program Modality
Puspa Raj Sharma
Abstracts
Government of Nepal recognised the potential role of support to expand
micro-inance services on addressing poverty problems that contributes
the expansion of Nepalese micro-inance sector especially from mid-
seventies. Currently there are four major types of MFIs namely Savings
and Credit Cooperatives (SCCs), Small Farmers’ Cooperatives Limited
(SFCLs), Financial Intermediary NGOs (FI-NGOs) and Micro-inance
Development Banks are active in Nepalese micro-inance sector. Lack
of access to inance is a major problem for micro-entrepreneurs to start
up or to scale up the enterprises in the UNDP/GON Micro-enterprise
Development Programme (MEDEP), which is one such project that
has faced enormous challenges to ensure access to inance to micro-
entrepreneurs it has developed through series of process.The Micro-
Enterprise Development Programme (MEDEP) is a multi-lateral donor
funded poverty reduction initiative supported by the Ministry of Industry
(Nepal Government) and the United Nations Development Programme in
Nepal since 1998. To support Nepal's poverty reduction efforts, MEDEP
has been identifying the poorest of the poor especially women, Indigenous
Nationalities, Dalit, Muslim, Other Madhesi groups.
Key words: Microinance, MEDEP, Poverty reduction, Nepal
1. Background
With emergence and growth of a large number of inancial institutions over the last
ive decades in Nepal, there has been continuous growth in micro-inance sector as one
of the interventions by public and private sectors to address poverty problems in rural
areas. Nepalese micro-inance movement goes back to 1956 with the emergence of
cooperatives that started providing savings and micro-credit services to their shareholders.
Government recognised the potential role of support to expand micro-inance services
on addressing poverty problems and this has been very effective for the expansion of
Nepalese micro-inance sector from mid-seventies. Government oficially recognised
the potential roles of micro-inance sector on poverty reduction only in the Sixth Plan
(1980/81 - 1984/85) and since early 1980's both government and non-governmental sector
developed and implemented number of programs to ensure access to inancial services
90
Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Dr. Puspa Raj Sharma
to the poor; women and disadvantaged group(Sharma, 2007). The micro-inance sector
more effectively came up with an increased support for the growth and development
after 1990s wherein signiicant number of Micro-inance Service Providers increased
with the intervention of local Non Government Organisations (NGOs) and micro-inance
development banks (MDBs) and transformation of savings and credit groups (SCGs)
into Savings and Credit Cooperatives (SCCs) as local MFIs.Currently there are four
major types of MFIs namely Savings and Credit Cooperatives (SCCs), Small Farmers’
Cooperatives Limited (SFCLs), Financial Intermediary NGOs (FI-NGOs) and Micro-
inance Development Banks active in Nepalese micro-inance sector(Sharma, 2007). In
addition to these MFIs, over dozen of rural development programmes implemented by
the government and non-government sectors are promoting large numbers of Savings
and Credit Groups under the credit component to provide inancial service to the poor.
Despite signiicant efforts and innovations to expand
inancial services to the poor and excluded, access to inancial services has still been
conined to a small and relatively less poor segment of rural population living in Tarai
and accessible hill districts. But large number of poor living in remote hills and mountain
districts are still outside the realm of the inancial services.
The indings of the 2006 Access to Financial Services Survey conirm that use of banks
by low income households is limited, inancial NGOs and cooperatives play a large role
in providing both deposit accounts and loans, and informal borrowing far exceeds formal
borrowing. Only 26 percent of Nepalese households have bank accounts, and banks’
procedures are perceived as being the most cumbersome among institutions. Accordingly,
clients prefer not to save in them. Banks are dominated in urban areas and among the
wealthiest.In Nepal, ensuring access to inance of poor and disadvantaged groups has
been always a challenge and most donor funded projects have faced such problem to
enhance access to inance to their target groups. Lack of access to inance is a major
problem for micro-entrepreneurs at both levels weather it is to start new enterprise or to
scale up the enterprises in the UNDP/GON Micro-Enterprise Development Programme
(MEDEP), which is one such project that has faced enormous challenges to ensure access
to inance to micro-entrepreneurs it has developed through series of process. During the
course of implementation, MEDEP worked to develop a model to reach the unreached
through the micro-inance services to entrepreneurs it has developed.
Review of Literature – Reaching the Poorest and Sustainability
Whether micro-inance should be orientated to build institutions for those commonly
excluded from the formal banking sector or should provide inancial services to help
reduce poverty are two opposite opinion regarding micro-inance operation(Sharma,
2011). Advocates of the latter approach contend that large-scale sustainable micro-inance
can be achieved only with inancial systems approach. To be able to reach large numbers
of clients, MFIs need to achieve self-suficiency but this should not be attained at the
91
expense of the beneits to these clients in terms of poverty impact.

Some MFIs have successfully achieved difficult balance of excellent financial
performance, outreach to the poorest people and signiicant positive impacts on the lives
of their clients. Poverty-focused MFIs can achieve excellent inancial performance, but the
process of striving towards these goals involves trade-offs between social and inancial
objectives. The nature of these trade-offs varies in different contexts.
The process of understanding needs and targeting very poor clients demands staff's
time/ workload. Poorer people often live in more remote, inaccessible or less densely
populated areas and active poverty targeting demands development and management,
staff time and additional supervision and operational costs. Once very poor people are
reached they are likely to take smaller loans, which generate less income and need greater
levels of support. Increasing the lexibility of inancial services and adding non-inancial
services can increase the effectiveness in poverty outreach and impact but costly and
complicated for implementation.
There are beneits of the poverty focus. Micro-inance industry has embraced targeting
women as it is recognised that this creates positive inancial and social beneits. One
of the most obvious but un-quantiiable beneits comes with offering services that are
appropriate for the market. MFIs that do not differentiate according to the needs of
different client groups are ineficient, and they will ind that clients do not perform and
they might otherwise.
If a MFI can succeed in supporting the poorest in overcoming their vulnerability and in
coping with shocks as they occur, then there is a good chance that the clients will improve
their position, and as they do so, have increasing need and capacity for inancial services.
They will be more likely to save more, take larger loans, experience fewer problems
and therefore require less staff input. This in turn will lead to the inancial success of
the MFI. There is anecdotal evidence that very poor clients are more committed to the
MFI and less likely to default. Higher initial costs may be partly balanced by lower
costs at a later stage. What is clear is that MFI sustainability very much depends on the
sustainability of its clients.
Exclusion in Micro-inance Service Delivery
Attracting the right people towards its products and services is one of the challenges
for any MFI that wishes to impact on very poor clients. This is in part about designing
services that are attractive to the poorest and understanding who is reached and why
others are excluded. Poorest of the poor are excluded from micro-inance due to deliberate
and inadvertent processes that operate formally and informally within MFI and clients(
Sharma, 2011). An understanding of the issues related to exclusion of the poorest from
micro-inance products and services and identifying the strategies to address such issue
is crucial for ensuring reaching the poorest.
92
Market forces operate to serve the less-poor irst. Very poor people are excluded through
self-exclusion, deliberate or unintentional MFI policy, exclusion by other clients, or by
leaving the programme.
MFIs may take a decision to provide services only to a speciic group of clients. For
example, many MFIs only provide loans to clients with an established micro-enterprise
backed by certain eligibility criteria.
Table 1
Mechanisms for Exclusion of the Poorest from MFIs
Action By Whom & Why
Formal exclusion by MFIs
Eligibility criteria ♦ Deliberate and considered MFI policy
Informal exclusion by clients
♦ Self-exclusion of very poor people ♦ Lack of conidence and perceptions of MFIs by
♦ Other clients prevent very poor joining in
clients
the group ♦ Self-interest of existing clients to exclude
`weak’ people in the group.
Exit of clients
♦ Self-selection ♦ Decisions by clients due to perceived lack of
♦ Pushed out by other clients
beneits
♦ Exclusion of “problem” clients by others
Informal exclusion by MFIs
♦ Staff: Active exclusion by staff assump- ♦ Response by staff at all levels to job priorities,
tions /practices mission and incentives
♦ Design: Inappropriate products/services ♦ Unexpected side effects of MFI policy and
practice.
2. Objectives of the study

This paper aims at documenting the innovations that MEDEP’s has made to reach the
unreached through micro-inance services. More speciically, the paper try to explore a
modality and experiences that provides a proper mix of the inancial and non-inancial
services to graduate the people at poor and disadvantaged group into the micro-
entrepreneurs and establish business linkages with inancial service providers for access
to inance to start and scale-up their micro-enterprises. The data used in this paper are
obtained mainly from secondary sources through a review of the information available
in the database that MEDEP’s Management Information System and indings of the
study that MEDEP has recently commissioned for Impact Assessment of the MEDEP’s
Micro-inance Services (Sharma,2011). Many have raised questions on micro-inance
and its importance as a means for poverty reduction. As promoters and practitioners
become increasingly concerned about quality of their interventions, interest has grown
93
in developing clear and concise mechanism that MFI simultaneously focus on very poor
and face challenges of sustainability and outreach. (Sharma,2011).
Several microinance models have came into existence in the name of poverty
reduction. This study conined on the modality of MEDEP in the ield of
microinance. Further the study try to explore their clients serving by the program
in the ield of social inclusion. In addition to this it analyses the various types of
enterprises what they have developed by the intervention o f the program. The study
mainly based on secondary source of information related to MEDEP
3.Data Analysis and Discussion
This section is focused on access to inance among MEDEP programmed
entrepreneurs, Micro-enterprise Promoted by MEDEP promoted Entrepreneurs, and
diversity of MFIs involved on access to inance.
3.1 Access to Finance among MEDEP promoted Entrepreneurs
As of December 2009, MEDEP have developed 44,195 micro-entrepreneurs in 36
districts of Nepal. MEDEP has focused on developing sustainable business linkages of
the micro-entrepreneurs with Financial Service Providers. Practices have shown that
Financial Service Providers have acknowledged the micro-entrepreneurs developed by
MEDEP to be capable for high credit risk and are quite conident to extend larger loan
size to these micro-entrepreneurs. As a consequence, about 61% of micro-entrepreneurs
in MEDEP districts have access to inancial services and FSPs are quite successful to
maintain high depth and breadth of outreach, good portfolio quality (above 98% on-time
repayment rate) and attained both operational and inancial self-suficiency out of their
operation. Such an access is signiicantly higher compared to national average access
to inance rate of 35%.
Table 2
Reaching the Unreached for Micro-inance Services
(December 2009/2010)
Indigenous
S. Dalits Nationalities Others Grand Total
Particulars (Adivasi-Janajati)
N.
Male Fem Total Male Fem Total Male Fem Total Male Fem Total
1 Total Number of 3303 6397 9700 5102 13132 18234 5679 10582 16261 14084 30111 44195
Entrepreneurs
2 % 7% 14% 21% 12% 30% 42% 13% 24% 37% 32% 68% 100%
3 Total Number of Credit 1601 3252 4853 2893 7082 9975 3640 8492 12132 8134 18826 26960
Borrowers
94
4 Percentage of Access
to Finance (out of total 4% 7% 11% 7% 16% 23% 8% 19% 27% 18% 43% 61%
micro-entrepreneurs, i.e.
44195)
5 Amount of Micro Credit
borrowed from ADB/N 3419 2217 5636 7998 9174 17172 8031 8390 16421 19448 19781 39229
('000)
6 Amount of Micro Credit 8802 19032 27834 9923 25214 35137 16551 39725 56276 35276 83971 119247
borrowed from Others
('000)
7 Total Amount of Credit 12221 21249 33470 17921 34388 52309 24582 48115 72697 54724 103752 158476
Borrowed ('000)
8 Average Loan Amount 7633 6534 6897 6195 4856 5244 6753 5666 5992 6728 5511 5878
Borrowed
9 Loan Outstanding ('000) 4569 5789 10358 7603 12260 19863 9745 8930 18675 21917 26979 48896
10 Average Loan Outstanding 2854 1780 2134 2628 1731 1991 2677 1052 1539 2694 1433 2064
11 Amount of MEG Group 1720 2725 4445 3230 6847 10077 3417 6556 9973 8367 16128 24495
Savings (NRs. '000)
12 Average Savings per 521 426 458 633 521 553 602 620 613 594 536 554
Member
Of the total micro-entrepreneurs outreached, 21 % of them are from Dalit community
followed by Indigenous Nationalities (Adivasi-Janajati) and Others with 42 and 37%
respectively. Regarding gender, 68% of total micro-entrepreneurs are female and out
of 44,195 micro-entrepreneurs, 18,826 (i.e. 42.6%) female micro-entrepreneurs have
access to inancial services.
Table 3
Composition of Micro-Entrepreneurs by Gender and Ethnicity
Dalit Janajati Other Total
Description
Gender Number % Number % Number Number %
Total Micro- Male 3303 7% 5102 12% 5679 13% 14084 32%
Entrepreneurs
Female 6397 14% 13132 30% 10582 24% 30111 68%
Total 9700 21% 18234 42% 16261 37% 44195 100%
Male 1601 6% 2893 11% 3640 14% 8134 30%
Access to Fi- Female 3252 12% 7082 26 8492 31% 18826 70%
nance
Total 4853 18% 9975 37% 12132 45% 26960 100
Source: Micro-Enterprise Development Programme, Progress Report December
2010/11
3.2 Micro-enterprise Promoted by MEDEP promoted Entrepreneurs
The micro-entrepreneurs promoted by MEDEP have established micro-enterprises for
income and employment generation. There are varying types of enterprises. Financial
95
services received from FSPs have been used to inance both ixed investment and working
capital inance. The following table shows the types of micro-enterprises and the micro-
entrepreneurs who have borrowed from MFIs and not borrowed from formal sources to
run their micro-enterprise activities.
Table 4
List of Micro-credit Financed IG/MEA
Bor- Non- Total Non-
Bor-
rowing bor- bor-
S.N. Type of enterprises Unit rowing Total
MEs rowing rowing
MEs
MEs MEs
1 Babiyo (Rope Making) No 217 603 820 0.8 3.5 1.9
2 Bamboo works No 2189 255 2444 8.1 1.5 5.5

3 Bee keeping No 896 690 1586 3.3 3.5 3.6
4 Bhujiya making No 469 0 469 1.7 0.0 1.0
5 Bitten rice No 0 150 150 0.0 0.9 0.3
6 Briquettes No 0 2585 2585 0.0 15.0 5.8
7 Candle making No 50 148 198 0.2 0.9 0.4
8 Ceramics No 0 145 145 0.0 0.9 0.3
9 Chalk making No 221 0 221 0.8 0.0 0.5
10 Cosmetic shop No 456 0 456 1.7 0.0 1.0
11 Dairy cattle farming No 1996 310 2306 7.4 1.8 5.2
12 Dalmoth No 1105 465 1570 4.1 2.7 3.6

13 Dhaka weaving No 1348 416 1764 5.0 2.4 4.0
14 Dhakiya No 450 0 450 1.7 0.0 1.0
15 Doll Making No 211 310 521 0.8 1.8 1.2
16 Electric shop No 216 0 216 0.8 0.0 0.5
17 Fishery No 218 0 218 0.8 0.0 0.5
18 Fruit processing No 691 0 691 2.5 0.0 1.6
19 Fruit shop No 220 320 540 0.8 1.9 1.2
20 Furniture works No 1572 0 1572 5.8 0.0 3.6
21 Goat raising No 670 565 1235 2.5 3.3 2.8
22 Grocery store No 1579 1068 2647 5.8 6.2 6.0
23 Herb plantation (ginger No 0 151 151 0.0 0.9 0.3
and turmeric)
24 Incense stick No 1886 1672 3558 7.0 9.7 8.1
25 Iron work No 1360 154 1514 5.0 0.9 3.4
26 Jhalla (Jute) No 0 1350 1350 0.0 7.8 3.1
27 Leaf Plate Making No 0 160 160 0.0 0.9 0.4
28 Mushroom No 214 0 214 0.8 0.0 0.5
29 Pater (Mat making) No 679 322 1001 2.5 1.9 2.3
96
Bor- Non- Total Non-

Bor-
rowing bor- bor-
S.N. Type of enterprises Unit rowing Total
MEs rowing rowing
MEs
MEs MEs
30 Piggery No 465 370 835 1.7 2.1 1.9
31 Poultry No 1355 653 2008 5.0 3.8 5.0
32 Rickshaw No 113 0 113 0.8 0.0 0.3
33 River bank farming No 890 465 1355 3.3 2.7 3.1
34 Selling rice No 450 0 450 1.7 0.0 1.0
35 Sewing/cutting No 865 1827 2692 3.2 10.6 6.1
36 Strawberry No 27 34 61 0.1 0.2 0.1
37 Tea shop No 554 651 1205 2.0 3.8 2.7
38 Thresher No 208 0 208 0.8 0.0 0.5
39 Tika making No 215 100 315 0.8 0.6 0.7
40 TV/Mobile shop No 220 0 220 0.8 0.0 0.5
41 Vegetable farming No 918 310 1228 3.4 1.8 2.8
42 Vegetable shop No 661 907 1568 2.5 5.3 3.5
43 Weaving (woolen works) No 1106 79 1185 4.1 0.5 2.7
Total No 26960 17235 44195 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source: Micro entrepreneurs survey conducted in MEDEP, August - September 2010/11
Note: MEs = Micro-entrepreneurs
Access to inancial and non-inancial services under the technical, inancial and managerial
support, MEDEP has been instrumental in restarting some enterprises that had earlier been
closed down. These were mainly business that had lapsed due to shortage (or diversion)
of working capital and required level of risk bearing capacity for enterprise promotion
and development. There is signiicant difference in average amount invested by the
borrowing and non-borrowing micro entrepreneurs for enterprise establishment. Amount
invested by the micro entrepreneurs for enterprise development has been estimated at
Rs. 28,613 (Rs. 39,808 among borrowing micro entrepreneurs and Rs. 16,626 among
non-borrowing micro entrepreneurs). While non-borrowing micro entrepreneurs have
managed part of the inance through borrowing from informal sector and use of the
accumulated savings, borrowing micro entrepreneurs have managed such capital using
accumulated savings as well as borrowing from informal sector.
The micro entrepreneurs have obtained access to inance for enterprise development
from different inancial service providers namely Agricultural Development Bank
(18%), Grameen Bikas Banks (6%), Micro-Finance Development Banks (2%), Financial
Intermediary-NGOs (11%), Savings and Credit Cooperatives (11%) and combination of
Financial Service Providers (4%) (NRB,2009).
97
1.3 Diversity of MFIs involved on Access to Finance

