International Journal of

Nursing Terminologies and Classifications

Perception: A Concept Analysis ijnt_1198 1..8

Susan M. McDonald, PhD(c), MSN, RN, CPNP

PURPOSE: Concept analysis methodology by Susan M. McDonald, PhD(c), MSN, RN, CPNP, is a
clinical instructor at Stephen F. Austin State University,
Walker and Avant (2005) was used to Nacogdoches, Texas.
define, describe, and delimit the concept
of perception.
DATA SOURCE: Nursing literature in the A s nurses, the only perceptions we are privy to are
our own. This often comes to light as nurses encounter
Medline database was searched for ethnically diverse clientele in their everyday practice.
definitions of “perception.” Conflict between nurse and client perceptions can lead
DATA SYNTHESIS: Definitions, uses, and to miscommunication and suboptimal outcomes.
defining attributes of perception were Understanding self and client perceptions are impor-
tant for nurses to effectively meet clients’ unique needs
identified; model and contrary cases were in this global health arena.
developed; and antecedents, consequences, Perception is a key component of several theoretical
and empirical referents were determined. frameworks used in nursing research. A well-known
CONCLUSIONS: An operational definition for conceptual structure for understanding what drives
persons’ health decisions is the Health Belief Model.
the concept was developed. This model proposes that the key elements to taking
IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING PRACTICE: Nurses health actions are the individual’s perceptions of sus-
need to be cognizant of how perceptual ceptibility, severity, benefits, and barriers in regard to
differences impact the delivery of nursing their health (Daddario, 2007). Perceived benefits of
action, barriers to action, and self-efficacy are elements
care. In research, a mixed methodology of the behavior-specific cognitions and affect component of
approach may yield a richer description of the Pender Health Promotion Model (Pender, Mur-
the phenomenon and provide useful daugh, & Parsons, 2002).
information for clinical practice. The notion of perception as a driver of health actions
makes this concept of particular importance to nurses
Search terms: Concept analysis, nurse and
as they attempt to manage health outcomes by encour-
perception, perception aging positive actions. To improve health outcomes, it
is critical to appreciate the uniqueness of an individu-
al’s perceptions and to understand how perceptions
are formed. An operational definition is needed to
assist disciplinary knowledge and to improve nursing
care. This paper will attempt to define, describe, and
delimit the concept of perception.

© 2011, The Author

International Journal of Nursing Terminologies and
Classifications © 2011, NANDA International Financial disclosure: The author has not received any compensa-
doi: 10.1111/j.1744-618X.2011.01198.x tion for producing this manuscript.

International Journal of Nursing Terminologies and Classifications Volume ••, No. ••, ••-••, 2011 1
Perception: A Concept Analysis

Background Data Sources

Perception involves the way one sees the world. The Medline database was used to conduct a litera-
Nurses use tools that attempt to uncover and perhaps ture search of the term “perception.” Only articles in
reframe the perceptions of a client or group. The wide the nursing literature from 2006 to 2011 were included.
variety of subjective instruments to measure percep- Both quantitative and qualitative articles that focused
tions has resulted in a lack of global consensus on on participant perceptions were viewed. In the 449
any singular best practice. Instruments are usually articles, there were no articles that defined the term
situation-specific or population-directed, which makes “perception.” A possible explanation for why none of
finding a general measure of perception challenging. the articles clearly defined “perception” may be an
Visual analog scales have been used with success to underlying assumption that the reader simply under-
measure perceived pain. Satisfaction surveys attempt to stood the term.
capture patient perceptions about the health care they
Results
received. The health-related quality-of-life instrument,
the SF-36® Health Survey, purports to examine respon- Uses of the Concept
dents’ perceptions of eight domains of health: physical
functioning, role-physical, bodily pain, general health, Walker and Avant (2005) recommend using dictio-
vitality, social functioning, role-emotional, and mental naries, thesauruses, available literature, and other
health. In addition, the instrument asks respondents to sources to identify uses of the concept that revealed
report how they perceive their current health com- subtle differences in how perception is described.
pared with their health 1 year ago. These are a few The term “perception” is a noun. Wikipedia (2008)
examples of the instruments used to assess patient per- defines perception as “the process of attaining aware-
ception. However, the issue of identifying the elements ness or understanding of sensory information.” The
of perception and understanding exactly what is being Collins Essential English Dictionary (2006) describes per-
reported remains elusive. ception as “1. insight or intuition; 2. way of viewing
Baldwin (2008) describes concept analysis as a rig- [Latin perceptio comprehension].” Merriam-Webster
orous and pragmatic approach to define concepts that (n.d.a) lists these definitions: “1 a: a result of observa-
can significantly contribute to knowledge and can be tion; b: a mental image; 2. obsolete: consciousness; 3 a:
applied to nursing practice. Walker and Avant’s (2005) awareness of the elements of environment through
concept analysis method was used to examine the physical sensation; b: physical sensation interpreted in
structure and function of the concept “perception.” the light of experience; 4 a: quick, acute, and intuitive
This method uses eight steps to capture the essence cognition appreciation; b: a capacity for comprehen-
of the concept: (a) selecting a concept, (b) determining sion.” Merriam-Webster (n.d.b) adds this: “1. the
the aim of the analysis, (c) identifying all possible uses ability to understand inner qualities or relationships; 2.
of the concept, (d) determining the defining attributes, the knowledge gained from the process of coming to
(e) identifying a model case, (f) identifying additional know or understand something.” Synonyms in Roget’s
cases, (g) identifying the antecedents and conse- II: The New Thesaurus (1995) include awareness, cogni-
quences, and (h) defining empirical referents. The aim zance, consciousness, sense, concept, conception, idea,
of the study was to develop an operational definition of image, notion, and thought. Other related terms are
“perception” to provide a linguistic basis for what is attention, cognition, heuristic, information, intelli-
being evaluated with the various measures of patient gence, mental model, and understanding (Wikipedia,
perceptions about health and actions. 2008).

