STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Shear & Moment in Beams

DEFINITION OF A BEAM
A beam is a bar subject to forces or couples that lie in a plane containing the
longitudinal of the bar. According to determinacy, a beam may be determinate
or indeterminate.

STATICALLY DETERMINATE BEAMS

Statically determinate beams are those beams in which the reactions of the
supports may be determined by the use of the equations of static equilibrium.
The beams shown below are examples of statically determinate beams.

STATICALLY INDETERMINATE BEAMS

If the number of reactions exerted upon a beam exceeds the number of
equations in static equilibrium, the beam is said to be statically
indeterminate. In order to solve the reactions of the beam, the static
equations must be supplemented by equations based upon the elastic
deformations of the beam.
TYPES OF LOADING
Loads applied to the beam may consist of a concentrated load (load applied
at a point), uniform load, uniformly varying load, or an applied couple or
moment. These loads are shown in the following figures.
Shear force
Shear force at any section of a beam is define as the “Net vertical
force or unbalanced vertical force on either side of the section”. It is
the algebric sum of all vertical components on either left side or right
side of the section.

Bending Moment
The moment which tends to bend the beam in plane of load is known as bending
moment. In other word bending moment at any section of a beam is the “Net or
unbalanced moment due to all forces on either side of the section”. It is the
algebric sum of moment due to all forces on either right or left side of the
section. The effect of bending moment is to bend the element.
PROPERTIES OF SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS
The following are some important properties of shear and moment diagrams:

 The area of the shear diagram to the left or to the right of the section is
equal to the moment at that section.
 The slope of the moment diagram at a given point is the shear at that
point.
 The slope of the shear diagram at a given point equals the load at that
point. The maximum moment occurs at the point of zero shears or
changes sign. This is in reference to property number 2, that when the
shear (also the slope of the moment diagram) is zero, the tangent drawn
to the moment diagram is horizontal.
 When the shear diagram is increasing, the moment diagram is concave
upward.
 When the shear diagram is decreasing, the moment diagram is concave
downward.

TIPS ON SHEAR FORCE

• The shear force at the end supports of a simply supported beam is equal
to the value of reaction forces at the respective locations if no external
force acts at the end supports.
• The value of any externally applied load at the support must be added to
the reaction force due to other loads at that location with proper sign.
Support load adds to column load and causes no shear in beam.
• Point load at the support does not contribute to span shear.
• When a portion of simply supported beam or cantilever is not loaded,
shear force is constant in this range.
• When a portion of simply supported beam or cantilever has uniform
load, the shear force varies linearly in this range.
• Shear force diagram contains a jump/drop at the location of point load
and this jump/drop is equal to the value of point load.
• The reaction system corresponding to a moment load must form a couple
of equal magnitude but opposite in direction. This reaction system
causes uniform shear force in simply supported beam.
• The end portion of a cantilever without any load carries no shear force.
TIPS ON BENDING MOMENT (BM)
• The bending moments at the hinge and roller supports at the ends must
be zero if no moment is externally applied.
• The net bending moment at the end support must be equal to the value of
externally applied moment at that location with proper sign.
• When a portion of simply supported beam or cantilever is not loaded,
bending moment varies linearly in this range.
• When a portion of simply supported beam or cantilever has uniform
load, the bending moment has quadratic variation in this range.
• The bending moment diagram contains a change of slope (discontinuity
or kink) at the location of point load.
• Maximum bending moment occurs where shear force is zero or shear
force line crosses the zero line.
• The location of moment load on a simply supported beam is an inflexion
point. The bending moment diagram crosses zero axis at this location.
Total jump in bending moment diagram at the location of moment load
is equal to the value of moment load.
• The end portion of a cantilever without any load carries no bending
moment.
• If a beam is supporting several point loads, maximum BM occurs under
one of the point load.
 Shape Shape

Beam with Loading Shear

Moment

Cantilever Beam with Concentrated load A Rectangle Inclined Straight Line

Cantilever Beam with UDL A Right Angle Triangle Parabolic Curve
Cantilever Beam with gradually varying load Parabolic Curve Parabolic Curve
Simply supported beam loaded in centre Two Rectangle An Isoscales Triangle
Simply supported beam with UDL Two Right Angle Triangle Parabolic Curve
Simply supported beam with gradually Parabolic Curve Parabolic Curve
varying load
 Deflection:
δ=−FX2/6EI(3L−x)
δmax=FL3/3EI @x=L
Slope:
θ=−Fx/2EI(2L−x)
Cantilever,
θmax=FL2/2EI @x=L
End Load
Shear:
V=+F
Moment:
M=−F(L−x)
Mmax =−FL @x=0