Diversiication of inancial services is needed in order to respond the diverse needs
and preferences of poor households and entrepreneurs. In order to respond this reality,
FSPs are expanding their services beyond micro-credit to offer a more diverse suite of
inancial services, such as savings, microinsurance, consumer and housing loans, leasing,
and remittance services. In addition, a few pioneering inancial service providers are
exploring integrated services in areas ranging from health facilitation to education inance
to energy inance, moving away from the “transactional” nature of micro-inance to a
more “customer-focused” approach to providing inancial services.
While poor people often improve their inancial positions with access to micro-credit
and microsavings, they are likely to fall back into poverty easily as soon as they face
a inancial crisis such as the death of a breadwinner, payment of essential health care
costs, or the loss of productive assets. Microinsurance can help low-income households
better manage risks they face and protect their gains. Unlike micro-credit, which initially
depended on donors to bring signiicant pools of funds to develop, maintain and expand
FSPs, microinsurance is being pushed by commercial insurance industry and has been
expanding and evolving rapidly.
So far Nepalese FSPs and micro-inance programs have been focusing on providing
savings and credit services only. However a growing number of Financial Service
Providers have recognised that providing credit is not enough for sustainable development
of the people. A range of other inancial services including insurance and other support
services are required to be provided along with savings and credit services. The poor are
vulnerable to different types of risks and adopt various strategies to reduce the impact
of losses. Insurance services are very essential for low income households to cope with
uncertainties and emergencies like illness or injury, death, natural disasters, theft and life
cycle needs. Formal insurance services are not accessible to the poor because of high
premiums and complicated procedures.
3 Findings and Conclusions
MEDEP have adopted two modalities for enhancing access to inancial services to micro-
entrepreneurs. About 61% micro-entrepreneurs developed by MEDEP have access to
inancial services from different inancial service providers and diversity in terms of
ethnic composition and income level is quite high. This indicates that inancial service
providers are quite successful to maintain high depth and breadth of outreach, good
portfolio quality (above 98% on-time repayment rate) and attain both operational and
inancial self-suficiency out of their operation.
MEDEP has provided greater focus on savings mobilization and over 90% of the micro-
entrepreneurs developed by MEDEP have mobilized savings either in their own group or
98
inancial service providers or both. Amount of saving mobilized by MEDEP promoted

micro-entrepreneurs is estimated at NRs. 16.95 million which has been used for internal
lending among micro-entrepreneurs. This way almost all the micro-entrepreneurs
developed under MEDEP have access to inance either formal or informal sources which
reinforces that development of entrepreneurship has been instrumental in transforming
the un-bankable clientele into bankable one. The last problem appears to indicate the
need for recognition of the fact that servicing the poorest of the poor is comparatively
more costly than servicing the not-so-poor, and that effective targeting should include
explicit measures to address the higher costs involved The another challenge concerns
with the formulation and effective implementation of national micro-inance policy in
the country
REFERENCES
MEDEP(2008). Scooping study for MEDEP Phase III 2008. Kathmandu.
MEDEP( 2008). Sustainability study of MEDEP 2008. Kathmandu.
MEDEP(2009). Micro-Finance Impact in MEDEP 2009. Kathmandu.
Nepal Rastra Bank (2003). Monitory Policy 2003/04. Kathmandu.
NHDR( 2009, UNDP).Nepal Human Development Report 2009, UNDR Available at http://www.undp.
org.np.
NMDG( 2005). Nepal Millennium Development Goals 2005. Kathmandu.
Sharma, P.R.(20007). Microifnance practices and their sustainability in Nepal: Unpublished dissertation
of Ph.D, Trubhuvan University, Kathmanu.
Sharma, P.R.(2011). Sustainability of microinance institution: An opinion survery, TOLI, Pokahra.
Sharma, P.R.(2011). Impact of Microinance on Women Empowerment, TOLI, Pokahra.
Strategies for Sustainability and Expansion, New York: PACT Publications.
Sharma, Puspa Raj (2003a) “Micro-inance Programs and Delinquency Management in Nepal” Comment
Paper on the Paper presented in a Seminar Organized by SAP-Nepal, Pokhara , Dec.12.
Sharma, Puspa Raj (2004). “Entrepreneurship Competency Development program : A Case study of
Pokhara Sub-Metropolitan City”. The Journal of Business and Management, Vol 2.No.1,
January Pokhara University.
Sharma, Puspa Raj (2004). “Micro-inance Programs and its Sustainability in Nepal “ Paper presented
in a Seminar organised by SAP-Nepal, Pokhara, July 5.
99
Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Noise Pollution in …
NOISE POLLUTION IN POKHARA

SUB-METROPOLITAN CITY
Ramesh Raj Pant
Abstract
Noise pollution is one of the serious environmental issues throughout
the world especially in urban areas at present. This paper analyzes
the noise level in different locations in Pokhara Sub-metropolitan
City. The trafic noise level was observed in the 20 major chowks of
Pokhara valley three times in a day i.e. morning, day and evening.
From the observation the noise level was found higher in day and
evening time in all the monitoring stations than that of morning time
noise levels. The noise level was measured in morning at 7 to 9 A.M,
day 1 to 3 P.M and evening 5 to 7 P.M. The instrument was operated
for 5 minutes in each monitoring station. From the observation the
highest level of noise was observed in Mahendrapoolchowk i.e. 75.5
dB, the second highest was observed in Prithivichowk i.e. 74.33 dB and
the third highest was recorded from Chipledhungachowk i.e. 73.8 dB.
Similarly, the lowest level of noise among the monitoring stations was
recorded from Halanchowk i.e. 65.5 dB, the noise level of Barahichowk,
Mustangchowk, Harkagurungchowk, Taxichowkchowk,Sabagirhachowk
and in front of Pokhara sub-metropolitan city was observed less than
70 dB and it was observed more than 70 dB at Mahendrapoolchowk,
Prithivichowk, Chipledhungachowk, Srijanachowk, Amarsinghchowk,
Buddhachowk, Rastrabankchowk, Zerokilometer, Prithivi Narayan
Campus Gate, Charak Hospital Area, Sahidchowk, Baglungbuspark and
Siddharthachowk. From the observation, it was found that the noise level
of the most of the places in Pokhara sub-metropolitan city was intolerable
and higher from the standard value of the tolerable noise level especially
in day and evening time.
Key words: Noise level. dB, tolerable limit, trafic noise level,sound meter.
Background
Healthy and conducive environment is required for normal and healthy living by all the
living beings, including humans, livestock, plants, microorganisms and wildlife. The
natural environment has its speciic composition. When this composition gets changed
by addition of some harmful substances, then the environment is termed as polluted
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Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Ramesh Raj Pant
environment and the substances responsible for the pollution are called environmental
pollutants. Therefore, the environmental pollution can be deined as any undesirable
change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of any components of the
environment which can cause harmful effects on various forms of life or properties.
Environmental pollution can be classiied into different categories like air pollution, water
pollution, soil pollution, solid waste problem, noise pollution, etc. Noise pollution has
been recognized as important environmental factors which are caused by the different
pitch of sound mixed in various proportions.
The noise pollution is considered as the serious problem in urban areas than that of rural
areas. Noise pollution results adverse effects in terms of physiological or psychological
changes in an individual and at the same time it may cause adverse impacts on physical
and the biological environment. As any type of sound which is undesirable to the listener
is considered as noise pollution and the pitch of noise affect our health.
The noise in environment is very subjective in nature. Each component of
environment has its own potentiality for noiseness. It differs from man to man, place
to place and time to time. The sources of noise are different in different areas. The
major sources of noise are mode of transportation, industrial operations, constructions
activities, social/religious activities, elections, electric hope appliances, etc. The
unorganized urbanization and industrialization with rapid growth of human population
are mainly responsible for noisy environment in many urban areas of the world. In
Nanjing (China) noise level of 105 dB, Rome 90 dB, New York 88 dB, Mumbai 82
dB, Delhi 80 dB and Kathmandu 75 dB (Kaushik and Kaushik, 2006). According
to the population census of Nepal 2001, the population growth rate of Nepal was
2.25 percent per year and the population growth rate in the urban centre of Nepal
is excessively high in comparison to the average population growth. With the rapid
growth of population, the urbanization and industrializations are also increasing in
haphazard way. The Kathmandu valley, the capital city of Nepal is one of the most
populated urban area, is one of the noisiest cities in the world. The road trafic noise
level in Kathmandu was recorded as 75-85 dB in front of Amrit Campus, 80-90 dB
in front of Tri-Chandra Campus, 72 -95 dB in Ratna Park, 90-95 dB in Bir Hospital
area, 85-100 dB, 82-98 dB in Putalisadak area, 80-99 dB in Lazimpat area and 82-
100 dB in Jhochhen area (Khadaka, 2006).
There are various adverse impacts of high level noise to our health and environment.
It causes mental stress, frustration, task interference, irritability, sleep interference,
communication problems, damage of aircrafts, habit of talking loudly, working
interference, temporary hearing loss, permanent hearing loss, etc. Kathmandu is the
heavily populated city in Nepal and the researches have indicated that the noise level
in Kathmandu valley is intolerable in most of the chowks and urban centres ( Gautam,
1999). Pokhara is the second important urban centre in Nepal. The noise level of the
101
city has not been measured scientiically till now so far in my knowledge. Therefore this
study will help to ind out the problems caused by trafic noise in the city.
Human population is increasing rapidly throughout the world and especially it is one of
the severe problems in developing countries like our country Nepal. The rapid growth
of human population, increasing economic activities, technological development,
transportations, various service oriented activities, facilities and amenities have
contributed to a steady escalation in urban noise level in our country (Gautam, 1999).
The noise pollution is regarded as an important agent of health problems and more and
more people are becoming deaf and it is also regarded as the slow agent of death in both
developing and developed countries and it is no way harmful than any other types of
environmental pollution (Swaminathan, 1997).The country should pay acute concern
towards noise pollution.
Noise pollution is a major component of environmental pollution and thus should
be taken under serious concern nationwide. The levels of noise pollution are to be
measured in urban areas to obtain national documentation for adopting preventive
measures. The study mainly aims the creation of public awareness towards harms
of noise pollution.
Materials and Methods
In order to analyze the level of sound in Pokhara sub-metropolitan city, the information
was collected through primary and secondary sources. The especial focus was given to
the trafic noise while generating primary information in this research project. Within
the Pokhara valley 20 monitoring stations (chowks) were selected for the measurement
of sound level. Then a potable sound meter was operated to measure the level of sound
in respective places under the standard conditions. In this process the sound meter level
was maintained at the height of 1.3 meters and at 4 meters distance from the relecting
surface. To avoid the nearer relecting surface, the instrument was operated at the barrier
free site.
In each station the observation was taken three times in a day i.e. morning 7 to 9 A.M,
day 1 to 3 P.M and evening 5 to 7 P.M. The instrument was operated for 5 minutes in
each place. The maximum and minimum reading was taken with the help of sound level
meter in each station in respective time periods.
The secondary information was collected through textbooks, journals and relevant
national and international documents. Bedsides this important information was also
collected through e-mail/ internet and available popular information media. Finally
the data and information have been analyzed and interpreted with the help of table and
graphs to draw respective results.
102
Results
Table 1
The average noise level of Pokhara Sub-metropolitan city
observed during ield survey
S.N. Area Average noise level in dB

1 Mahendrapool 75.5
2 Prithivichowk 74.33
3 Chipledhunga 73.8
4 Srijanachowk 73.5
5 Amarsinghchowk 71.5
6 Buddhachowk 71.8
7 Rastrabankchowk 71.6
8 Zerokilometr 71.33
9 In front of P.N. main gate 71.16
10 At Charak Hospital 70.8
11 Sahidchowk 70.5
12 Baglungbuspark 70.33
13 Siddharthachowk 70.0
14 Barahichowk 68.6
15 Sabagirhachowk 68.16
16 Taxichowk 67.66
17 Mustangchowk 67.5
18 At Pokhara sub metropolitan city ofice 67.16
19 Harkagurngchowk 66.8
Halanchowk 66.5
103
Different noise level of Pokhara Sub-Metropolitan City observed at different times

during the ield survey
Fig. 1 Trafic noise level at Srijanachowk in dB: Fig2. Trafic noise level at Zerokilometer in dB:
Fig 3. Trafic noise level at Halanchowk in dB Fig 4. Trafic noise level at Barahichowk in dB
Fig 5. Trafic noise level at Sahidchowk in dB Fig 6. Trafic noise level at Rasthabankchowk in dB
Fig 7. Trafic noise level at Mustangchowk in dB Fig 8. Trafic noise level at Harkagurungchowk in dB
104
Fig 9. Trafic noise level at Prithivichowk in dB Fig 10. Trafic noise level at Sabaghirhachowk in dB
Fig 11. Trafic noise level at Buddhachowk in dB Fig 12. Trafic noise level at Amarsinghchowk in dB
Fig 13. Trafic noise level at Mahendrapool in dB Fig 14. Trafic noise level at Chepledhunga in dB
Fig 15. Trafic noise level at Siddharthachowk in dB Fig 16. Trafic noise level at Baglungbuspark in dB
105
Fig 17. Trafic noise level at Taxichowk in dB Fig 18 . Trafic noise level at Prithivi Naryan M. Campus main gate in dB
Fig 19. Trafic noise level at Pokhara sub-metropolitan city ofice in dB Fig 20. Trafic noise level at Charak Hospital in dB
Discussion
The sound level of the different chowks of Pokhara valley was measured and it was found
against the international standard of 45 dB in most of the places. For most of the people,
following environmental sound level would be the satisfactory (Trivedi et al., 1992).
Table 2
Average tolerable sound level at different times
S.N. Area At night in During day Peak noise in
dB time in dB dB
Hospital area. 35 45 55
Residential area 45 55 70
Commercial area 60 75
Industrial area 65 80
The noise level in different parts of the city shows the distinctive spatial variation in the
monitoring stations of the valley. A ield survey was conducted from January 5 to January
24, 2011 to measure the noise level of different 20 monitoring stations. The monitoring
106
stations included major crossing points and chowks of urban network of Pokhara sub-
metropolitan city. During the monitoring time it was found that the peak level of sound
was produced by pressure horns, loud speakers, poorly maintained vehicles, old vehicles.
Among the various reasons of increasing noise level in Pokhara sub-metropolitan city, the
number of road vehicles and consequently the road trafic has been steadily increasing
here. Noise standards recommended by Central Pollution Control Board ( CPCB, 2006),
India in average, is given in Table 3 (Kaushik and kaushik,2006).
Table 3
Noise standards recommended by CPCB, India, 2006.
Area code Category of Area At night in dB During day time in dB
A Industrial 70 75
B Commercial 55 65
C Residential 45 55
D Silence zone 40 50
According to the information given in Nepal Book Year, 1996, the sound beyond 60 dB
is harmful, 80 dB impairs hearing capacity and continuous exposure to 100 dB or more
for 8 hours cause permanent damage to the hearing faculty. From the above observation
of sound level in Pokhara valley, it was found that the average sound level was more than
60 dB in most of the monitoring stations. The Lakeside area of Pokhara valley is one
the most important tourist destination in Nepal especially due to the presence of Phewa
lake. The noise level of Lakeside area was observed 66.5 dB in Halanchowk, 68.6 dB in
Barahichowk, 70.5 dB in Sahidchowk in an average. Similarly, the highest level of noise
was observed in Mahendrapoolchwk i.e. 75.5 dB, the second highest was observed in
Prithivichowk i.e. 74.33 dB and the third highest was recorded from Chipledhungachowk
i.e. 73.8 dB. In the same way, the lowest level of noise among the monitoring stations
was recorded from Halanchowk, and the noise level of Barahichowk, Mustangchowk,
Harkagurungchowk, Taxichowkchowk, at Pokhara sub-metropolitan city ofice and
Sabagirhachowk was observed less than 70 dB and other monitoring stations it was
observed more than 70 dB.
From the observation it is evident that the noise level was observed comparatively higher
in Mahendrapool area and highway area than that of remaining areas. Mahendrapool-
Chipledhunga area is one of the busiest city centres of Pokhara valley and in the highway
area, there is heavy low of vehicles with loud speakers. The noise level was observed
comparatively lower in the Lakeside area and other inner parts of the valley. The
practice of controlling noise level was implemented in Lakeside area to some extent,
the declaration of “Vehicle Free Zone” is one of the good examples of it.
107
Conclusion
The trafic noise level of Pokhara sub-metropolitan city was measured by potable sound
meter. The level of sound was found higher than that of international standard in many
places of monitoring stations. The sound levels of monitoring stations were found higher
in day and evening time than that of morning. The major reason behind the higher level
of noise during day and evening time may the number of road vehicles and hence the
road trafic has been increased in day and evening time. During the study it was found
that the sharp level of noise was produce by pressure horn, loudspeaker, aged and poorly
maintained vehicles and the horn that was used by trafic police during the management
of trafic system in the major chowks. The international standard of tolerable sound level
is 45 dB and the level of sound above 60 dB is harmful from the health point of view. In
this research work the sound level in most of the monitoring stations was found higher
than that of above mentioned levels. Therefore, during the day and evening time most
of the pedestrians including school going children have suffered from the high level of
sound in the valley.
From the study it was found that the higher level of noise was observed from Mahendrapool,
Prithivichowk, Chipledhunga, Srijanachowk, Amarsinghchowk, Buddhachowk,
etc. and comparatively the lower level of sound was observed from Halanchowk,
Harkagurngchowk, In front of Pokhara sub- metropolitan city, Mustangchowk, etc.
However the level of sound was found more than 65 dB in all the monitoring stations.
Recommendations
From the study, it can be concluded that the level of sound that was observed in different
monitoring stations revels that it may cause adverse impacts on the health of people and
environment therefore following recommendations are suggested in order to control the
level of sound in Pokhara sub-metropolitan city:
• Aged and poorly maintained vehicles produce comparatively higher level of
sound, so they should be removed from the core city and tourism destination areas.
• Pressure horn should be banned and the trafic personnel also should not blow
their siren loudly.
• There should be ban on loudspeaker, cassette players, etc. from core city area.
• The school children and other people who walk frequently through the major
roads should use ear mufle and cotton ball into the ears.
• In long term basis the public awareness should be given to the people regarding
the adverse impacts of high level of noise and safety measures from it.
108
• A vehicle free zone should be expanded in the city.