2 International Journal of Nursing Terminologies and Classifications Volume ••, No. ••, ••-••, 2011
 Perception is a uniquely individualized experience. Perception of objects in the visual world is influ-
One can only draw from what is known to oneself. In enced by features such as shape and color as well as
the literature, the poem The Blind Men and the Elephant, the meaning and semantic relations among them
written by John Godfrey Saxe (n.d.) in the nineteenth (Hwang, Wang, & Pomplun, 2011). In psychiatry, there
century, exemplifies the need to be exposed to some- are often distortions in sensory informational process-
thing to have any perception of it. The poem tells the ing. When studying the perception of body image
tale of six blind men. They encounter an elephant and among dancers and anorexic girls, digital pictures
try to identify appropriate comparisons for this were taken of the participants in street clothes. The
unknown entity. Each man touches the elephant, and images were then cropped and resized on the com-
the limited area within each man’s reach influences his puter. The participants were asked to adjust their
conclusion. Each has a different mental image based on image to correspond with how they perceived they
past experiences. They debate that an elephant is like a actually looked. The participants perceived themselves
wall, snake, spear, tree, fan, or rope. Each man is con- to be heavier than they were. This distortion can lead to
fident in his own perception. A heated argument maladaptive eating (Urdapilleta, Cheneau, Masse, &
ensues. To quote W. Paul Young (2007) from the novel Blanchet, 2007).
The Shack: “Paradigms power perception and percep- Kuhn, Amlani, and Rensink (2008) postulate that
tions power emotions” (p. 197). there is a shared interest between magicians and cog-
The interdisciplinary concept of perception is nitive scientists in understanding human perception
complex and has many layers. In physiology, percep- and cognition. Magicians perform acts that are per-
tion is examined on the basis of the neurons that enact ceived to defy the laws of nature and to induce a sense
it (Freeman, 1991). The neural pathway is affected by of wonder. When performing, magicians use misdirec-
both the mind and the body as exemplified in a study tion and illusion to control attention, distort percep-
on the effectiveness of placebo analgesia on relieving tion, and influence choice. The authors propose the
pain (Roche, 2007). Patients’ beliefs, attitudes, and development of a “science of magic.” This science
expectations shaped their perception of pain before and would explain all known magical effects in terms of
after using placebo analgesia. Placebo analgesia and known perceptual and cognitive mechanisms. All
pain are two functions of the same neural network. The known magic effects may be reduced to a set of basic,
effectiveness of placebo analgesia may be dependent relatively well-understood operations. Any effects that
on brain components involving affective and emotional are not reducible would indicate the existence of an
processes. Evidence exists to show that suggestion/ unknown perceptual or cognitive mechanism that may
expectation cognitively triggers powerful neuro- have existential or religious underpinnings.
humeral mechanisms in patients’ brains, bodies, and Religions portray the perception of God or the
behaviors that will either relieve or exacerbate pain. Supreme Being differently, which impacts how the
Perception is also discussed at length in psychology. individual views God. Chara and Gillett (2004) pub-
A general Internet search for the keyword “percep- lished a study examining possible synesthetic percep-
tion” directs the reader to numerous psychology and tions of God. One hundred eighty-seven college
cognitive websites where awareness and understand- students were surveyed about their sensory image of
ing of sensory information are discussed. These sites God and found that the religious experience was one of
address the mechanics of vision and hearing, touch, high individuality. Religious orientation influenced
taste, and smell. All of these are stimuli that are pre- these sensory images: hearing, smelling, seeing,
sented to an individual and interpreted in a specific tasting, and touching God. The majority described God
and personal way. as speaking quietly and in prose and having a pleasant