Deflection:
δ=−Fx2/ 6EI (3a−x) (0≤x≤a)
δ=−Fa2/ 6EI (3x−a) (a≤x≤L)

δmax=Fa2 / 6EI (3L−a) @x=

L
Slope:
Cantilever,
Intermediate θ=−Fx/2EI (2a−x) (0≤x≤a)
Load θ=−Fa2 /2EI (a≤x≤L)
Shear:
V=+F (0≤x≤a)
V=0 (a≤x≤L)
Moment:
M=−F(a−x) (0≤x≤a)
M=0 (a≤x≤L)
 Deflection:
δ=−wx2 /24EI (6L2 −4Lx+x2 )

δmax=wL4 /8EI @x=L

Slope:
θ=−Wx /6EI (3L2 −3Lx+x2 )

Cantilever,
Uniform
θmax=wL3 /6EI @x=L
Distributed Shear:
Load
V=+w(L−x)

Vmax=+wL @x=0
Moment:
M=−w(L−x)2 /2

Mmax=−wL2 /2 @x=0

Deflection:
δ=−w1 x2 / 120LEI (10L3 −10L2 x+5Lx2−x3)

δmax= w1L4 /30EI @x=L

Slope:
Cantilever,
Triangular θ=− w1L / 24LEI (4 L3−6 L2x+4L x2− x3)
Distributed
Load
θmax= w1L3 / 24EI @x=L
Shear:
Vmax=+ w1L / 2 @x=0
Moment:
Mmax=− w1 L2 /6 @x=0
Cantilever,
End Moment

Simply Supported Beams

Simply
Supported,
Intermediate
Load
Simply
Supported,
Center Load
Simply
Supported, 2
Loads at
Equal
Distances
from
Supports
Simply
Supported,
Uniform
Distributed
Load
Simply
Supported,
Moment at
Each Support
Simply
Supported,
Moment at
One Support
Simply
Supported,
Center
Moment
Fixed-Fixed,
Center Load
Fixed-Fixed,
Uniform
Distributed
Load
 SECTION MODULUS
In the formula

The ratio I/c is called the section modulus and is usually denoted by S with units of mm3 (in3). The
maximum bending stress may then be written as

This form is convenient because the values of S are available in handbooks for a wide range of standard
structural shapes.
Bending Stresses in Beams
The bending moment, MM, along the length of the beam can be determined from the moment diagram. The
bending moment at any location along the beam can then be used to calculate the bending stress over the
beam's cross section at that location. The bending moment varies over the height of the cross section
according to the flexure formula below:

σb=−MyIc
where M is the bending moment at the location of interest along the beam's length, Ic is the centroidal
moment of inertia of the beam's cross section, and y is the distance from the beam's neutral axis to the point
of interest along the height of the cross section. The negative sign indicates that a positive moment will
result in a compressive stress above the neutral axis.

The bending stress is zero at the beam's neutral axis, which is coincident with the centroid of the beam's
cross section. The bending stress increases linearly away from the neutral axis until the maximum values at
the extreme fibers at the top and bottom of the beam.

The maximum bending stress is given by:

σb.max=McIc

where c is the centroidal distance of the cross section (the distance from the centroid to the extreme fiber).

If the beam is asymmetric about the neutral axis such that the distances from the neutral axis to the top and
to the bottom of the beam are not equal, the maximum stress will occur at the farthest location from the
neutral axis. In the figure below, the tensile stress at the top of the beam is larger than the compressive stress
at the bottom.
Shear Stresses in Beams
The shear force, V, along the length of the beam can be determined from the shear diagram. The shear force
at any location along the beam can then be used to calculate the shear stress over the beam's cross section at
that location. The average shear stress over the cross section is given by:
τavg=VA

The shear stress varies over the height of the cross section, as shown in the figure below:

The shear stress is zero at the free surfaces (the top and bottom of the beam), and it is maximum at the
centroid. The equation for shear stress at any point located a distance y1 from the centroid of the cross
section is given by:
τ=VQIcb

where V is the shear force acting at the location of the cross section, Ic is the centroidal moment of inertia of
the cross section, and bb is the width of the cross section. These terms are all constants. The Q term is
the first moment of the area bounded by the point of interest and the extreme fiber of the cross section:
Q=∫cy1y dA
Question No. 01
The shear force diagram for a simply supported beam carrying a uniformly distributed load of w per unit
length will be a (BPSC SAE)
(A) Linear