• The concept of urban forestry should be implemented in each side of the highway
and roads.
• The government should formulate the standard for trafic noise level.
Acknowledgement
The author thanks Janapriya Research and Consultancy Centre (JRCC), Janapriya
Campus, Pokhara, for inancial support. Dr.A.D.Mishra deserves special thanks for his
suggestions and guidance during research period.
References
Asthana, D. K. & Asthana, M. (1998). Environmental Problems and Solutions. S. Chanda and Co., India
Ganon, W. F.,(1995). Review of Medical Physiology, 7th Edition. Printice Hall, International, USA.
Aryal, R.C., (1996). Noise Pollution in Nepal. Asia Publication, Kathmandu.
Kaushik,C.P. & Kaushik,M., (2006). Perspectives in Environmental Studies. New Age International (P)
Ltd. New Delhi, India.
Gautam, D.R. (1999). Noise Pollution in Kathmandu Metropolis. Journal of Environment, 4(5), 65-75.
Khadaka, N. (2006). Environmental Pollution and Control Measures. Buddha Publication, Kathmandu.
Kudesiv, A. V. & Tiwari T.N., (1994). Noise Pollution and its Control. Pragati Prakashan, Meerut
Kumra, V. K. (1982). Kanpur City- A Study of Environmental Pollution. Tata Book Agency, India.
Sain, B. (1995). Drug Addiction and Environmental Pollution. Mittle publications, New Delhi.
Singh, J. & Singh, D.N., (1997). Noise Pollution in a metropolitan city in Tamil Nadu.Tata MacGraw
Hill,New Delhi.
Trivedi, P.R. & Gurdeed, R. (1992). Noise Pollution. Akashdeep Publishing House, New Delhi.
109
Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Causes and Consequences…
Causes and Consequences of Internal

Migration: In Baglung Municipality
Rameswor Baral
Abstract
This research entitled “Causes and Consequences of Internal Migration in

Baglung Municipality” was based on primary data collected in Jan. 2010
from four wards of that municipality. The main objective of the research
was demographic and socio-economic characteristics of migrants
and causes and consequences of internal migration in study area. The
total sample household was 234. The total population was found 981,
of which 498 were males and 483were females. Migration is age, sex
and occupation selective. There was heavy concentration of migrant’s
population in the age group 20-34years. The sex ratio was found to be
103.1. Among migrants, married persons were more than unmarried
ones. Literacy status was high against the national level. There was large
proportion of migrants with primary level attained than others. Among the
total migrants, 17.9 percent was engaged in business. Chhetri, Brahmin
and Magar were more migratory than that the rest ethnic groups. Most
of the migrant was originated from same and neighboring districts. Out
of total migrants 30.7 percent of the total migrants reported that lack of
educational facilities the main reason for leaving their place origin and
34.6 percent were reported the main cause for selecting the current place
was better scope for educational facilities. Majority of migrants i.e. 48.7
percent were found to be staying from 2000-before 2011AD.
Key Words : In-migrants, Out- Migrants, Spatial Mobility, Place of Origin, Place of
Destination, Trends and Patterns
1. Background
Migration denotes movements of people from one place to another. This movement may
occur from one village or town, within a district or between the districts or community
within a country or out side the country. Duration of migration may differ according
to distance of the destination. The United Nations Multilingual Dictionary deined
migration as a form of geographic mobility or spatial mobility between one geographic
unit and another, generally involving change in residence from the place of origin or
place or departure to the place of destination or place of arrival (UN,1973:173).Process
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Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Rameswor Baral
of migration is as old as human society. Various scholars have studied the migration
process in different parts of the world. They attempted to explain, “Why people move?”
at the theoretical level, whereas at the empirical level such as studies are mostly conined
to the identiication of characteristics, patterns, causes and consequences of migration
in various parts of the world. In this study, attempts to represent some literature related
to the causes and consequences of migration done in Nepal as well as in other countries
of the world.
Lee (1966) formulated a “General scheme into which a variety of spatial movement can
be placed”. He divided the forces exerting an inluence on migrants’ perception into
“push” and “pull” factors. The formers (push factors) are ‘negative’ factors tending to
force migrants to leave origin areas whereas the latter (pull factors) are ‘positive’ factors
attracting migrants to destination area. According to him, the factors, which affect on the
decision to migrate and the process of migration, inluenced by four set of factors. They
are associated with the area of destination factors, associated with the area of origin,
intervening obstacles and personal factors. In early days, there was primitive migration
in which the natural forces were vital. However, as the time passed on gradually different
types of migration appeared. In early period, natural forces forced primitive people to
shift them one place to another but at present there are not only forced migration, but also
voluntary migration can bee seen. Migration is a result of ‘push’ and ‘pull’ or ‘repulsion’
and ‘attraction’ at both place of origin and destination, balance in terms of efforts of costs
to overcomes the obstacle lying between the individual and possible alternative sites.
Generally, an individual or a group of people deines migration as change of residence. In
the movement prospects higher income, better living standard, employment opportunity
and many more. Migration deined broadly as a semi-permanent or permanent change
of residence. No restriction is place upon the distance of the movement or upon the
voluntary nature of the act (Lee, 1966). Migration is one of the three components of
population change, the other two namely, mortality and fertility are biological phenomena,
while migration is purely socio-economic one (Mishra, 1980: 254). KC, et al. (1996)
showed that the present situation of migration in Nepal. The study concluded the hill and
mountain continued as the main areas of out-migration and Tarai is the main migrants
receiving areas. According to the study of job opportunities and land for agriculture are
the main factors contributing to a large number of in-migrants in Tarai. The study further
emphasis that the high level of concentration of infrastructure and other activities in
the destination area can be attributed the prevailing situation of the migration. One of
the serious problems of population emerging during the last decade is the migration of
people from rural-to-urban areas. Most of the metropolitans and large cities in developing
countries have experienced a heavy migration of people from rural areas, which warrants
national strategic planning to manage, to reduce or to reverse the trends (KC, 1998: 1).
111
Migration is in many developing countries is an important demographic phenomena. It

has great impact on the social, cultural and economic condition in both place of origin
and destination. When migration from one place to another occurs then the destination
place, get more population pressure, more population that is productive, more utilization
of resources and more heterogeneous composition of population. Migration balances the
distribution of population and the supply of resources. People movement has always been
highly in rich resourceful areas and low in poor resources. It always relected population
and resource relationship (Subedi, 1998: 28). Population increases in rich resource
areas and decreases in poor resource areas to the result of migration. In Nepal, internal
migration of population has been a notable phenomenon since 1950s. According to the
census of 1952/1954, the total numbers of internal migrants in Nepal were 13, 830 persons
(CBS, 1952/1954: 259).the 1961 census reported that 1, 78, 437 persons were internal
migrants (CBS, 1961: 30). Of the total population, interregional migrants were 5, 09,
921 persons in 1971 (CBS, 1971: 231). Inter-regional further rose 10, 38, 862 persons
in 1991, in 2001 census it was reached 14, 53, 045. Likewise, internal migrants to urban
areas constituted 13.4 percent, in 1971 16.0 percent, in 1981, 17.2 percent in 1991 and
in 2001, it was constituted 23.1 percent. The process of migration has been gradually
intensifying the existing settlement problem as well as creating new problems both at
the place of origin and destination. Migration is becoming a complex phenomenon in
human society. Baral (2000) analyzed causes and consequences of internal migration. He
concluded that the low productivity and insuficient land are the main causes of leaving
origin, availability of physical facilities, extension of business opportunities reduced the
causes of leaving origin nut moving of relatives, and friends, education increased the
causes of leaving origin. He also concludes that age factor also played signiicant role
in the process of migration.
It poses serious problems and it is not easy to ind out uniform trend in migration because
of varying from one area to another. In present time, in-migration is one of the major
issues for most developing countries. Nepal is also suffering from the critical issues
of migration. There are many problems created by the rapid increase of population in
Nepal. It is a vital problems and challenging issue for the country, government for the
development activities. The rapid growth of population has adversely affected every
sector of the country, social services, physical facilities and the political environment.
If we succeed to trace-out the causes and consequences related to the high volume of
in-migration, it will contribute towards sowing those problems that affect the lives of
millions of families both in rural and urban areas. Migration process certainly helps for
the expansion of urban centers but various sorts of social, economic, cultural, political
environment and development problem have started emerging. Rural-urban migration
has been apparent in all urban centers. This is particularly important in Tarai and Hill
urban centers in recent. Baglung is one of the urban centers of Hill where the impact
112
of migration can observed very clearly. The degree of rural-urban migration is mostly
from surrounding VDCs of same district and other neighboring districts and other parts
of the country rapidly due to the economic development and the availability of other
facilities. In-migration is directly concerning many changes in demography and has
created imbalance between population and resources.
Rural-urban migration has been apparent in all urban centers. This is particularly
important in Tarai and Hill urban centers in recent. Baglung is one of the urban centers
of mid Hill where the impact of migration can observed very clearly. The degree of rural-
urban migration is mostly from surrounding VDCs of same district, other neighboring
districts and other parts of the country rapidly due to the economic development and
the availability of other facilities. In-migration is directly concerning many changes in
demography and has created imbalance between population and resources. This study is
concerned with Baglung municipality, which is rapidly urbanizing town of the Nepal and
it has been growing very fast. This is due to the inlux of people mostly from surrounding
hill districts, mustang and other places of the country. It is getting more population day by
day. The continuous low of migration in Baglung reasons has emerging some important
research questions such as:
1. Why Baglung has attracted more people from different areas?
2. What are the socio-economic and demographic features of migrants?
3. What are the trends and low of migrants?
The main objective of the study:
• To assess the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the migrants in the
study area
• To analysis the causes and consequences of migration in the study area
2. Data and Method
This study is base on primary sources of data. Primary sources or information is collect
from the ield survey by direct interview with the head of the household based on
migration related structural questionnaire. Baglung municipality consists of nine wards.
Out of nine wards, four wards are select for the study based on probability proportion to
size method. This study consist only quantitative aspect of the sample population. The
Baglung municipality consists of 4,847 households (CBS: 2003). Out of these, only 234
households of perceived migrant’s who are resided at the study area before one year ago
from the time of ield survey are enumerated in each selected wards. This study consist
4.82 percent of the total households as a sample.
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Results and Discussion

3. Background Characteristics of Household Population
3.1. Caste/Ethnicity
Among the various characteristics of migrants, ethnic composition is major component,
which directly affects migration. According to this study, the household population of
migrants of Baglung city is the composition of different ethnic groups.
Table 1
Percentage Distribution of Household of Migrant’s by Caste/Ethnicity, Baglung
Municipality, 2010
Caste/Ethnicity Number of Household Percent
Brahmin 33 14.1
Chhettri 126 53.8
Magar 33 14.1
Newar 21 8.9
Gurung 15 6.4
Kami, Damai and Sarki 6 2.5
Total 234 100
Source: Field Survey, 2010

In the study area, most dominant ethnic groups were chhetri constituted 53.8 percent.
Brahmin and Magar come in second position constituted 14.1 percent, Newar contributed
8.9 percent and followed by Gurung 6.4 percent, the households of Schedule casts include
Damai, Kami, and Sarki have only 2.5 percent.
3.2 Family Size
There are more chances to migrate from large family size and the family size considered
as one of the major push factor of migration. The above table demonstrates that migrants
with small size less than four persons constitute 21.7 (51) percent households. Likewise,
64.1 (150) percent households have their family size between 4-6 persons. 14.2 (33)
percent households have family size 7 person and above per household. The average
family size was 4.19 people per household, which was slightly lower than national
average 5.4 (CBS, 2003).
3.3 Age-Sex Structure
Age sex structure of the population is an important variable in the study of population
dynamic. In study area, 981 persons were enumerates from 234 households. Among them,
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498 (50.7 percent) were males and 483 (49.3 percent) were females. The median ages
for males were 24.5 years and for female were 23.6 year. It means the sample people
were relatively adult. The sex ratio of the population was 103.1. Which was higher than
national (99.8: 2003: CBS) level.
Table 2
Percentage Distribution of Household Population by Five Year Age Group
According to Sex, Baglung Municipality, 2010
Age Group Male Female Total
Population Percent Population Percent Population Percent
0-4 12 2.4 36 7.4 48 4.9
5-9 42 8.4 54 11.1 96 9.8
10-14 81 16.2 54 11.1 135 13.8
15-19 60 12.1 45 9.3 105 10.7
20-24 54 10.8 69 14.2 123 12.5
25-29 42 8.4 66 13.6 108 11.0
30-34 48 9.6 54 11.1 102 10.4
35-39 30 6.1 33 6.8 63 6.4
40-44 42 8.4 30 6.2 72 7.3
45-49 30 6.1 12 2.4 42 4.3
50-54 18 3.6 15 3.1 33 3.3
55-59 9 1.8 6 1.2 15 1.5
60 + 30 6.1 9 1.8 39 4.0
Total 498 100 483 100 981 100

In the study area, 981 populations were enumerates. Out of them 498 were males and
483 were females. The sex ratio of study population were 103.1 indicated that the
majority of the population were males in total population. The Above table shows that
the distribution of household population on basis of age and sex. the highest proportion
of males population is in age group (10-14) 16.2 percent there after (15-19) constituted
12.1 percent, age group (20-24) 10.8 percent, age group (30-34) have 9.6 percent and
the age group (55-59) have constituted only 1.8 percent respectively. For the female the
household population highest proportion constituted in age group (20-24) 14.2 percent,
than age group (25-29) 13.6 percent, age group (5-9) 11.1 percent, age group (30-34)
11.1 percent, age group (15-19) were 9.3 percent, age group (0-4) 7.4 percent, age group
(35-39) 6.8 percent and lowest proportion of female were age group ( 55-59)1.2 percent
respectively. The old aged female populations were lower than males.
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3.4 Literacy Status and Educational Attainment

Education is one of the most important social characteristics of population. It also
enhances social, economic, political development and civilization. Literacy and
educational qualiication are other vital indicators of migrant’s social status. There are
the crucial factors for not only availing employment opportunities created in the process
of modernization but also for communication with out side the world. The literacy status
of migrants are usually better then the rest of the population. This is probably because
of a person would be better able to make the migratory movement if she/he is literate.
Table 3
Percentage Distribution of Household Population Aged 6 Years and Above by
Literacy Status & Educational Attainments, Baglung Municipality, 2010
Literacy Status Number of household Percent
Literate 804 86.2
Illiterate 129 13.8
Total 933 100
Educational Attainment
Informal Education 75 9.3
Primary Level 207 25.7
Lower Secondary Level 135 16.8
Secondary Level 132 16.4
S.L.C 105 13.1
Intermediate 90 11.2
Bachelor and Above 60 7.5
Total 804 100

Above table, shows that out of total 933 population aged 6 years and above 86.2 percent
people were literate which is higher than national level 54.1 percent and only 23.8
percent population were illiterate. Out of total literate, most of the populations about
25.7 percent were passed primary level followed by lower secondary level 16.7 percent,
Secondary level 16.4 percent, people who have passed SLC level were 13.1 percent,
intermediate level were 11.1 percent, Informal education were 9.3 percent and bachelor
and above were only 7.4 percent.
3.5. Occupational Status
Occupational status is another factor, which relects the socio-economic status of a person.
116
The below table shows the large proportion of population aged 10 years and above in
their current place of residence were students 24.2 percent followed by business 17.9
percent, services and housewife both have constituted 13.2 percent, daily wages 11.8
percent, Agriculture 7.5 percent, foreign employment 6.5 percent and foreign army have
constituted only 5.7 percent respectively.
Table 4
Percentage Distribution of Household Population Aged 10 Years and Above by
Occupational Status, Baglung Municipality, 2010
Occupations Number of population percent
Agriculture 63 7.5
Service 111 13.2
Business 150 17.9
Daily Wages 99 11.8
Foreign Army 48 5.7
Foreign Employment 54 6.5
Housewife 111 13.2
Student 201 24.2
Total 837 100