International Journal of Nursing Terminologies and Classifications Volume ••, No. ••, ••-••, 2011 3
Perception: A Concept Analysis

aroma. The most frequent color choice for God was epistemological issues concerning perception. The
yellow. Nearly 80% reported that they tasted God and author notes that philosophers such as Descartes and
saw that God was good. Those who identified their Locke attempted to answer the question of the root of
primary value as “spiritual growth” were twice as our awareness in sensory or perceptual experiences.
likely to report being very close or close to God com- Many theories have been debated over the centuries
pared with those who reported “money” or “pleasure” including the sense-datum theory, the adverbial theory,
as their core value. The researchers found that partici- phenomenalism, representationalism, and direct real-
pants’ images of God were frequently correlated with ism. When describing perception, the phenomenologi-
biblical revelation of God and that this agreement may cal philosopher, Merleau-Ponty (1947/1964) states:
reflect influences that are phenomenological. Peoples’
experiences in a biblically influenced culture color By these words “primacy of perception”, we mean
their perceptions. that experience of perception is our presence at the
Social influences may affect one’s perception, moment when things, truths, values are constituted
including gender and socioeconomic status. Research for us; that perception is a nascent logos; that it
by Kimura (2004) and Geary, Gilger, and Elliott-Miller teaches us, outside of all dogmatism, the true con-
(1992) shows a gender difference in cognition. Socio- ditions of objectivity itself; that it summons us to
economic status influences where you live, what you tasks of knowledge and action. It is not a question of
eat, what you wear, and how you are educated. All of reducing human knowledge to sensation, but of
these are the basis for the formation of memories and assisting at the birth of this knowledge, to make it as
life experiences. A child from a housing project and a sensible as the sensible, to recover the consciousness
billionaire’s child would have two very different views of rationality. (p. 25)
of a mansion.
Perception is a personal manifestation of how one The conclusion that can be drawn is that perception
views the world that is colored by many sociocultural is a multifaceted concept that is as complex as the
elements. Markus and Kitayama (1991) concluded that human mind itself.
people in different cultures have strikingly different
perceptions of self and others. These differences can be Defining Attributes
seen when comparing two distinct cultures. The nature
of the individual experience can also be influenced Walker and Avant (2005) use defining attributes to
when two cultures meet. Perception of pain in child- describe those factors that must be present in order
birth was found to be increased when the ethnicity for the concept to be identified. The definitions, syn-
of the laboring woman was different than that of the onyms, and related terms of perception were examined.
predominant ethnicity of the attendants (Olayemi, Perception utilizes sensory and cognitive processes
Morhason-Bello, Adedokun, & Ojengbede, 2009). to appreciate the world around us. It is a unique way
The act of perceiving has been pondered by philoso- of understanding phenomena by interpreting sensory
phers for centuries. In the philosophy of perception, the information based on experience, processing informa-
metaphysics of the mind is explored looking to answer tion, and forming mental models. In order for percep-
the questions of what is perception, what is the nature of tion to occur, these defining attributes must be present:
perceptual consciousness, and how can one fit an
account of perceptual experience into a broader account 1. Sensory awareness or cognition of the experience.
of the nature of the mind and the world (Noë & Thomp- 2. Personal experience.
son, 2002). BonJour (2007) discusses the evolution of the 3. Comprehension that can lead to a response.