(B) Parabolic

(C) Cubical

(D) Circular

Question No. 02 (BADC BPSC SAE)

A simply supported beam of span carries a uniformly distributed load .The maximum bending moment is
(A) WL2/2
(B) WL2/4
(C) WL2/8
(D) WL2/12

Question No. 03 (BADC,BRRI)

If the shear force along a section of a beam is zero, the bending moment at the section is
(A) Zero
(B) Maximum
(C) Minimum
(D) Average of maximum-minimum
Question No. 04 (BADC)
The bending moment is maximum on a section where shearing force
(A) Is maximum
(B) Is minimum
(C) Is equal
(D) Changes sign
Question No. 05 ( BPSC SAE)

Question No. 06 ( BPSC SAE)

Question No. 07 ( BPSC SAE)

Question No. 08 (BADC)

Question No. 09 (BADC)

At the neutral axis of a beam, the shear stress is

A. Zero B. minimum

C. Maximum D. infinity

Question No. 10 (BADC)

Question No. 11 (BADC)

A simply supported beam of span L carries a uniformly
distributed load the shear force is

(A) WL/2

(B) WL/4

(C) WL/8

(D) WL/12
ENVIRONMENT
GEOTECH
QUESTION NO 01 (BPSC SAE)

QUESTION NO 02 (BPSC SAE)

QUESTION NO 03 (BPSC SAE)

QUESTION NO 04 (BPSC SAE)

QUESTION NO 05 (BPSC SAE)

QUESTION NO 06 (BPSC SAE)

QUESTION NO 07 (BPSC SAE)

QUESTION NO 08 (BPSC SAE)

QUESTION NO 09 & 10 (BPSC SAE)

QUESTION NO 11 (BPSC SAE)

QUESTION NO 12 (BPSC SAE)

QUESTION NO 13 (BPSC SAE)

QUESTION NO 14 (BPSC SAE)

The maximum size of the clay particle is about

(A) 0.1mm

(B) 0.002mm

(C) 0.02mm

(D) 0.0002mm

QUESTION NO 15 (BPSC SAE)

QUESTION NO 16 (BPSC SAE)

SURVEYING
Classification Based on Nature of Survey Field
Land Survey It involves measurement of various objects on land. This
type of survey may be further classified as given below:
(a) Topographic Survey: It is meant for plotting natural features like
rivers, lakes, forests and hills as well as manmade features like roads,
railways, towns, villages and canals.
(b) Cadestal Survey: It is for marking the boundaries of municipalities,
villages, talukas, districts, states etc. The survey made to mark properties
of individuals also come under this category.
(c) City Survey: The survey made in connection with the construction of
streets, water supply and sewage lines fall under this category.
Marine or Hydrographic Survey Survey conducted to find depth of
water at various points in bodies of water like sea, river and lakes fall
under this category. Finding depth of water at specified points is known as
sounding.
Astronomical Survey Observations made to heavenly bodies like sun,
stars etc., to locate absolute positions of points on the earth and for the
purpose of calculating local time is known as astronomical survey.
Classification Based on Object of Survey
(a) Engineering Survey: The objective of this type of survey is to
collect data for designing civil engineering projects like roads, railways,
irrigation, water supply and sewage disposals. These surveys are further
sub-divided into:
Reconnaissance Survey for determining feasibility and estimation of
the scheme.
Preliminary Survey for collecting more information to estimate the cost
of the project, and Location Survey to set the work on the ground.
(b) Military Survey: This survey is meant for working out plans of
strategic importance.
(c) Mines Survey: This is used for exploring mineral wealth.
(d) Geological Survey: This survey is for finding different strata in the
earth’s crust.
(e) Archeological Survey: This survey is for unearthing relics of
antiquity.

Scale
The ratio of the distance on the map or drawing to the corresponding
distance on the ground is called representative fraction (R. F). For
example, when l cm on a map represents 10 m on the ground, then the
representative fraction of the scale is 1/1000.

The scale of a map is considered as

(i) large if it is greater than 1 cm = 10 m i.e.,
RF > 1 / 1000
(ii) intermediate if it is between
RF = 1 / 1000 and 1 / 10,000
(iii) small if RF < 1 /10,000
A plain scale is used to read only two dimensions such as meters and
decimeters.

A diagonal scale is used to read three dimensions such as meters,

decimeters and centimeter

A comparative scale has a common representative fraction but read in

different measures

Tie or subsidiary lines

A tie line joints two fixed points on the main survey lines. It helps to
check the accuracy of surveying and to locate the interior details. The
position of each tie line should be close to some features, such as paths,
building etc.