3.6. Ownership of House
Ownership of house is one of the important indicators of economic indicators/status of
our society. Therefore, the study also collected information about house ownership of
migrants at current place of residence. Majority of the migrants 69.3 (162) percent have
owned house and only 30.7 (72) percent migrants resided at rented house or no owned
houses.
3.7. Causes of Migration from the Place of Origin
Cause of migration as known as push factor. Push factor refers to the poor economic
condition and the resultant economic misery or lack of opportunities for the advancement.
Which push people out of the origin in search of livelihood to get better opportunities.
The push factors are those factors that more or less compel people to leave the origin.
The cause of migration can be either positive or negative at the both places. There are
many puss factors as a cause of migration resulting to leave their place of origin.
117
Table 5
Distribution Migrants by Cause of Migration from Place of Origin (Push
Factors), Baglun, Municipality, 2010
Causes of Migration Number of Migrant Percent
Due to sale of Land 12 5.1
No land in Origin 3 1.2
Lack of Business Prospects 63 26.9
Lack of Educational Facilities 72 30.7
Lack of Job 27 11.5
Due to Marriage 24 10.2
Social and Family Disorder 3 1.2
Transfer of Service 18 7.1
Land was Previously Near 6 2.5
Fear of Natural Calamities 6 2.5
Total 234 100

Above table, shows that the cause of migration of migrants due to different reasons
are no educational facilities in origin 30.7 percent, lack of Business prospects in origin
were 26.9 percent, lack of job11.5 percent, due to the marriage leave their origin were
10.2 percent, due to the transfer of service were7.1 percent, due to sales of their land
were 5.1 percent, land was previously here were 2.5 percent, fear of natural calamities
were 2.5 percent, no own land in the origin were1.2 percent, due to the social & family
disorder were 1.2 percent respectively.
3.8. Reasons for Selecting the Current Place of Residence
The reasons for selection of destination as known as pull factors, which encourage
migration to particular area. The factors such as physical facilities, employment /economic
opportunities, presence of relatives and extension of business and other factors attract
people to migrate in the particular area.
Table 6
Distribution of Migrants by Reasons for Selecting (Pull Factors) at the Current
Place Of Residence, Baglung Municipality, 2010
Reasons for Selection Number of Migrants Percent
This Place was Near From Birth Place 15 6.4
Better Scope of Education 81 34.6
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Transfer of Job 45 19.2

Extension of Business 48 20.3
Urban Facilities Available 36 15.3
Close relative living Here 9 3.8
Total 234 100

The above table shows that, the distribution of migrants by reasons for selecting the
current place of residence regarding different reasons. The most attractive factor attract
migrants to the destination seemed to better scope of education were 34.6 percent and
extension of business 20.3 percent. Select that place due to the transfer of job were 19.2
percent, urban facilities are available in that place were15.3 percent, this place was near
from the place of birth 6.4 percent and close relative living here were only 3.8 percent
respectively.
4. Conclusion
Migration is one of the most important factors of population change. It may affect the
socio-economic and demographic characteristics of migrants at both place of origin
and destination. This study attempts the relation between some demographic and socio-
economic characteristics with migration in Baglung municipality. Migration towards
study area is not a recent phenomenon. In the study area, population mobility is increased
rapidly from rural areas. This increased the population pressure, creation of infrastructure
and concentration of development activities that created opportunities for employment
in the urban area but created various sort of problems.
Total populations of 981 were enumerated in 234 households along with 50.7 percent
were males and 49.3 percent were females. The median age for the sample population
were ind about 24 years indicating adult population. The average family size was inding
4.19 people per household indicating medium family size of the study population.
Hinduism is the dominant religion in Baglung municipality. In caste/ethnicity, Chhetri
were 53.8 percent, Brahmin and Magar both were 14 percent most dominated ethnic
groups. Literacy status was higher in this area i.e. 86.2 percent population were literate.
25.7 percent sample population has passed primary level. Majority of the population 17.9
percent were engaged in business sectors. Income level reveals average economic status
in his area. The majority of the households 42.3 percent have earned average income Rs.
5,000-9,999 per month. Nearly 69.2 percent households have their own house in the city.
About 48.7 percent of the total migrants stayed at current place of residence during 2000
to the time of study. About 30.7 percent of the total migrants left their place of origin
due to the lack of educational facilities in origin. About 34.6 percent migrants reported
119
the reasons for selection of current place were better scope for education facilities. The
inding of internal migration in Baglung municipality is the availability of physical
facilities, social amenities, chances of greater opportunities, and presence of relatives
is the main cause of migration. On the other hand, respondents reported that these
facilities were scarce in the origin. Therefore, push factors of the origin and pull factors
of the destination may be the cause of out migration from their origin. The indings of
the study support the Lee’s model. Most of the migrants were vary young and adult
age group (20-39). Migration also sex selective. Majority of the migrants were literate.
Majority of migrants engaged in business, services, household work, foreign army and
employment. In the case of caste/ethnicity, Chhetri dominated. In the study area where
migrants from different socio-economic and cultural background were resided as a
result, all sort of coercion developed and brought different forms of social changes in
the society of study area.
In-migration is the result of the distribution of unbalanced natural resources and
development in different parts of the country. Negative factors such as lack of economic
prospects, employment opportunities, educational facilities and health services at place of
origin have resulted into signiicant impact at destination in terms of increased population
pressure and over utilization of resources. Therefore, essential to reduce the volume out
migrants for rural areas though active of area speciic development planning at origin.
Adopt sustainable regional development strategies, the growth of small-medium size
urban centers and sustainable development in rural areas. Provides incentives and
encourage the redistribution and relocation of industries and business units from urban to
rural areas. In addition, encourage for establishment of new industrial, semi urban center
and business units in rural areas. Increase the capacity and comprehensive of municipality
authorities to manage urban development, to safe guard the environment, to eliminate
the health and social problems relating from over crowd and man made disasters.
Acknowledgement
The author sincerely thanks to the Janapriya Campus Research Committee (JCRC)
for providing inancial support for the research entitled Causes and Consequences of
Internal Migration in Baglung Municipality. The author is also grateful to Mr. Devi
Lal Sharma for his kind cooperation in reviewing and suggestions of this paper.
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121
Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Road Construction impact in…
Road Construction impact in Trekking

Tourism on the Round Annapurna Trail
Shreekanta S. Khatiwada
Abstract
Tourism is one of the fastest growth industries which contribute for the
socio-economic transformation of the host country. Nepal is popularly
known as adventure destination in international tourism market.
Mountaineering, trekking, river rafting, Jungle safari are some of the
notable adventure activities that tourists involved to meet their satisfaction
in Nepal. The tea house trekking in Annapurna, Everest and Langtang
region are the unique and popular adventure tourism products of Nepal.
The sustainability of tourism development of Nepal is possible only with
the proper management of these trekking regions. In this context this paper
tries to assess the road construction impact on the trekking tourism in
The Round Annapurna trekking trail, on the base of series of interaction
programs and questionnaires schedule with the respective stakeholders
on the way of the Round Annapurna Trail.
Key words : Adventure, Trekking tourism, road construction, tourism products,
Sustainability etc.
I. Introduction
Nepal is a mountainous country situated at the heart of Himalaya and northern part of
Indian sub continent. The major part of this country is covered by beautiful mountains
and hills of contrast land setting and diversity of the lora and fauna. Likewise these
mountains and hills are popular rural settlements of ethnic people with their cultural
heritage. Hence some of the places has been developed as popular destination for the
tourists and become the basis for tourism development. Nepal has become internationally
popular destination for the adventure seeker especially for the mountaineering and
trekking tourism. Among the trekkers in Nepal about 65 percent of them prefer to trek
within Annapurna region likewise about 40 percent tourists who visit Pokhara prefer
to trek in different trails of the Annapurna region including the Round Annapurna Trek
as well (MOTCA, 2010).
The National Planning Commission of Nepal decided to construct the motor able road
to connect the Manang and Mustang district in national road network, as part of the
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Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Shreekanta S. Khatiwada
government poverty reduction strategy of the tenth ive year plan (2002 - 2007). The
constructions of the motor able roads have been thought to pose a likely impact on the
livelihoods of rural people in Annapurna Region. The construction obviously impacts the
natural, social and economic setting of the place which is perceivable in the change in
rural economy as most of the enterprises and business are tourism based. More than that,
Annapurna region is ecologically sensitive area characterized by fragility, marginality
and inaccessibility. The place is also gaining international signiicance for its famous
trekking routes with several eco-tourism hot spots.
The effect of the construction of the motor able roads which can undoubtedly pose
a threat to various tourism products and services like the natural beauty of the place,
landscapes, wildlife and the challenging and adventurous trekking routes in ACA. As
transportation and travel can be discussed without taking tourism into consideration but
tourism cannot thrive without travel because it is one of important component of tourism
development (Sorupia, 2005). This statement focuses the importance of transportation
on tourism. However, transportation and tourism in ecologically sensitive area like
Annapurna should be looked over by separate eyes that consider the environmental
services more importantly.
Talking about the alternative trekking routes for the Annapurna Circuit, a researcher
mentioned that the roads would improve the socio-economic situation of the majority of
local people. Markets would become accessible for their products and consumer goods
would become cheaper. However, challenges such as more pollution, risks of landslides,
and threats to biodiversity & traditional culture would come along with the roads. Besides
the negative impact on ecology, again once vehicles started plying the road, trekkers
would bypass most of the villages and their lodges would disappear, hampering the local
economy largely dependent on tourism (Poel, 2006).
Status of Trekking Tourism in Nepal
Nepal was known as the standard of tourism country where tourism sectors contributes
about 4 percent of the total GDP and about 16 percent of foreign currency (Chauhan,
2004). Even today tourism has become the backbone of the Nepalese economy which
contributes 2.4 percent of GDP and 8.1 percent of foreign exchange (MOTCA, 2011).
Visit Nepal Year 1998 was really a milestone for the tourist arrivals and development of
village or rural tourism activities in Nepal. But immediate that success due to the political
insurgency over the country tourism industry was badly affected for last ten years. After
the political settlement and restoration of peace in 2006 the tourists’ arrivals has again
geared up in Nepal. Out of the 602,876 tourists 230,799 visited Pokhara in the year 2010.
Likewise the length of stay of tourist is 12.6 days and the purpose of visiting to Nepal
recorded as 21.0 percent for trekking and mountaineering, 9.0 percent pilgrimage and
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29.6 percent are holiday pleasure (MOTCA, 2009). The latest trend of tourist arrival
is favored by the neighboring and SARC countries which could be one of the positive
symptoms for the sustainability of tourism in Nepal.
Nepal was formally opened to the foreigners since 1950. After the successful summit of
Mt. Annapurna I in 1950 and Mt Everest in 1953 Nepal got it popularity in mountaineering
and trekking. However the systematic development of tourism has been started since 1960.
Literatures on Tourism in Nepal suggest that there is a huge potential for the mountain
tourism or more speciically trekking tourism in Nepal (Sharma, 2010). Mountain tourism
in Nepal constitutes between 20-25% of total volume of tourism in last 20 years. The
number of trekking tourist in Nepal shows the increasing trend mostly in Annapurna
(68%), Everest (24%) and Langtang (8%) regions (MOTCA, 2011). However, it is an
important concern to preserve the tourism products and increase its value to sustain the
trekking tourism in Nepal.
Pokhara is a popular tourist destination after the capital city Katmandu of Nepal. The
commercial activity of tourism has been started since 1970 in Pokhara however more
than 60 percent hotels were established only after the restoration of democracy i.e.
after 1990 (Khatiwada, 1998). Among the tourists visiting Nepal in an average about
28 percent of them visit Pokhara. But the number of visitors has been increasing every
year. Pokhara is the gateway or rest place for the world famous the round Annapurna
trek and Annapurna Sanctuary trekking routes. The rural tourism activities on the way
to major trekking routes and the ethnic villages are the backbone for the improvement
of the livelihood of local people, where 88,418 trekkers visited Annapurna Conservation
Area in 2010. (ACAP, 2011)
Trekking Tourism in Annapurna Region
Annapurna Conservation Area region’s steep topography offers a multitude of biodiversity
with 1,226 species of plants, 474 species of birds, 101 mammals, 22 amphibians and 39
species of reptiles (NTNC, 2009). This rich biodiversity has generated complex symbiotic
relationships between plants, animals and humans. Similarly, the area also boasts the
world’s 10th highest peak, Annapurna (8091m) and the world’s deepest river valley, the
Kali Gandaki, which intersects the Dhaulagiri and Nilgiri Ranges (Gurung, 2036). These
factors have contributed to making the Annapurna the most popular mountain tourism
destination in Nepal. Hence, the area has been recognized as one of the best trekking
destination for international tourists coming to Nepal.
Annapurna region is basically famous for trekking and mountaineering because of
its contrast land setting and rich biodiversity with scenic villages of different ethnic
community settlements. Adventure activities like hiking, trekking, mountaineering, birds
watching and observing wild lives of mountain and hills are the major attractions and
124
activities for the visitors that we commonly ind in ACA area. Tourism management in
ACA seems a good example of community involvement and participation. Moreover,
the tourism revenues have helped to restore degraded features of the natural and cultural
environment hence it has become the most popular trekking destination in the Nepalese
Himalayas (Nepal, 1999). The number of tourists visiting the area has increased steadily
since the late 1980’s, until the onset of a political conlict in the country, which has led
to a sharp luctuation in tourism since 2001. ACA was created partly in order to alleviate
environmental degradation linked to trekking tourism and sustainable development of
tourism is one of the principal goals of ACA management. About 42 percent tourists
visiting Pokhara visited ACA especially for trekking purpose (MOTCA, 2011).
Ghorepani, Ghandruk, Jomsom, Muktinath, Lomanthang, Thorong-la Pass, Annapurna
Base Camp, Manang, Tilicho are the sites that are mostly visited by the tourist in the
Annapurna region. It has lured a large number of internal and external tourists every
year. Trekkers are charged Rs 200 (SAARC countries) and Rs 2,000 (other countries)
as entry fees and use that fund for the conservation of the ecology and development at
the local level (ACAP, 2010).
There are several trekking routes in ACA including the RAT or Annapurna circuit and
Annapurna sanctuary which have been considered as one of the most beautiful treks in the
world. Large number of tourist come for trekking in ACA and it has ultimately supported
the rural communities, through hotels, restaurants, cultural shows and exhibitions and
various other income generating activities. The tourism market of this region is mainly
based on the various trekking routes including famous The Round Annapurna Trail or
Circuit. There are over 1000 lodges, tea shops and hundreds of other subsidiary services
to cater to the trekkers and pilgrims with 11 tourists check post with in ACA (NTNC,
2009). The mixed versions are available about the road impact on ACA region, it is
likely to reduce the number of tourists who come to this region for trekking and in the
mean time, see and experience its unique scenery and culture. On the other hand internal
tourism will increase to see the beauty of nature like Tilicho Lake and other places of
religious importance that will attract more people when the road makes them more
accessible (NTNC, 2009).
The Round Annapurna Trek
The Round Annapurna trek known as one of the worlds famous was ranking out of ten
trekking routes in the world till last decade. It is popular among the trekkers as unique,
adventurous and peculiar trekking routes in national and international tourism markets.
The whole part of the RAT falls within the Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA)
and passes through ive districts Lamjung, Manang, Mustang, Myagdi and Kaski in
Marshyngdi and Kali Gandaki river valleys. Formerly it was started from the Dumre of
Tanahun district and ended at the Purano Tundikhel of Pokhara. The trail of the RAT
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follows the Marshyangdi and Kaligandaki river corridor. The trail passes through the
deepest gorge of Kali Gandaki at Dana of Myagdi district to high altitude of 5416m
Thorong-la pass in the boarder of Manang and Mustang districts.
Tourism activities that have been developed on the way to the Round Annapurna Trek
and others side trekking routes have supported the livelihood and improve the living
standard of local community people of the area. Looking its popularity in international
tourism market the sustainable approach need to be follow for the further improvement
of tourism activities. The construction of motor able road through Kaligandaki and
Marsyangdi river valleys has destroyed the trekking trail of the RAT. The construction of
the road has shortened trekking days within 10 days from three weeks and as it seems the
direct effect to the tourism entrepreneurs on the trailside. Despite the evidence of bringing
development to rural areas in this mountainous area of the Himalayas, road building can be
very controversial as it may damage the environment or interfere with trekking tourism in
the region (Meyer, W. 2008). However, the roads are the infrastructures for development
and it is not possible to build roads without some disruption to the environment but it
is an utmost concern to insure that the road development in the places have a minimal
effect upon the fragile nature as it largely impacts upon the trekking tourism and also to
large sum of people who are running the tourism based enterprise in the region.
One of the ways to provide the lavor of Annapurna circuit trek for the trekkers as
usual exciting is the alternative trek rather than motor road. Infrastructure with socio
environment set up is most even in new trail for the tourist's attraction. ‘To keep
trekkers coming, available alternative routes to replace tractors/motorbike roads should
be signposted and opened in the short term and for the long term some new trails and
suspension bridges need to be constructed to make a circuit that does not follow the
vehicle roads’. Likewise ‘most visitors thinks that the road will destroy the environment,
the culture and the trekking in the area, but would be good for business, income, quality
of life and tourism opportunities’ (Poel, 2006).
All such reports and study coherently speak that, the changing medium and mode of
transportation is ultimately changing the way as the hotel and lodge owners used to
follow previously before the construction of the roads. Hence the current situation of
road construction and its effect to the community people and different stakeholders is
necessary to study and analyse the impact of motorable road for the sustainability of
trekking tourism. Any change in the medium of access whether trekking routes or motor
able roads therefore, luctuate in the rate of visitors coming in the region, their length
of stay and type of tourist. Also the construction of the road increases the accessibility,
opportunity, networks and linkages.
The construction of the road can also pose environmental threat due to landslides,
126
loss of vegetation which may hamper the fragile area. This may put the environmental
services and the internationally famous trekking routes at stake. Hence an attempt
has made to assess the likely impacts of road construction in the round Annapurna
trekking trail through this paper. The overall objective of this paper is to analyse the
road construction impact on the trekking tourism in the Round Annapurna trek however
the speciic objectives are as follow:
1. To assess the tourism entrepreneurs perception about the road construction on
the Round Annapurna Trail.
2. To assess the local community people perception about the road construction on
the Round Annapurna Trail.
3. To analyse the socio economic & environmental impact of road construction on
the Round Annapurna Trail and suggest the corrective measures.
II. Data and Methods
This study is mainly based on the information from primary source with the respective
stakeholders however the secondary data from the various sources have been used as
well. The detail procedure of the research work and methodology are mentioned as
given below:
Population
This paper is mainly based on focus group discussion hence the population of the
respondents were tourism entrepreneur on the trail of Round Annapurna Trek, local
leader of different political parties, members of different committee from the civil
society like mothers’ group, youths’ clubs, Conservation Management Committee and
Tourism Management Sub Committee under the different unit ofice of ACAP, school
teachers and civil servants at local government authority and NGOs staffs. There were
185 stake holders of different background and the ration of female to male respondent
was 8:29. The majority of the respondents were hotel and lodge owners i.e. 31 percent
and following by farmers 26 percent. Likewise businessman and job holders were 22
and 17 percent respectively.
Research Design
The primary information of the paper received from the response of local community
people like farmers, local leaders of political parties, business man, job holders &
tourism entrepreneurs. The survey was done in the summer season of 2011. There were
12 interaction programs conducted in the different points of The Round Annapurna
Trekking trail. They were held in Bhulbhule, Bahun danda and syange in Lamjung, Tal
and Dharapani of Manang district; Ranipauwa, Kagbeni, Jomson, Marpha, Tukuchhe,
127
Kobang and Let of Mustang, and Tatopani & Galeshwor of the Myagdi districts. The
Programs were designed as interaction cum workshop, so that respondents could express
their views through dialogue and by illing the questionnaires as well. At the same time
the views and opinions were collected with local as well as policy level political leaders,
tourism experts, representatives of government line agencies and the other related
organizations through dialogue & interactions.
In order to address the research questions various sources have used to collect the
secondary data. The major source of secondary data that used in the paper is form ACAP
ofice through different annual and research reports. Other information were collected
from the publication of Ministry of tourism, Nepal Tourism Board, reports of the past
research work in academic institutions, Associations of tourism entrepreneur's and tourism
related NGOs & CBOs etc.
Methodology
The paper is based on descriptive method however the collected information from
different sources have edited in tabular format and compared to make the clear sense of
received data. Further the received information have analyzed by using simple statistical
and mathematical tools like measurement of central tendencies, percentage and ratio to
compare and ind the conclusion of the research questions as mentioned in this paper.
In order to get the conclusion related with the research questions like socio economic
and environmental effect on tourism due attention has given for the views, experiences
and practices of local political leaders, community leaders, civil society member from
different committee, women group, youth clubs, tourism related business men, school
teachers, civil servant and other job holders.
As a descriptive study the various aspects of socio economic and environment related
issues were discussed in the interaction program and the questionnaire as well. The effect
on their tourism business, income, job opportunity, marketing of handicrafts and local
product, occupational change and illegal trading practice of valuable goods in economic
aspect and cultural and language inluence, conservation of cultural heritages, problem
of noise and air pollution, landslides, deforestation, wastage and garbage problem in
environmental side are some of the notable variables that discussed and analyzed in the
paper.
III. Discussion and Findings
Out of the total arrivals of tourists in Nepal the purpose of trekking is 21.0 percent where
majority of them about 61percent trek in Annapurna region following by about 26 and
8 percent in Everest and Langtang region.
128
Visitors in Different Trekking zone of Nepal
Langtang
in 2010
8%
Everest
24% Annapurna
68%
Fig. 1 : Visitors in Different Trekking Zone of Nepal in 2010