4 International Journal of Nursing Terminologies and Classifications Volume ••, No. ••, ••-••, 2011
Model Case John, an 85-year-old widower, lived alone. Due to a
severe hearing deficit, he used bilateral hearing aids. At
Model cases are used to exemplify all of the defining bedtime, he removed his aids and placed them in a
attributes of a concept (Walker & Avant, 2005). This case on his nightstand after which he fell asleep
model case is simple and contains all of the defining quickly. A strong storm struck during the night causing
attributes for perception. considerable wind damage to the large pine tree in his
Janice had been a nurse in the skilled nursing facil- front yard. Upon awakening, he was shocked to see a
ity for 5 years. She enjoyed her contact with the resi- hole in the roof over his bedroom and debris scattered
dents. She was especially fond of Mrs. Hudson, a lively across his property.
83-year-old widow, who enjoyed sharing her opinion In this case, John had no perception of the event
about what she read in the paper and viewed on tele- that occurred during the night. His hearing deficit did
vision. One morning, when Janice made rounds, Mrs. not allow sensory awareness of the weather that elimi-
Hudson was sitting in her armchair, gazing out of the nated the possibility of personalizing the experience.
window. She barely acknowledged Janice’s entrance. Further, his lack of comprehension interfered with his
When Janice inquired how Mrs. Hudson was doing, ability to take action to protect him from potential
the response was a brief “fine.” Janice was puzzled by harm.
the change in Mrs. Hudson, who was far from her
usual, cheerful self. Janice drew up a chair, sat next to Antecedents and Consequences
Mrs. Hudson, and noticed tears in her eyes. A news-
paper was lying on the windowsill. Janice told Mrs. Antecedents must occur prior to the concept and
Hudson that she did not appear to be “fine” and asked must be present for the concept to happen (Walker &
what was bothering her. With a tearful voice, Mrs. Avant, 2005). With perception, processing information
Hudson told Janice that she had just read the obituary and coming to an understanding is complex. Before
of her best high school friend. With Mrs. Hudson’s perception occurs, intact neurons are required. In addi-
consent, Janice called the resident’s son and requested tion, the person must have the capability to interact
that he come to the facility to be with his mother. with the environment through at least one of the five
In this case, Janice had a sensory awareness of the senses.
situation by observing the verbal and body language of Consequences are what happen as a result of the
Mrs. Hudson. What she saw did not correlate with occurrence of the concept. It involves what one will do
previous personal experiences she had in the past with with the information that was just processed. It can
this resident. Her comprehension of the situation result in increasing one’s knowledge, understanding,
enabled her to assess that her resident was in need of and comprehension. The consequence of perception is
emotional support that led to her to respond and call a formulation of a mental image that contributes to
Mrs. Hudson’s son. the decision to act or not. In health care, if the indi-
vidual draws on unique experiences and views a situ-
Contrary Case ation as normal, the likelihood of taking action is
minimal. Even if the understanding is in error, it is
This case exemplifies a lack of any of the defining still the individual’s understanding of the situation
attributes. Walker and Avant (2005) advocate the use of based on perception. Perception does not necessarily
these cases as a part of the internal dialogue used to result in “truth” or perhaps even “knowledge,” but it
examine the defining attributes. Contrary cases exem- does culminate in the individual’s comprehension of
plify what is “not the concept.” the situation.

International Journal of Nursing Terminologies and Classifications Volume ••, No. ••, ••-••, 2011 5
Perception: A Concept Analysis

Empirical Referents Perception is more than matching a photograph with a

mental image.
Walker and Avant (2005) define empirical referents In qualitative research, contextual descriptions are a
as ways to measure the concept in the real world. There way to arrive at perception. One such method is
is a proliferation of articles describing tools or instru- descriptive narrative analysis. This method serves as a
ments to measure the perceptions of groups or indi- tool to ask a person to describe perceptions of a phe-
viduals. Tools have shown to be successful in some nomenon. Comparing the description with norms can
attempts, but fail in others. be valuable in developing a treatment plan. The use of
In health care, quality indicators have been devel- descriptive narrative analysis enabled the researchers
oped to capture the patient’s perceptions regarding the to explore the anorexic voice experienced by 21 women
hospital experience, especially about the quality of with anorexia nervosa (Tierney & Fox, 2010). The inner
nursing care they received. Dozier et al. (2001) devel- voice was very real to these women. The participants
oped a 15-item tool, Patient Perception of Hospital described the voice as changing from positive to nega-
Experience with Nursing, based on the Swanson– tive over time. The voice was a comfort at times but
Kauffman framework of caring. It does not require would change to a voice that was loud, forceful, and
patients to compare their expectations of care with the demanded obedience. The study gave the researchers
care received, as do patient satisfaction surveys, but insight into the dilemma faced by the participants.
only whether their needs were met. The authors con- When contemplating life without the seduction of the
cluded that their tool was internally consistent and anorexic voice, the participants revealed that the voice
represented a single construct best described as feeling still had some attraction for them. The authors con-
“cared for.” cluded that acknowledging the presence of the voice
Because no reliable body size perception instrument could assist anorexic patients in their recovery.
for children had yet been identified, a pilot study was
conducted to validate the use of photographs from the Discussion
Centers for Disease Control (CDC) Web site as a tool to
assess maternal perceptions of children’s weight (Reif- Study Limitations
snider et al., 2006). These photographs are used by the
CDC for professional body mass index (BMI) training. Perception is described by numerous disciplines.
The authors looked at Hispanic mothers’ perception of Both space and time limit the identification of all of its
children’s body size and explored their views of child uses. This review is in no way exhaustive.
growth, diet, activity, and health. The mothers and
their preschool children were weighed and measured, Study Strengths
and their BMIs were calculated. Using CDC photo-
graphs of children of various body sizes, the authors This concept analysis is limited to the concept in
found no congruence between the mothers’ percep- relation to nursing science. By analyzing the concept,
tions of body size in the pictures and their children’s one develops an appreciation of its complexity. The
sizes. Regardless of their children’s BMIs, what the only “real” perception is self-perception, but that does
mothers perceived were happy, active children accom- not negate the need to acknowledge that another
plishing normal childhood activities. Their children person may have a different way of comprehending the
were not viewed as overweight. The authors concluded same phenomenon. “Perception of experience is what
that the use of standardized pictures would not be an matters, not what in reality may appear to be contrary
effective tool to educate these mothers about BMI. or more ‘truthful’” (Munhall, 2007, p. 161).