Base Lines
It is the main and longest line, which passes approximately through the
center of the field. All the other measurements to show the details of the
work are taken with respect to this line.

Check Line
A check-line also termed as a proof-line is a line joining the apex of a
triangle to some fixed points on any two sides of a triangle. A check-line
is measured to check the accuracy of the framework. The length of a
checking line, as measured on the ground should agree with its length on
the plan.

Offsets
Offsets are the lateral measurements from the baseline to fix the
positions of the different objects of the work with respect to the baseline.
These are generally set at right angle offsets. It can also be drawn with
the help of a tape. There are two kinds of offsets:

1. Perpendicular offsets
2. Oblique offsets.

The measurements are taken at right angle to the survey line called
perpendicular or right-angled offsets.
The measurements which are not made at right angles to the survey lines
are called “tie-line offsets” or “oblique offsets.”
Open cross staff is commonly used for setting out an offset at a right
angle.
The French commonly used for setting out an offset at an angle 45º.
Adjustable cross staff is commonly used for setting out an offset at any
angle.
In Optical square According to the principle of reflecting surfaces, the
angle between the first incident ray and the last reflected ray is twice the
angle between the mirrors. In this case, the angle between the mirrors is
fixed at 450. So, the angle between the horizon sight and index sight will
be 900.
Cumulative errors are said to be systematic errors as they are one-
directional hence keep on accumulating as the survey progresses. If not
checked they have serious implications to the accuracy of the survey.
Errors in this class include incorrect length of the tape, page of the tape
or the tape not being in line. Since the sources of these errors are known,
they can be eliminated.

They can either be positive or negative errors. While positive errors

shortens the measurement (e.g. where the tape length is shorter than
what it should be) while negative errors elongates the measurements
(e.g. where the tape is longer than what it should be). Checking the
equipment can eliminate these errors.

Compensating errors are said to be accidental errors hence cancel out

and does not pose serious problem to the accuracy of the survey.

In chaining, these may be caused by the following: -

Incorrect holding of the chain:-
The follower may not bring his handle of the chain to the arrow, but may
hold it to one or other side of the arrow.
Fractional parts of the chain or tape may not be correct if the total length
of the chain is adjusted by insertion or removal of a few connection rings
from one portion of the chain, or tape is not calibrated uniformly
throughout its length.

Question No.02
In an Optical square, the angle between the first incident ray and
the last incident ray is (BPSC)
(A) 900
(B) 450
(C) 600
(D) 1200
Question No.05
The surveying used to Finding depth of water at specified points is
known as (BPSC)

(A) Contour
(B) Sounding
(C) Fly Levelling
(D) None of this
Question No.06
When the measured length is less than the actual length, the error is
known as (BPSC)
(A) Positive error
(B) Negative error
(C) Instrumental error
(D) Compensating error
Question No.07
যে survey এলাকার ভ ৌগ াললক অবস্থা জানা যায় তার নাম কি (BPSC)

(A) Plane table survaying

(B) Contour map
(C) Reciprocal levelling
(D) None of this
Question No.08 (BPSC)
when l cm on a map represents 10 m on the ground, then the
representative fraction of the scale is
(A) 1/10
(B) 1/100
(C) 1/1000
(D) 1/10000

Question No.09

In order to determine the natural features such as

valleys, rivers, lakes etc., the surveying preferred is
(BBA)

A. city surveying B. location surveying

topographical
C. cadastral surveying D.
surveying

Question No.10
The representative fraction 1 / 2500 means that the scale is
(BBA,BADC)
(A) 1 cm = 0.25 m
(B) 1 cm = 25 m
(C) 1 cm = 2.5 m
(D) 1 cm = 250 m
Question No.11
A line joining the apex of a triangle to some fixed points on opposite
side is called (BBA)

(A) Check line

(B) Tie line
(C) Base line
(D) Survey line

Question No.12

The instrument attached to the wheel of a vehicle in order to measure the

distance travelled, is called (BADC, BREB)

A. passometer B. pedometer

C. odometer D. speedometer
Question No.13

The error in measured length due to incorrect holding of chain is

(BADC, BREB)

A. compensating error B. cumulative error

C. instrumental error D. negative error

Question No.15
The method of measuring distance by pacing is chiefly used in
(BADC)

A. reconnaissance surveys B. preliminary surveys

C. location surveys D. all of these

Question No.17
The error in measured length due to sag of chain or tape is known as
(BADC)

A. positive error B. negative error

C. compensating error D. instrumental error