Likewise 38.3 percent tourists visited Annapurna region out of total visitors of Pokhara
(MOTCA, 2009). Among the total trekkers of Nepal over 68 percent prefers to visit
Annapurna region. Hence due attention is required for the sustainability of trekking
tourism in Annapurna region including the RAT. Road has not brought development
only but destruction of natural environment and social absurdities as well. The poor
and marginal income groups are affected more from road construction and opportunities
goes with the upper class.
The livelihood of the large group of rural people dependent on more than thousand
tourism based enterprises on the way of the RAT. They are also at stake as the
constructional works have posed threat to the rate of incoming tourist, their length
of stay and the type of tourist as well. The socio-economic and cultural status and
activities of the rural people are also vulnerable because of the changing scenario due
to road construction. Because the road construction is associated to the change in living
standard, social harmony, security and ownership of the environmental services that the
Annapurna region provides. Hence there is a strong linkage of road construction with
rural livelihoods and trekking tourism in the ACA.
Socio Economic Impact of Road Construction
• The majority of the respondents 38.37 and 33.51 percent claimed good and very
good socio-economic impact of tourists’ arrival in the study area as it has become
the source of income by business and employment opportunity.
129
• The signiicant number of the respondents i.e. 61.62 percent claimed very bad
impact of road construction in trekking tourism mainly environmental problem
like sound and air pollution and destruction of fragile sloppy & cultivable land
where as only 8.64 percent of them was in favor of good effect.
• Respondent shared as due to road construction decreases in the number of visitors
and some of the local entrepreneurs displaced from tourism business like hotel
and lodges and their usual settlements from Tatopani of Myagdi and Ngadi &
Impact of the road Construction on tourists’ arrival
Syange of Lamjung districts.
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Good effect Average No effect Bad effect No response
effect
Fig. 2 : Impact of the Road Construction on Tourists' Arrival

• In case of socio-economic development 30.27 percent respondents claimed as
good effect to supply daily consumption goods and opportunity to sales their
local products by the road construction where as 40 percent of them concerned
in the average effect only.
• Among the respondents 35.67 claimed that increase in tourist arrival on the RAT
provides jobs opportunity to the local people and followed by 34.59 percent said
opportunity to sell their local products.
• Majority of the responded claimed that due to the construction of motor roads,
crisis seems in traditional skill base occupation like agro farming and cottage
industry and even their original cultural activities singing song and life style
replaced by imported one which decreased the attraction for tourists and income
to the local people.
• 31.89 percent respondents claimed that locals are beneitted to get knowledge of
foreign language and culture from trekking tourism followed by 20.54 percent
claimed its contribution for the preservation of cultural heritage as tourism
product.
130
People perception on Socio‐economic development &
tourists’ arrival
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Very good Good
Average
Not good
No response
Fig. 3 : People Perception on Socio-economic Development & Tourists' Arrival

• Majority of the respondent from tourism entrepreneurs or owners of the hotels
and lodges in the trekking trail complained to trekking guides that they are not
well trained and tourism friendly, always complain about services, bargaining on
the menu & ordered cheap items of food to their guests and do not deal properly.
• About the negative impact of tourist arrival 32.39 percent did not like to response
as a entrepreneurs they want more low of tourists and 25.40 percent of them
responded as the over inluence of foreign language, culture, and life style in
the local community.
• The hotels and lodge owners are in problem from their investment in tourism
business like constructing building for hotel and lodge but not getting the tourists.
Likewise labors and porters are in problem of unemployment as replaced their
work by vehicle due to road construction through trekking trail.
• Majority of the responded shared the problems of road construction to the
marketing problem of the local agro product like millet, maize, buck wheat due
to supply low quality cheaper food grain from Terai.
• About the negative effect of road construction 31.89 percent of them did not like
to response because the local community seems strongly infavor of motor road for
the name of development where as 22.19 percent of them claimed on the effects
of the local means of transportation like mule, horse and porters.
Environmental Impact of Road Construction
• A signiicant number of the respondents i.e. about 37 percent suggested developing
alternative trekking trail and 23 percent suggested not to construct the road with
trail, where as only 3 percent suggested to stop the road construction and other
131
21 percent suggested constructing the environment friendly green road the way
of the RAT.
• From the trekking tourism or increase in tourist arrivals in the RAT 45.42
percent of the respondents claimed as negative impact on the natural and cultural
environment of the local community. It seems that tourism has not become
community friendly in Annapurna circuit hence need ecotourism practice i.e.
beneit sharing with local communities.
• Due to the bomb blasting in the process of construction of the motor roads destroys
the fragile land surface, natural vegetation and loss of limiting cultivable land.
Due attention is required to conserve the natural environment and cultivable land
Effect of road Construction on the Cultural & Natural
being degrade and destruction while constructing the motor roads.
Environment
F
21% A
24%
E
8%
D
5% B
16%
C
26%
A = Deforestation & Illegal trade B = Poaching & illegal trade of wild animal
C = Soil erosion & landslides D = Degradation of traditional culture & life style
E=Problems of Illegal trade of cultural products F = No Response
Fig. 4 : Effect of Road Construction on the Cultural & Natural Environment

• About the positive impact of road construction on trekking tourism 33.5 percent
of them did not response however, 22 and 21 percent of them claimed that it
makes easy for transportation and tourist can utilize the short time to trek within
a week for the Annapurna circuit respectively.
• Majority of the respondents i.e. 57.29 percent showed their concern on bad effect
like air and sound pollution, wastage and garbage problems in the environment
by the construction of the motor able roads on the way of RAT which reduces
the trekkers.
• About 26 percent of them claimed for the negative effect on soil erosion,
destruction of land and landslides problem, where as 24.32 percent of the
respondents showed the problem of deforestation and illegal trade of forest
product including the herbal plant, fossils and wild animals. Poaching activities
132
could increased hence need due attention from the local community and concerned
administration and security agencies.
Conclusion
• The responded from the community and civil society members favored the motor
road construction for socio economic development of their localities but wanted
to develop alternative trekking trails and tourism activities with new products
in their localities.
• Tourism entrepreneurs have displaced from their location due to road construction
so alternative trekking route need to start even from Besisahar of Lamjung and
Beni of Myagdi and well link with present settlement places.
• Need to explore alternative trekking route on the either sides of Marshyangdi
and Kali Gandaki River through the old trail of the round Annapurna trek and
need to explore, develop and promote the new tourism products on the way or
the adjacent sides of the RAT and promote community based home stay tourism
at local level.
• Negative cultural impact seen especially among the youths from tourism activities,
so need awareness training, focusing youth for positive change towards their
traditional cultural value and importance.
• The problem of low quality tourists has been increasing day by day so the
minimum expenditure amount per day should be ixed with clear rules for the
quality tourism and to increase the length of stay from the concerned government
authority.
• The RAT and other trekking trails of the Annapurna region should be declared
as special tourism zone accordingly need to provide training about environment
and tourism education in school and community level as well.
• Illegal collection and supplying the fossils (Shaligrams) in huge quantity need to
discourage by punishing or penalty charge with establishing well equip manpower
check post in the support of local authority and community.
• Motor road regulation mechanism should be formed in the coordination of local
administration, security, community and Vehicle owner to control the speed,
pressure horn and standard of the vehicle and the motor roads need to be managed
with both sides greenery to manage environmental pollution and effect of climate
change, due to road construction and regulation of heavy vehicle.
133
• Need to develop alternative routes for trekking besides the RAT, exploring sight
scene spots and new products and disseminate them by booklet, brochures, map,
lealets and other promotional material about the new trail and scenic spots.
• Due attention should be given to preserve the Natural environment (forest and
wildlife), arts, culture, temple monastery and cultivable land for sustainable
tourism development while constructing motor roads specially in Manang and
Mustang area.
• Local leaders of political parties, civil society Community leaders and experts
suggested not to construct the motor road even further from the human settlement
area like after Muktinath to Thorang pass, Manang to Tilicho lake and Tilche
village to Bhimtang of Manang district to preserve the natural beauty of these
places and reduce the effect of climate change. As there are no more human
settlements to use the vehicle service and highly sensitive fragile land and
mountain ecology would be disturbed.
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135
Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Zootherapeutic Uses of…
ZOOTHERAPEUTIC USES OF SOME

ANIMALS BY JALARI IN POKHARA VALLEY
Shubhas Chandra Bastola
Abstract
Pokhara valley is rich in biodiversity. Since ancient time human life

is closely related with different types of animals for the traditional
medicinal purpose. Present work studies and documents zootherapeutic
knowledge of ethnic group Jalari in pokhara valley. Methods apply for
this study such as participant observation, semi-structured interview
and focus groups discussion have been employed to collect data. It is
found that from the study different animals play an important role in
their traditional zootherapy. It is found that all together nine different
animals were reported as being used in 18 traditional zoo-therapeutic
remedies for ethnic group Jalari. Body part such as quills, intestinal
contents and viscera, lesh, a piece of nose, blood, yellow fur, bile of large
and fearfull animals are normally used as charms for spiritual healing
and for overall well being. Such animals should be kept under higher
priority of conservation.
Key words : Jalari, zootherapy, biodiversity, ethnic group, remedies.
Introduction
Nepal, a Himalayan kingdom, is a small land locked mountainous country with an area
of 1,47,181 sq.km. Which is no more than 0.1% of the words land surface. It is famous
for biodiversity in the world.
Pokhara valley is situated in the western region of Nepal. It is situated between 84° 00' E
longitude and 28" 13' N Latitude. It is 200 km west from the capital city of Kathmandu.
The area of Pokahra valley is about 900 sq. km. The valley has two municipalities, Pokhara
sub-metropolitan city and Lekhnath municipality. The present population of Pokhara is
1,73,349 and 31,642 households respectively. Likewise the Lekhnath municipality has
45,878 population and 10,282 households. Pokhara sub-metropolitan city has 18 wards
and Lekhnath municipality has 15 wards. The climatic condition of Pokhara valley is
humid sub-tropical during summer and humid temperature in winter. In this valley,
annual precipitation is highest (> 70%) than any part of the country during monsoon
(June - September) and air temperature varied seasonally from 5°C in winter to 30°C in
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Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Shubhas Chandra Bastola
summer season (Rai, 2000). South-east winds are predominant and relatively stronger
during dry season (March - May). There are nine lakes in Pokhara valley but most of
them are deminishing except Phewa, Begnas and Rupa lakes.
Pokhara valley is rich in biodiversity. From the very beginning, human life is closely
related with different types of animals. Animals either whole or their secretion are
normally used as food and medicine. Their use in other dimensions such as in religion,
magicoreligion, customary rituals and spiritual healing therapy is also signiicant. The
treatment of ailments with remedies made from animals and their products is known
as zootherapy (Alves and Rosa, 2005). Zootherapy has played a signiicant role in the
healing practice, magic rituals and religions of indigenous and western societies all
over the world (weiss, 1947, Angeletti et al; 1992, Rosner, 1992). Animal play a vital
role in modern medicines as well. Marques (1997) has reported that out of 252 essential
chemicals selected by WHO, 11.1% come from plants and 8.7% come from animals.
Animals which contribute to the formulation of modern medicinal recipe, range from
smaller animals of lower phyla to larger animals of the higher phyla. Animal based
medicines are generally derived from three sources (cost-Neto 2005).
a. Parts of (or the whole) animal body.
b. Metabolic products of animal (Secretions or excrement).
c. Products created by animals (nests, cocoon, honey, egg, etc).
Zootherapy has been playing vital role in the traditional pharmacopoeia of ancient
cultures of Nepal as in other parts of the world. It is more effective in different developed
and developing countries like Nepal.
Now a days, there has been rapid loss in traditional knowledge in the country because
of the loss of biodiversity and ancient human cultures. Very little work has been done
to record and scientiically interpret valuable zootherapeutic knowledge of the ancient
people. It is very important to know about the different ethnic group and to get idea about
the valuable animal and their use in medicinal purpose. It is attempted here to study and
document such vanishing zootherapeutic knowledge of Jalari in Pokhara valley, Kaski
district.
The main purpose of this study are the following.
i. To have knowledge about the animals used as medicine by Jalahari ethnic groups.
ii. To ind out the whole body or parts of different animal products or secretions
used by Jalahari.
iii. This study provides information and awareness the general people to protect such
medicinal animal.
137
Data and Methods

Research methods employed in this study include participant observation, focus group
discussion, semi structured interviews, generally head of the household was interviewed.
Field visit was employed for the collection of the information. The information collected
by two methods.
a. Primary form: Direct interview, about the use of different animals for medicine,
user group.
b. Secondary form : Different literatures cited from internet and visiting related
NGO and Government organization related to this ield.
Fauna has been identiied by using different taxonomic keys (Shrestha, 2003). Data was
tabulated under the headings phylum/class/order/zoological name, english and common
Nepali name, popular use, method of preparation and application.
The present study showed that all together nine animals have been reported as being
used in 18 traditional zootherapeutic remedies for ethnic group Jalari. All together nine
animals were reported as being used in 18 traditional zootherapeutic remedies for human
health purposes. A detailed description of these remedies is provided in table 1.
Table 1
Popular uses of zootherapeutic remedies in Jalari
Phylum/ class/ Common Commonly
S.
order english/local used body Method of preparation and application
N.
scientiic name name parts
1. Chordata Porcupine/ a. Quills • Making a necklace from quills or spine
Mammalia "Dumsi" b. Intestinal and worn around neck to keep away
• Boiled intestinal contents and viscera

Rodentia Contents evil spirits and witches.
Hustrix and viscera
Indica (Kerr) are given to the asthma patients for
• These are also used to regulate

H. brachyura remedy.
(Linnaeus)
urinary disorder.
2. Chordata Spiny eel/ Whole body • Bam is grilled on ire and deminsed
• Cooked and used to feed parasite

Teleostomi "Bam" with some vedic hymns.
Masfacombti forms
mastacombelus infected person with stomach
armatus indigestion trouble.
138
3. Chordata Belone / Whole body • Cooked and use as cure to Mahamosa
• Cooked and used to feed parasite

Teleostomi "Chuche (meat) (a kind of dysentery with high appetite)
Beloniformes Bam"
Xenentodon infected person with stomach
Cancila indigestion trouble.
4. Choradata Golden Jackal Meat • Jackal meat is eaten as delicious food
• Jackal meat is used for arthritis.

Mammalia / "Syal" and used as medicine for gout.
• Flesh is fermented along with cereals

Carnivora
Canis aureus
(Linnaeus) Flesh to make alcohol. The alcohol thus
prepared is applied in the aching joints
• A piece of nose is used in making

and the body for relief.
A piece charms and the charm steamed mustard

of nose of oil steam lamp to treat over crying
Jackal disease.
5. Chordata House Worm blood • Worm blood of house sparrow is used
Aves Sparrow/ to treat ear infection.
Passeriformes "Bhhageara"
Passer domesticus
(Linnaeus)
6. Chordata Copper Whole body • Flesh is roasted and is used people

Teleostomi mahaseer infected with Bacillary dysentery.
cyprinoformes "kattle"
Nepolissocheihus
hexagonlepis
(Kattle)
7. Arthropoda Insecta Red tree ants/ Whole body • Ants are ground ine with water and
/ Hymenoptera "Ratokamila" feed to people suffering from piles.
Oecophylla
smaragdina
8. Chordata Indian pond Whole body • Flesh is cooked and used to fed to
Aves heron/ (meat) people suffering from pyorrhea.
ciconiiformes "Bacculo" (Bacterial infection, destroying tissue
• Yellow fur is used as disinfectant,

Ardeola grayii yellow fur in gums)
wound is cleaned with it.

9. Chordata Sahar/ Bile • Bile mix with water and drink to helps
• Burnwoun's used bile like a paste

Teleostomi "Mahaseer" maintain thermal condition of the body.
Cyprimformes
Tor-putitora (Ham) recover the wounds very quickly.
Faunal classiication : Almost all animals belongs to phylum chordata out of 9 only one
animal is invertebrate (Arthropoda) and only two classes (Aves), four classes of ishes
139
(Teleostomi) and remaining two mammalia.

Zootherapeutic remedies : Althogether 18 remedies were reported. These were Anti-
asthama, urinary disorder, burn, stomach pain, gout, arthritis, blood diarrhoea, piles, skin
burn, Bacillary dysentery, pyorrhea, general weakness and other unidentiied diseases
(Mahamauso), etc.
Animal parts used in remedies : Different parts of the animals included for remedies
such as quills, intestincal content and viscera, lesh, bile, blood, pice of nose, whole
organism, yellow hair, etc.
Folk categories of use : Different remedies were from 18 categories of use. The most
reported categories were anti-asthmatic, anti arthritic. Some animals were used for
delicious food to obtain high protein value in addition to their zootherapeutic value.
Charms made out of quils of some of the animals were reported to be in use among the
people for their general well being.
It is most interesting work. This study is probably irst study in Pokhara valley. The present
study showed that altogether nine animals were reported as being used in 18 traditional
zoo-therapeutic remedies for ethnic group Jalari. It is found that different body parts of
one animal are used in different diseases care. For example, Hystrix indica it's quills
are used in making a necklace and wear in neck to keep away evil spirits and witches,
and intestinal content and viscera used for anti-asthma and urinary disorder. It has also
been found that animal part and product such as bile of some animals are used to treat
a varieties of ailments. Body part such as Quills, intestinal contents and viscera, meat,
lesh, a piece of nose, blood, yellow fur, bile of large and fearful animals are normally
used as charms for spiritual healing and for over all well being. Gosh et al., (1996),
reported that the bile and fat of bear (Melursus ursinus) was used in fever and rheumatism
respectively. Similarly, Solan-ki et al., (2004), in their study of ethnozoology of Monpas
tribals of Arunachal Pradesh, India, reported that bile of bear was used as medicine for
malaria, typhoid, tuberculosis and high fever. Ethnomedicinal values of animals both
vertebrates and invertebrates were reported by a number of researchers (Azmi, 1990;
Costa-Neto, 1999, 2002, 2005, Dutta et al., 1996, Sharma, 1990; Singh et al., (1998).
Conclusion
The present study on the ethnozoological knowledge of Jalari showed that animals
played an important role in the traditional Zootherapy. Altogether nine animals have been
reported as being used in 18 traditional zoo-therapeutic remedies for ethnic group Jalari.
It is also found that one animal different body part are used in different diseasescare.
Animal part and product such as bile, quills, intestinal contents, meat, lesh, a piece of
nose, blood, yellow fur. It is to be noted that the most predominant group of zootherapeutic
140
remedies come from animals lesh, fur, bile, blood, viscera and bone. These animals
and other such type of animals should be kept under the higher priority of conservation.
Acknowledgements
The authors expresses sincere gratitude to Janapriya Research and Consultancy Centre
(JRCC), Janapriya Multiple Campus, Janapriya Marg, Pokhara for inancial support to
complete this research, Dr. A.D. Mishra and Mr. K.K. Pokharel deserve thanks for their
kind suggestions to carryout this research work. I am very much greatul to local people
of Jalari in Pokhara Valley are for providing the required information.
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Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Vikash Kumar KC
Gender Differences in Attainment of Higher Secondary

Level Education among Adolescents and Youths in Nepal
Vikash Kumar KC
Abstract
Using cross sectional data taken from nationally representative sample of

Nepal adolescent and youths survey 2011, this paper attempts to examine
the gender differential in attainment of higher secondary level education
among adolescents and youths in Nepal. The analyses reveal that there
is no pronounced variation in attainment of higher secondary education
between boys and girls in terms of demographic, socio-cultural, spatial
and other factors. However, a signiicant variation exists in attainment of
higher secondary education within boys and girls according to background
characteristics. Demographic, socio cultural and spatial factors have a
strong association with attainment of higher secondary education of
boys and girls. Likewise, spatial factors are the key determinants of
attainment of higher education among adolescents and youths. Therefore,
the government should focus to minimize the disparity between rural and
urban by adopting appropriate policy measures.
Key words: Gender, adolescents and youths, higher secondary education, disparity.
Introduction
Literacy has been deined as the ability to read and to write. Therefore, a person who can
read and a short, simple statement in any language on his or her everyday life is literate.
Literacy and education are not only indicators of level of development but also important
determinants of households and individual wellbeing. In addition, education is also
signiicantly associated with overall happiness of life (Central Bureau of Statistics, 2004).
In patriarchal society, male are assumed to be superior than female in every sphere of life.
The males are supposed to be the key agent for the continuation of kinship of the family,
support for the aged life and therefore, boys are generally preferred in these societies.
The unfairness between gender not only visible in different aspects of daily life but also
during the feeding and weaning practices for baby particularly in developing context.
In real life situation, girls are discriminated in various forms of popular social practices
and therefore, good opportunities are provided to boys as compared to girls. Among the
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Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Gender Differences in…
areas of discrimination, education is also one the factors and boys and girls are treated
unequally in many societies. It is obvious that education is important indicator of overall
wellbeing of life. In addition, it is generally stated that if a male is educated only an
individual becomes educated but if a female is educated then whole familybecomes
educated. However, this concept is not materialized and is not favorable to girls in terms
of accessibility of educational facilities (KC, 2007).
Although Nepalese educational statistics shows a signiicant improvement for last thirty
years, there is a wide disparity in educational attainment in terms of gender, spatial
distribution and castes. Nepal living standard survey 2011 reveals that 61.0 percent of the
population aged 6 years and above is literate. There is also marked gender variation in
literacy: more than 72.0 percent of males as compared with 51.0 percent of females aged
6 years and above are literate. This disparities is more pronounced in eastern rural areas,
central Tarai, mountain and hill regions of the country. According to age, about 95.0 of
males as compared with 84.0 percent of female at age 15-19 are literate. Similarly, this
trend remains favorable for males in age group 20-24 (more than 90.0 percent of males
against 73.0 percent of females). Likewise, females are relatively more disadvantageous
than their male counterparts in terms of educational status as well. For example, more
than 44.0 percent of female population as compared with 23.0 percent male population
never attend school (CBS, 2011).
Similarly, the government of Nepal aims to ensure that by 2015 all children, particularly
girls, the disabled, and children in dificult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic
minorities, and dalits have access to free and compulsory primary education of good
quality, but the progress is not satisfactory as expected (MOES and UNESCO, 2003).
Large number of factors are responsible for not achieving the targeted goals in Nepalese
context. Children are the future fathers, mothers, scientists, educationists and important
agents for changing society in proper direction. Therefore, an attention is to be paid for
their education.
Youths and adolescents have been selected as the sample for the present study because
it is one of the vulnerable sections of the population and also a transitional stages of life
in which various changes occur. It is universal that these changes certainly inluence the
educational attainment to some extent. In addition, a large number of students pass in
school leaving exam but all of them do not get opportunity to enroll in higher secondary
level due to various reasons. Among the reasons economic problems, household condition,
parent's permission, marriage, accessibility of educational facilities are the key agents.
For example; a majority of girls during adolescence and youths get married (the median
age of irst marriage among the women in reproductive period is 17.5 years) in one hand
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and some of the SLC pass out boys seek the job due to the various reasons. Therefore, it
is essential to examine the gender differential n attainment of higher education among
adolescents and youths. The main aim of this paper is to examine gender differential in
higher secondary education in Nepal.
Data and Method
This paper uses the cross sectional data drawn from nationally representative sample
of National Adolescent and Youths Survey (NAYS) 2011 conducted by ministry of
population and health (MOPH) Nepal. For sampling design, this survey uses two stages
stratiied sampling techniques in which 300 EAs (enumeration areas or clusters) were
selected using probability proportion to size comprising rural and urban samples (237
rural and remaining 63 urban clusters) at the irst stage. In the second stage, 30 households
in each clusters were selected using systematic random sampling. A total of 14853
adolescents and youths (7109 boys and 7644 girls) aged 10-24 from 9000 households were
selected as the ultimate respondent of the study. For analytical purpose, univariate and
bivariate analyses have been used. SPSS version 13.0 has been used to analyze the data.
Background Characteristics of Adolescents and Youths
Table 1 shows the distribution of respondents by gender according to background
characteristics. In terms of age, almost half of respondents are under the age of 15 and
about one in ive respondents are aged 20-24 years. Similarly, more than 80.0 percent
of respondents are from rural areas. According to development regions, the sample size
varies from 9.9 percent for far western development region to 26.9 percent for central
development region. By ecological regions, about 47.0 percent are from Tarai region
followed by 46.0 percent from hill and remaining 7.0 percent from mountain regions.
Table 1
Percent of Respondents Classiied by Gender According to
Background Characteristics, Nepal, 2011
Characteristics Boys Girls Total
Age
10-14 48.6 41.7 45.1
15-19 32.3 33.1 32.7
20-24 19.0 25.2 22.2
Place of residence
Rural 79.5 80.3 80.0
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Urban 20.5 19.7 20.0

Development regions
Eastern 22.2 23.7 22.9
Central 27.3 26 26.9
Western 19.6 18.5 19.0
Mid western 11.7 12.4 12.1
Far Western 9.5 10.3 9.9
Ecological regions
Mountain 6.9 7.5 7.2
Hill 44.1 47.3 45.8
Tarai 49.0 45.2 47.0
N 7109 7644 14754
Disparity in literacy
Ninety-two percent of the total respondents are literate. By sex, 95.0 percent boys
and 89.0 percent girls are literate. The overall literacy rates are reported to be
almost universal among adolescents and youths, in spite of the variation between sexes.
Table 2 presents the respondents' literacy classiied by gender according to background
characteristics. The literacy rates vary by age of the respondents. The literacy rate is
lower for girls at age 20-24 as compared to boys of same age group and their younger
counterparts.
In terms of spatial factors, a higher proportion of respondents from urban areas compared
with their rural counterparts are literate (more than 97.0 percent urban respondents vs.
88.8 percent rural respondents). However, literacy among girls varies signiicantly by
place of residence. For example, about 85.0 percent of girls in rural areas are literate as
compared to more than 96.0 percent of urban girls. Similar type of pronounced variation
can also be observed in Nepal Living Standard Survey 2011 (CBS, 2011). Although,
development regions do not reveal a signiicant variation in literacy rate among boys and
girls, the literacy rate is lowest in central development region as compared other four
regions after excluding Kathmandu as a separate region. In terms of gender, there is a
signiicant variation in literacy between boys and girls in central, mid western and far
western development regions. For instance, more than 98.0 percent of boys compared
to 84.7 percent of girls are literate in far western development region. Similarly, the
literacy rate also varies from 88.0 percent for boys to 98.0 for girls in mid western
development region. Such type of variation in girls literacy can also be seen at the global
level (Tembon and Fort, 2008).
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Table 2
Adolescents and Youths Classiied by Literacy According to Gender and
Background Characteristics, Nepal, 2011
Age
10-14 94.1 92.6 93.3
15-19 96.4 91.2 93.7
20-24 ** 93.8 79.2 85.3
Place of residence
Rural ** 93.7 85.3 88.8
Urban 98.5 96.6 97.4
Dev. regions
Eastern 95.3 89.1 91.7
Central ** 88.7 79.8 83.7
Western 97.1 92.5 94.7
Mid western 97.8 88.4 92.2
Far Western** 98.2 84.7 90.2
Ecological regions
Mountain 97.5 84.5 89.9
Hill 97.7 93.4 95.2
Tarai 91.6 82.2 86.5
Caste /ethnicity **
Upper caste 98.8 95.2 97.0
Janajatis 97.9 92.8 95.4
Lower caste ** 90.3 74.7 82.5
Others ** 84.1 70.2 77.2
Note: Others includes disadvantaged non dalit Tarai caste groups and religious
minorities)
* = signiicant at 10.0 percent, ** = signiicant at 5.0 percent and *** = signiicant
at 0.000 percent
Table 2 also shows the literacy rate of boys and girls according to caste. Literacy rate
also varies signiicantly among the different ethnic groups. For example, more than 98.0
percent of boys from upper caste as compared with 84.0 percent of boys from other caste
groups are literate. Similarly, there is pronounced variation in literacy among the girls
147
from upper caste to lower castes. It is obvious that there is marked variation in literacy
rate by gender in lower caste and other religious minorities as compared to upper caste
and janajatis. Latest Nepal demographic health survey also conirms this inding (Ministry
of Health Nepal, New Era and Macro International, 2012).
Disparity in higher secondary education
Table 3 shows the percent of adolescents and youths classiied by higher secondary
education according to gender and background characteristics. According to age, more
than 40.0 percent of respondents aged 20-24 as compared with 28.0 percent aged 15-19
attain higher secondary education. Similarly, there is variation in attainment of higher
secondary education by place of residence. It is almost universal that a greater proportion
of respondents from urban areas attain higher secondary education as compared with
their rural counterparts. For example, just more than 10 percent of boys from rural
areas compared with 24.7 percent from urban areas attain higher secondary education.
Likewise, there is also a considerable disparity in higher secondary education among
girls by place of residence. About 9.0 percent of girls from rural areas relative to 25.0
percent from urban areas attain higher secondary education.
Table 3 also shows the variation in higher secondary education among boys and girls by
development regions. The higher secondary education among boys varies signiicantly
from 5.7 percent in far western region to 18.6 percent in central region. Similarly, lesser
number of girls from far western region as compared with other regions get the facility of
higher secondary education. In terms of ecological zones, boys and girls from mountain
regions are less likely to have higher secondary education than Hill and Tarai regions of
the country. For instance, about 3.0 percent of boys from mountain region as compared
with 17.9 percent from hill region have higher secondary education. Similarly, about 7.0
percent of girls from mountain as compared with 16.7 percent of girls from hill region
attain higher secondary education. It is clear that there is wide variation in attainment
of higher secondary education due to spatial zones. It is almost natural that in case of
respondents from rural area, far western development region and mountain region have
low accessibility of educational facilities as compared to urban, other development
regions and ecological regions of the country.
Table 3
Percent of Adolescents and Youths Classiied by Attainment of Highe Secondary
Education According to Gender and Background Characteristics, 2011
Age
10-14 - - -
15-19 30.4 25.6 28.0
148
20-24 44.3 36.4 40.4

Place of residence ** **
Rural 10.2 9.3 9.8
Urban 24.7 25.0 24.9
Dev. regions **
Eastern 11.8 12.1 12.0
Central 18.6 14.0 16.3
Western 16.4 12.7 14.6
Mid western 12.6 11.5 12.1
Far Western 5.7 8.9 7.3
Ecological regions ** *
Mountain 3.3 6.9 5.1
Hill 17.9 16.7 17.3
Tarai 10.3 9.4 9.9
Caste /ethnicity ** *** ***
Upper caste 36.0 25.1 30.6
Janajatis 24.9 25.8 25.4
Lower caste 12.6 9.5 11.2
Others 5.9 3.8 4.9
minorities)
* = signiicant at 10.0 percent, ** = signiicant at 5.0 percent and *** = signiicant at
0.000 percent
As in literacy, there is a marked variation in higher secondary education according to
gender and ethnicity. One in three boys as compared with one in four girls from upper
caste attain higher secondary education. Similarly, a lower proportion of girls from lower
caste group attain higher secondary education as compared with their male counterparts.
However, there is no signiicant variation in higher secondary education among boys
and girls from janajatis groups.
Dropout
Dropout is one of the major problems in fulilling the targets in school level of education
in Nepal. Dropout not only damages the career of the prospective adolescents and youths
but also the government investment in education. The NAYS survey also collected the
information on dropout of secondary as well as higher secondary level education.
149
Table 4 reveals the percentage of boys and girls who dropout higher secondary education
by selected background characteristics. According to age, drop out seems to be major
problems after the age of 19. For example, more than one in every three boys and same
proportion of girls dropout higher secondary level education as compared with their
younger counterparts.
Similarly, place of residence shows a marked variation in dropout among boys and girls.
For example, more than 20.0 percent of boys from rural areas as compared with 32.3
percent from urban areas dropout their higher secondary education. Similar trends can
be seen for girls. This study reveals that dropout of higher secondary education among
adolescents and youths is higher in urban areas as compared with rural counterparts.
Table 4
Percent of Adolescents and Youths who Drop Higher Secondary Education
According to Gender and Background Characteristics, Nepal, 2011

Age **
10-14 0.91 0.0 0.5
15-19 12.1 14.3 13.2
20-24 33.8 28.4 31.1
Place of residence ** **
Rural 20.6 19.1 19.9
Urban 32.3 31.4 31.9
Dev. regions
Eastern 28.0 34.3 31.2
Central 19.5 18.6 19.1
Western 26.2 17.7 22.0
Mid western 14.6 10.1 12.4
Far Western 17.9 12.7 15.3
Ecological regions
Mountain 11.8 8.0 9.9
Hill 24.9 20.5 22.7
Tarai 22.6 24.4 23.5
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Caste /ethnicity
Upper caste 36.4 30.2 33.3
Janajatis 27.1 25.0 26.1
Lower caste (dalit) 12.3 8.0 10.2
Others 15.8 18.9 17.4
minorities)
* = signiicant at 10.0 percent, ** = signiicant at 5.0 percent and *** = signiicant
at 0.000 percent
Reasons of dropout
Various reasons cause to quit higher secondary education among boys and girls in Nepal.
The previous studies show that economic, marriage, accessibility of educational facilities,
fail in exam, work and others reasons are the main causes of dropout. NAYS survey
also collected information on reasons of dropout. Among the various factors economic
problem followed by family condition, not interested in education, fail in the exam are the
main reasons of dropout among boys. However, marriage followed by family condition,
economic condition are the leading causes of drop out of higher secondary education
among girls (table not shown). Figures 1 and 2 present the reasons of dropout in higher
secondary education among boys and girls.
Fig. 1 : Reaspons of dropout of higher secondary education among boys

From igure 1 and 2, it is clear that the reasons of drop out of higher secondary education
varies signiicantly among boys and girls. For example, very few boys (0.29 percent)
151
as compared to 2.09 percent of girls drop higher secondary education due to parents'
objection (not sent). However, there is no signiicant difference in dropout due to family
condition, fail in exam, not interested among girls and boys.
Fig. 2 : Reaspons of dropout of higher secondary education among girls

This study shows that marriage is the main reason of dropout among girls and economic
reason is the leading reason of dropout among boys. Similarly, family condition is another
dominant factors inluencing dropout among boys and girls. For example, about one in
ive boys and girls abandon higher secondary education due to family reasons. Likewise,
fail in exam is also major reasons of dropout among girls and boys. Similarly, about
more than 10.0 percent of boy and girls dropout due to fail in exam. Although a much is
talked about the relationship between accessibility of educational facilities and reasons
of dropout in Nepal, less than one in hundred adolescents and youths drop their higher
secondary education.
Summary and conclusion
The Nepal adolescents and youths survey clearly reveals that there is pronounced
variation in higher secondary education by selected background characteristic. There
is signiicant variation in literacy among boys and girls by age, place of residence. In
particular, the spatial variables show a signiicant variation in literacy among boys and
girls. For example, about 92.0 percent of the total respondents are literate, while 95.0
percent of boys as compared with 89.0 percent of girls are literate.
Similarly, literacy rate varies by ecological regions, place of residence and development
regions. Respondents from rural areas, Tarai region and central development region
(assuming Kathmandu as a separate region) are less likely to be literate as compared
152
with their other counterparts. However, girls from central development region are more
likely to have higher secondary education as compared with boys.
In terms of ethnicity, a higher proportion of respondents from upper caste and janajatis
are literate and attain higher secondary education and the gender disparity is also lower
among these castes. However, literacy and attainment of higher secondary education
differs signiicantly among adolescents and youths from lower castes and others (religious
minorities and non dalit communities from Tarai). Likewise, the gender disparity in
literacy and attainment of higher secondary education is also more pronounced among
these castes. Although a hot discussion is carried out about disparity in education by
ethnicity, this study do not provide suficient proofs to conclude that there is pronounced
variation in higher secondary education according to ethnicity except lower castes and
other (Tarai based non dalit minorities and religious minorities).
This study raises three main concerns that are to be considered for improving the existing
level of literacy and education among adolescents and youths in Nepal.
First, it is harder to address economic equality immediately, therefore, the disparity in
attainment of higher secondary education due to economic barriers can be minimized by
making easy access of higher secondary education in public schools. Special programs
may be beneicial for the dalit and other religious minorities.
Second, early marriage among girls is one of the major reasons of quitting higher
secondary education, therefore, early marriage (child) should be discourage by adopting
effective policy measures. The current awareness programs on health related issues aired
by FM, Radio and TV may be beneicial for improving existing situation among girls.
Third, although the respondents in Tarai and central development region have higher
accessibility of educational facilities, literacy and educational attainment among boys
and girls is low. Therefore, a further research is required to investigate the underlying
factors inluencing the low level of literacy in these regions.
Acknowledgements
The author acknowledges BSU (Building Stronger Universities) programs of Danish
universities for providing an opportunity to present an earlier version of paper at
international seminar on Unpacking the concepts of stability, democracy and rights-
conceptual investigations, Kathmandu, Nepal April 2012.
153
References
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CBS. (2011). Nepal Living Standard Survey, 2010/11. Kathmandu, Central Bureau of Statistics.
K.C. Vikash. (2008). Men's participation in women's reproductive and child health care: a study of western
hill region, Nepal. An unpublished Ph.D. dissertation submitted to Jawaharlal Nehru University,
New Delhi, India.
Ministry of Health & Population (MOHP) [Nepal], New ERA, & ICF International Inc. (2012). Nepal
Demographic and Health Survey 2011. Kathmandu, Nepal: Ministry of Health and
Population, New ERA, and ICF International, Calverton, Maryland.
Ministry of Education and Sports Nepal & United Nations Educational Scientiic and Cultural Organization.
(2003). Education for all: National Plan of Action. Nepal, Ministry of Education and Sports and
UNESCO.
Tembon, M. & Fort, L. (2008). Girls education in the 21st Century: Gender equality, empowerment and
economic growth. World bank.
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Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Yam Bahadur Kshetry
Translating Two Folk-singers: Ali

Miyan and Haridevi Koirala
(With reference to Cultural and Prosodic Problems)
Yam Bahadur Kshetry
Abstract
Nepal is a small landlocked country located between China and India.
It is a multi-lingual country with an extremely diverse population. Its
ethnic groups speak more than 92 languages. However, Nepali language
is common to all Nepalese citizens. Nepalese culture, too, is the result
of its diverse speech communities. All the language communities have
contributed to the development of its culture, language and literature. The
present paper in particular relates to the translation of two folk-songs of
Lokkabi Ali Miyan (1918-2008) and Lokgayika Haridevi Koirala (1958),
the two popular folk-singers and also poets in the history of Nepali
language and literature. Their songs illed with humanitarian feelings
contain messages of sincere friendship, love and livelihood so essential
for mankind. However, translating songs is fraught with cultural, prosodic
and phonic problems. Despite such problems, they can be translated in
view of the meaning and universal message they carry with them.
Key words: Folk-songs and their translations, cultural problems, prosodic problems,
rhythms, syllabic patterns, connotations, meaning that matters much.
1. Introduction to Ali Miyan
Born in a Muslim family, motherless at the age of one and half, and fatherless at 3,
brought up in a dificult situation, Ali Miyan learned the Devnâgari alphabets only at the
age of 20. Fortunately, gifted with a melodious voice, he became a famous folk-singer in
the whole Nepalese society. Primarily, he sang to please himself and the youths of his own
company. While working together with the workers in the paddy ield and going to the
forest with the young lots, he sang and became popular all around the valley of Pokhara.
In any singing ceremony, he was always respected. This is why Raghunath Adhikari, a
critic of Nepali literature, says: "He is a poet of both written and oral traditions of Nepali
folk-songs. Before he became literate, he sang a lot of songs which might have passed
on from individuals to individuals in the stream of oral tradition of all those folk-songs.
That is why, Ali is, at the outset, a folk-singer and afterwards a composer and collector
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Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.1 (August 2012) Translating Two Folk-singers:…
of folk-songs" (2005 : 637). Likewise, Ghanshyam Dhakal, an eminent critic in Nepali

literature, makes an assessment of Ali Miya and says:
He is a folk-singer with the consciousness of reforming the existing
society and he has given vent to the social realities of his time. He is the
follower of the folk-song tradition and a creator, too. He collected the
folk-songs and he also composed them. He was against the imported
foreign culture and cultural imperialism. He was committed to the
formation of national culture, and as such the national feelings he
has expressed deserve special signiicance to note. Most of his songs
and poems are the rhythmical expression of sorrows and sufferings
of the depressed and down-trodden people. That is the worth of his
songs and poems (2005:139).
With no particular political ideal and thoughts to preach, he gave vent to his feelings
and those of his co-workers mostly in folk songs, and occasionally in poetic form. Very
active and amusing through all his life, he expressed what he observed, experienced
and realized in his life. He expresses them in tune with the voice of the local people
and ordinary workers. This is the reason that he received the title ‘Lokkavi’ from the
people themselves. After his death, ‘Ali Miyan Lok-Banmaya Pratisthan’ (Ali Miyan
Folk-literature Academy) has been established in Pokhara. This academy is working to
highlight the works of other folk-poets and folk-singers in Nepal and outside Nepal, too.
Works of Ali Miyan
Virakta Lahari (1949); Nepali Jhyâure Geetsangraha (1952) ; Pahâdko Udgâr (1956);
Setiko Suskerâ (1972); Ujyâlo Bhaisakyo (1982); Samjhanâko Diyo (1994); and Ali
Miyânko Awâj (2001) are the books published during his life. With the publication of
these books,Miyân became more popular among the masses and the lovers of art and
literature. His songs have become part of Nepali folk literature.
a) Ali Miyan's Song ‘Ãkâshamâ Bâdalu Dammai Chha’
‘Ãkâshamâ Bâdalu Dammai Chha’ is a song of Ali Miyân, taken from ‘Ali Miyânko Awâz.
The song was sung by co-singers Premrâjâ Mahat and Haridevi Koirâlâ, and recorded
for broadcast in 1993. The following is the Nepali version of the same song:
Nepali Version
‘Ãkâshamâ Bâdalu Dammai Chha’
Keta - Ãkâshamâ Badalu Dammai Chha,
Manmâ ke chha bhannelâi sammai chha.
Ghar ta mero lathâlinga pâli mâtra chhâunchhu
Barshâ khânu parne chhaina, bâli mâtra launchhu.
156
Jaska pani dui najara barâbari herne.

Kaile maukâ parlâ hajur yo kânchuli pherne.
Ãkâshamâ bâdalu dammai chha,
Keti - Keko hâtti angâldo ho musâ nachhunele
Keko mâyâ lâunu chha ra paisâ nahunele
Ekai patak hansâi deuu na sadhain runelâi
Hridayamâ râkhiraula mana dhune lâi.
Ãkâshamâ bâdalu dammai chha
Dubai - Mero mâyâ bhijâun bhane sansârbhari pugchha
Mero ânsu pokhaun bhane sagarmâthâ dubchha.
Chhâti kholi dekhâun bhane mâchhâpuchhre jhukchha.
Manko tirkhâ metâun bhane phewâtâl sukchha.
Ãkashamâ bâdalu dammai chha
b) Translated version of the Song
The following is the translated literary version of the song ‘Ãkâshmâ Bâdalu Dammai
Chha.’
English Version
If the mind is cloudy
Boy: If the mind is cloudy, nobody knows
What is at the core of my mental door?
The house I live in is almost cracked.
I always repair only the roof thatched.
The whole monsoon I plant
But no more food that I ind.
Everyone has two impartial eyes
To look and treat them all in equals.
When will a shere moment come,
To bring a total change of my dome.
If the mind is cloudy, nobody knows
Girl: How can you rear an elephant

When you can not feed a mouse ?
How would you love one or the other
When you have no penny at all ?
157
But my dear !
Would you make me smile once,
And soothe my heart that ever is weeping
Whoever helps my mind washing it up
I'd ever keep within my heart and lap.
Both: If I extend my love, the world it covers

If I shed tears ‘Sagarmâthâ’ 1 sinks.
If I open up my heart, ‘Mâchhâpuchhre’ 2 stoops .
If I quench my thirst, ‘Phewa Taal’ 3 dries up.
(Kshetry, 2011: 22/24)
2. Introduction to Haridevi Koirala :
Haridevi Koirala (1958-), was born in Baidâm, Pokhara. She is populary known as a
folk-singer (Lokgâyikâ), but in fact, she is a poet and a songster, too. Sometimes it is
hard to distinguish her composition, whether it is a song or a poem. The best of her
characteristic difference from other poets and singers is that she is the composer and
singer of her songs herself. She also sings the songs of other eminent singers and poets
like Lokkavi Ali Miyan, Janakavikeshari Dharmarâj Thapa, and Film composer Chetan
Karki. In fact, it was Haridevi Koirala, who brought Ali Miyan into the limelight by
singing his songs with Ramraja Mahat (an eminent singer), and Thakur Sigdel, (a poet
and a singer, too), and broadcasting them through Radio Nepal.
Apart from her more than 200 songs recorded in Radio Nepal, she has published the
following works:
1. Mero Deshko Chhâtibhitra Dukhejasto Lâgchha (1988), a collection of poems.
2. Taranga (1997), a collection of poems.
3. Na Ghâma Jharyo Na Juna Jharyo (2002), a collection of poems.
4. Âfnai Geet, Âfnai Bhâkâ (2005), a collection of songs.
5. Mâitai Ramâilo (2006), a collection of songs.)
6. Ke Chha Hajur Halchal yata, Naya Nepalako? (2010), a collection of poems.
7. Sarangima Bhulyo Man (2010), a collection of Nepali Folk-songs.
Lok-gayika (or Folk-singer) is, in fact, the public voice that ultimately turned into an
honorable title to Mrs. Haridevi Koirala. She is incessantly working on composing and
collecting the folk-songs in Nepali language. She is also the chief guardian of "Haridevi
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Sahitya Sangit Samman Kosh" established in Pokhara.

a) Koirala's Folk-song ‘Paina Khabara’
A song in a foreign language is dificult to understand. But it is not dificult to appreciate
the melody of a singing voice. It is only through the experience that we can realize it.
The tones and rhythm of a song really makes the audience pleasant. It makes them forget
their worries and anxieties, at least, for the moment they are listening to it. Song has a
special power to arouse the feelings of love, sympathy and kindness. Song is rhythmical
and sensitive. By virtue of its music and melody, tune and sense, everyone loves either
singing himself / herself or listening and enjoying it. It is on this assumption that ‘Paina
Khabara,’a folk-song of Haridevi Koirala, is rendered into English, and it is presented
to all lovers of songs and music, no matter what language or languages they speak.
Romanized Nepali version is also provided so that readers may ind it easy even to grasp
the meaning and its musical tune at the same time. If anyone has the cassette of her song,
s/he can certainly enjoy it the best!
Nepali Version
‘Paina Khabara’: A Famous Nepali Folk-song
1. Gharko mâlik pardeshmâ gaeko

Dherai bhayo kei khabar napâko
Pâina khabara,
Ghar pharki âunuhos, mero hajura !
2. Gharko vyavahâr thâha chhandai thiyo ni

Liyo sâhule tyahi tukro khet pani
Pâina khabara,
3. Rogi âmâ sâhrai bho roeko

Lâulâ pâpa dashdhârâ dudh khwâko
Pâina khabara,
4. Lâundina bho makhmali tyo choli

marchhu kyâre hridaya nakholi
Pâina khabara,
5. Sanchai chhauki bisancho bhayoki

159
Tâto goli chhâtimâ lâyo ki

Pâina khabara,
6. Umer mero sâhrai nai chha kachhâ

Kaso gari pâlumlâ bâlbachchâ
Pâina khabara,
7. Phadâlera maraunki baru

Bâlbachchâ sânai chhan ke garun
Pâina khabara,
8. 1Dahi bhanera râkheko 2chaulâni

Ghar samjhera pharka he 3maulâni
Pâina khabara,
9. Yo mutulâi charchari chiri

Tyahi ragatle lekhdai chhu yo chithi
Pâina khabara,
10. Yahi khanaunlâ gainchi ra kodâli

Khâunla baru kholemâ nun hâli
Pâina khabara,
b) Translated English version of Koirala's song ‘Paina Khabara’

No News As Yet ! Come Back Home, My Dearest !
1. Oh, my dear ! You are in a foreign land !

No message you sent, so many years went.
No news as yet ! Come back home, my dearest !
2. You know it all the poverty we had

160
The piece of land the landlord grabbed.

3. Frail mother fed from fountain of her breast.

Isn’t it a crime not to come to see her yet ?
4. Let me not have the dress of velvet red
As I have been pining, not opening my chest.
5. Have you been well, or, in the war wounded ?

Or, is it also that a shotgun shot you dead ?
6. Right now I am not mature enough, my dear !

Babies are so small ! How am I to care ?
7. Should I rather die falling into a ridge ?

But alas ! The poor babies I am to feed.
8. I have preserved my purity for pretty long

Dearest of my heart ! Return home very soon.
9. I’m writing this letter with my own blood

That endlessly lows out of my broken-heart.
10. Dearest soul ! Be back to our motherland

Better to use here mattocks and spades
Enjoying the salty soup of vegetables.
(Kshetry, A Famous Nepali Folk-song)
3. (a) Cultural Problems

Most of the issues related to translational activities are cultural. This mainly
161
applies to literary translation. Cultural elements are very little or sometimes non-existent
in technical writing. Every culture is full of non-corresponding concepts and ideas and
therefore they are rather unique and naturally defy being translated. However, this does
not mean that translation is impossible across cultures and languages. According to House
(2010), a piece of text embodies both features i.e. universal and unique. The universal
ones are easily translatable whereas the unique ones may require some adjustment through
cultural ilter— borrowing, adapting, translating, paraphrasing, omitting, etc. (Bhattarai,
(ed.) 2011:131/132).
3. (b) Culture words :
For a proper interpretation of Haridevi Koirala's song ‘Paina Khabara’, the following
culture words have to be explained in detail.
1. ‘Dahi’ : It is curds. it comes from the Sanskrit word ‘dadhi’. It is considered precious
and valuable. In this particular song, It is compared with ‘chaulani’ which is considered
worthless to use. Culturally speaking, Chaulâni is a useless thing, whereas ‘dahi’ is a
precious thing.
2. ‘Chaulāni’: ‘Chaulâni’ is water in which rice has been washed. Or, it is washed- off
water from the rice. Before cooking, rice is washed even though it is fresh and clean.
After washing, the water is thrown away either into a sink or into a pot kept for animals
to feed. But here for the singer artist, it has got a different meaning. It has got a symbolic
meaning. The symbolic meaning reveals out of the spiritual relationship of husband
and wife in the Nepalese culture. Following the cultural base of the Nepalese society, a
woman is supposed to say to her husband like this:
“Since I got married to you, I am no longer virgin. My virginity is wasted. With the
wastage of my virginity, I am wastage of you. Still with my spiritual devotion the wastage
of yours is preserved well.” Realizing this concept a woman sings in the forest, ‘Come
back home my dearest’. This is an example of Nepalese culture. The culture is that a
woman or a man should remain chaste, - mentally and physically, wherever they may
be living and whatever troubles they may be facing while being away from each other.
3. ‘Maulāni’: The word ‘Maulāni’ is a fresh- coinage. It is coined from the word ‘Muglan’
which means a foreign country or a distant land. ‘Maulani’, then, refers to someone who
has gone to a foreign country to earn his livelihood. This is a popular word among the
common people in the Nepalese culture.
The eighth stanza of Haridevi Koirala contains the three terms explained above: Dahi,
Chaulani and Maulani. Literal translation of these terms won't serve the inner intention
of the songster. That is why leaving behind the principle of one-to-one correspondence
of these words, they have been connotatively translated into English.
162
In this translation activity too, we ind the following cultural words in Nepali language.
Proper names like 'Sagarmâthâ' 'Mâchhâpuchchhre' 'Phewâ Tâl', etc can be treated here
as the cultural words, too, as they convey certain meaning in Nepali culture. 'Sagarmâthâ'
the highest mountain in the world, is also known as Mount Everest which is part of
English culture, too. But both the names are equally popular in Nepalese culture, and
signify the greatest height of the mountain. Mâchhâpuchchhre is the snowy mountain
along the Annapurna Himalayan range. It is also known as the Fish-tail Mountain that
is clearly visible from the valley of Pokhara. But both connote the meaning that it looks
like the tail of a ish. 'Phewâ Tâl' is the biggest lake in the valley of Pokhara. For this
reason too, it is given the connotation of bigness in the Nepalese society.
The word 'Bâdalu' is formed from the word 'Bâdal' (cloud). But there is difference
of meaning between them. This is the difference between propositional meaning and
expressive meaning. “The propositional meaning of a word or an utterance arises from
the relation between it and what it refers to or describes in a real or imaginary world,
as conceived by the speakers of the particular language to which the word or utterance
belongs. It is this type of meaning that provides the basis on which we can judge an
utterance as true or false." (Baker 2011:11). As for example, Akâshmâ bâdalu dammai
chha. The propositional meaning of this utterance is 'The sky is covered with the clouds'.
The term 'Bâdalu' is, indeed, literally untranslatable. The sufix 'u' is added to certain
naming words in spoken language so as to express a feeling of affection and closeness
to the object or person being referred to. As for example, a parent can say 'My son, my
Kalu, come to me!' The son is lovingly called 'My Kalu'. A daughter, too, may be called
‘My Kalu’. Other words can be cited like “Seto (white) and 'Setu', Râjâ (king) and Raju',
Jetho (eldest) and Jethu', Kanchho (youngest) and Kanchhu”, etc. The meaning of such
culture terms and connotations can be given in other languages, but they are dificult to
translate with the help of an equivalent term. That is why they may be transliterated or
transposed as they are used in their native forms. From the lexical point of view, such
words are almost empty words. As in other languages, such terms have become the
characteristics of Nepali language, too.
Figuratively speaking, the phrase ‘Akashma Badalu Dammai Chha’ has its association
with the mind. It means that the mind is cloudy; it is aching and not so fresh. This is the
expressive meaning of this utterance. This is because 'expressive meaning relates to the
speaker's feelings or attitude rather than to what words and utterances refer to' (ibid).
4. Prosodic Problems in the translation of folk-songs
Songs' rhythms are determined by language rhythms. Along with the development of
language itself, rhythms and rhythmic patterns have also been developed by the language
speakers. The songsters always try to follow the rhythms of the language speakers who
163
are the best appreciators of their songs. Prosodic features of a song relate to the rhythms
of the contemporary language. In this respect it is apt to quote Raffel who says;
Since every language develops its own unique prosody, the
translator can not be expected to attempt the impossible: the
reproduction of one language's prosody in another language. For
the same reason that Language A employs a syllabic prosody, but
Language B uses a stress-prosody, it is linguistically impossible
to reproduce either language's prosody in the other. Even two sets
of syllabic or two sets of stress prosodies are not transferable.” ….
Approximation is thus once again the necessary rule in prosody, as
it is in other aspects of translation (1988: 82/83).
The translation of the folk-songs certainly lacks the prosodic equivalence. Had there
been the prosodic equivalence between them, the translated version too might be sung
in the same melody of the original song. But this is not possible. The translated version
of the song rather can read like a poem. It can be read more than once but it can not be
sung as it is done in the native tongue.
5. (a) Discussion
How can we deal with the problems?
Here is, now, a discussion on how well the cultural problems and prosodic
problems have been solved in the translations of the two songs of Ali Miyan and Haridevi
Koirala. Let us begin the discussion with the following quotation:
‘A translator’s best quality is his power to sense the songs and
poems and other literary genres in their original forms; and then
re-express the subtleties of all the literary types in the target
language. But to regret is the fact that, as Raffel also says, “Even a
great translator, one of the very greatest, is unable to handle every
language in the world with the same sureness, the same authority”.
Sensing the melodius sounds of the songs along with their rhythms
and re-expressing them in another tongue is the most challenging
affair for any translator. ‘Paina khabara’, a folk-song of Haridevi
Koirala, and ‘Aakâsamâ bâdalu dambai chha’, that of Lokkavi
Ali Miyan, are such translations into English. By now, they have
deeply touched the heart of all folk-singers and folk-song lovers of
Nepali language. Patiently to wait is the answer to this question:
‘Will they touch, likewise, the heart of readers in English version,
too?’ If so, the translator’s work may be considered a success.
164
(Kshetry, Fourteen Flowers of Nepal, 2011)

In fact, it is almost impossible to transform a folk-song in a different language. Folk-
songs, which are the aesthetic expressions of the mind and heart, are speciic and bound
to the culture and tune of a speech community. Naturally, they are culturally tuned and
voiced. The rhythm and the melody of the voice may be charming to all human beings.
Still, they are most effective, impressive and heart-touching for the native speakers of
those songs. It is known to all that songs are common and peculiar to the members of
the community concerned. So, in the song of a particular singer, there may be certain
element that is common to the whole community. Just as in this particular folk-song of
Ali Miyân, ‘Akâshamâ Bâdalu Dammai Chha’ is often found in the oral tradition of the
Nepalese people. This phrase is often heard added to other songs of the Nepalese folk.
This is not a newly invented term in this song, too.
Folk-songs are composed of certain elements frequently used by the common people.
This is one of the reasons that songs are very powerful things to inluence the mind and
heart of the audience.
Folk-songs are the most ancient source of entertainment. They are also equally popular
in the modern world. So, it is often said that a folk-song is neither new, nor is it very old.
It is just like a living tree in the jungle that stands as fresh as the spring water under it.
It appears as attractive as the evergreen young plants around it. Handed down from one
generation to another in their original and modiied form, the roots of the folk-songs are
deep - rooted in the past. They are irmly rooted in the oral and written traditions spreading
themselves like the roots of a tree that travel deep into the subsoil of the ground. In each
new generation they produce new branches, new leaves and new fruits. The folk people
too do the same as regards their folk songs. Each new generation inherits and culture
of its older generations and produces the songs of the same character. Because of this
inherent character of the folk-songs, the babies and the old, the young and the adults
alike are equally inluenced with the folk-songs of their own mother-tongue.
When a baby in his mother’s lap hears the folk-songs or the musical notes played through
the musical instrument, his heart is thrilled and his mind is fully satisied. He begins to
smile. With his pleasing sensation, he moves his hands and feet and dances even when
he is at bed or in the street alone. Ordinarily, nobody can guess when that baby might
have learnt to feel the rhythm of the folk-song. One might even go to guess that the
baby may have sensed it in his mother’s womb. Because of this inherent character of the
folk-songs, the babies and the old, the young and the adults alike are equally inluenced
with the folk-songs of their own.
165
5. (b) Discussion
The folk-song,‘Paina khabara’, of Haridevi Koirala, will be ever remembered, as it
carries with it not only the depressed and dejected voice of wives whose husbands have
gone to various foreign lands for earning their livelihood but also as a most cherished
voice of Nepalese people of all positions and status. It is true that the song originated and
overlowed from the heart of folk-singer, as a result of her mental stress and the pangs
that she felt for the women sufferers in Nepalese society. But the song has ever touched
the heart of all the Nepalese people, wherever they are living, and whatever languages
they are speaking. Even foreigners' hearts may throb when the song in a cassette is set
to them. They may feel a type of pleasant sensation when they listen to it, and try to
understand the message it intends to convey to all its audience.
“The folk-song has mainly the message of ‘poverty’. It is likely
that a day of prosperity for all Nepalese people will be experienced
in the generations to come. In spite of their prosperity and
happiness, this song will ever remain as a part of history of their
poverty. Let it be a wish that the very condition of the poor mass
may get changed; still the history has to remain as a foundation to
build up the stages of its cultural heritage. So, this song will ever
be an immortal song in the Nepalese soil, and the human heart of
all mankind.”
(Kshetry, ‘The Himalayan Herald’ 2005:50/51)
Since the rhythmic patterns or the prosodic patterns are not transferable from one language
into another, in the translation of this song I have tried my best to maintain the syllabic
patterns. In this respect, each couplet of the song consists of 10+11+10 syllables. That
is, the irst line consists of 10 syllables, the second line consists of 11 syllables and the
third line consists of 10 syllables.
6. Conclusion
Nepali and English are typologically different languages. Translating folk-songs of Ali
Miyan and Haridevi Koirala faces the cultural and prosodic problems that are basically
general as a result of two quite distinct languages. In spite of such problems, literary
translation of folk-songs can be a success to such an extent so as to carry the inherent
message and meaning in a target language literature. With this result, the speakers of
the target language too may well be inluenced to grasp them as deeply as they can and
be able to create such works in their respective languages too.
166
References
Adhikâri, Raghunâth. ‘Ali Miyân kâ Rachanâbhitra Vicharan Gardâ,’ Yathârthavâdi Nepâli Samâlochanâ’
Pokhara : Gandaki Sangam, 2005.
Baker, Mona. In Other Words : A Course Book on Translation. London and New York: Taylor and Franscis
Group, 2011.
Bandhu, Chudâmani. ‘Nepali Folk Literature.’ Kathmandu: Ekata Books, 2001.
Bhattarai, Govindaraj, Bal Ram Adhikari, Prem Bahadur Phyak (eds.). Across Languages and Culture.
Kathmandu: Vidyaarthi Prakashan Pvt. Ltd., 2011.
Dhakâl, Ghanashyâm. Lokgeetkâ Sandarvamâ Ali Miyân Ra Unkâ Prabritiharu, Janapragya Manch.
Pokhara : TU Teachers’ Association, JMC Unit, 2005.
Hervey, Sandor and Ian Higgins. Thinking Translation, A Course in Translation Method, French to English.
London and New York : Routledge, Tailor and Francis Group, 2001.
Koirala, Haridevi. Songs and Tunes of My Own. Lekhnath, Kaski : Lekhnath Sahitya Pratisthan-Nepal, 2005.
Kshetry, Y.B. ‘My Experience of Translation: Meaning that Counts’, Fourteen Flowers of Nepal. Pokhara,
Kaski : Pokhara English Literary Forum-Nepal, 2011.
-------- ‘Lekhnâth ko Chhâyânmâ Ali Miyân,’ Miteree. Setidovan, Syangja : Srijana Poudyal, 2001.
-------- ‘Pâina Khabara: A Famous Nepali Folk-song’, The Himalayan Herald, PELF-Nepal's Literary
Journal Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 50/51, Pokhara: Pokhara English Literary Forum, 2005.
-------- ‘The Sky is covered with the clouds’, Fourteen Flowers of Nepal. Pokhara, Kaski: Pokhara English
Literary Forum- Nepal, 2011.
Miyan, Ali, ‘Ali Miyan ko Awaj. Pokhara : Haniph Miyan, 2001.
Raffel, Burton. The Art of Translating Poetry. London: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1988.
(Note: This seminar paper was irst prepared in accordance with the proposal accepted
by the ‘International Translation Symposium’ to be held in Depok, Indonesia
from Saturday 26 November-Sunday 27 November, 2011.): but ultimately it was
presented at the 4th International Folk-lore Congress (on August 17-19, 2012)
organized by Nepali Folk-lore Society, Kathmandu, Nepal.
167

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Janapriya Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol.I, No.

1 (August 2012) Akkal Deo Mishra

Microwave-Coupled Organic Reaction

Solid State Reactions

(ii) Synthesis of pyranopyrimidines

(iii) Synthesis of thiazoles/oxazoles

(iv) Synthesis of 1,2,4-triazines

(v) Synthesis of pyrazoles

(vi) Synthesis of organomercurials

(vii) Synthesis of b-lactams

corresponding b-lactams (14).

(viii) Synthesis of oxazolones

A r = C6H5, C lC 6H 4, 4- MeO C 6H 4, 4- MeC 6H 4,

(ix) Synthesis of coumarins

(x) Synthesis of diazoles

(xi) Synthesis of quinolones

3. Results and Discussion

Women Involvement in Tourism: Special

- To analysis tourist arrival in pokhara

3. Results and Findings

Table No.1: Regression Results Showing the Regression of Tourist Arrival in

Table No. 2: Trenmds of Tourist Arrival According to Seasons by Year (2000-2011)

Sources: Tourism Ofice, 2012

- Brahamin and Chhetri are 48% as ethnicity worker group.

Khanka, S. S. (2007). Entrepreneurial Development, Sultan Chand and Sons, Delhi

CULTURAL LIFE OF POKHRELI MUSLIMS

customs and institutions of a social group.

her normal domestic duties despite that of the Hindus .

3.4.2. Muharrum or Tajiya

Practices and Trends of Small and Micro

2. What is the trend of growth rate of SMEs development in Nepal?

agro-forestry based industries, mineral industries, tourism industries, service industries

Source: Industry Bulletin, 2068/069, Year 17, Volume: 1, P-15

SN District Number of Entrepreneurs

Department of cottage and Small Industry (DCSI) under Ministry of Industry(MOI)

CBS. (2011). Preliminary Results of National population census. Kathmandu: CBS

CBS.(2011). Nepal Living Standards Survey-2010/11, Statistical Report. Kathmandu:CBS, National

Department of Cottage and Small Industries (DCSI).(2068).Prospectus. Kathmandu:DCSI

Ministry of Industry (MOI). (2067). Industrial Policy -2067. Kathmandu: MOI

MOI, DCSI. (2068). Industrial Promotion Statistics. Kathmandu: MOI, DCSI

Shrestha, BP (1981). An Introduction of Nepalese Economy. Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar.

Statement of Cottage and small industries

(on the Basis of Classiication)

(FY 2051/052 to 2067/068)/ (FY 1994/095 to 2010/011)

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AN ANALYSIS OF EMPLOYMENT TAX ADMINISTRATION

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