6 International Journal of Nursing Terminologies and Classifications Volume ••, No. ••, ••-••, 2011
Theoretical Implications timal outcomes. Rather than label a client or parent
as “noncompliant,” the nurse needs to explore what
According to Walker and Avant (2005), a theorist is influencing the individual’s perceptions, identify
introduces the reader to the critical defining attributes what the client and nurse share in common, and utilize
using theoretical definitions, which are usually abstract these findings to develop strategies to positively
and may not be measurable. To be able to measure a impact health.
concept, an operational definition is employed. Perception is never objective. It is an individual’s or
An operational definition of perception includes group’s unique way of viewing a phenomenon that
involves the processing of stimuli and incorporates
• an individual’s or group’s unique way of viewing a memories and experiences in the process of under-
phenomena; standing. In nursing research, valuable information is
• involving the processing of stimuli; and gained through studies that incorporate conceptual
• incorporating memories and experiences in the models such as the Health Belief Model and Health
process of understanding. Promotion Model. Often, these studies do not give
nurses insight into what influences perceptions. Quan-
The concept of perception plays a role in both titative research methods can sometimes answer the
descriptive and explanatory middle-range theories. question “what” but not give voice to the question
In qualitative research using phenomenology, the “why.” Qualitative methods use “different ways of seeing
individual’s unique way of viewing a phenomenon to uncover and discover understanding” (Munhall, 2007,
is explored. This methodology can use a descriptive p. xv). Because perception is a unique experience,
approach, where the emphasis is on describing univer- a mixed methodology approach may yield a richer
sal essences, or an interpretive (explanatory) approach, description of the phenomenon, enhance understand-
emphasizing understanding the phenomenon in ing, contribute to the body of nursing knowledge, and
context. Quantitative studies have been done using the provide useful information for clinical practice to
Health Belief Model and the Health Promotion Model improve client outcomes.
to examine what is perceived by the target population
to explain health behaviors. Acknowledgments. This concept analysis was devel-
oped as part of a course assignment in the PhD program
Conclusions at the College of Nursing and Health Sciences of the
University of Texas at Tyler. The author appreciates the
Perception is an individual’s view making it a pow- guidance of Dr. K. Lynn Weick in this endeavor.
erful driving force for action. Processing sensory
information and relating to past experiences enables Author contact: [email protected], with a copy to the Editor:
one to create a lens in which to view the world [email protected]
through a filter of sociocultural influences. In the clini-
cal setting, each individual comes with personal life References
experiences that influence perceptions. Nurses need
Baldwin, M. A. (2008). Concept analysis as a method of inquiry.
to be cognizant of how these differences can impact Nurse Researcher, 15(2), 49–58.
the delivery of nursing care. BonJour, L. (2007). Epistemological problems of perception. Stanford
As has been stated, the only perceptions we know encyclopedia of philosophy. Retrieved from http://plato.stanford.
edu/entries/perception-episprob/
are our own, and a conflict between nurse and client Chara, P. J., & Gillett, J. N. (2004). Sensory images of God: Divine
perceptions can lead to miscommunication and subop- synesthesia? Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 23(3), 234–248.

International Journal of Nursing Terminologies and Classifications Volume ••, No. ••, ••-••, 2011 7
Perception: A Concept Analysis

Collins essential English dictionary (2nd ed.). (2006). New York: Noë, A., & Thompson, E. (2002). Vision and mind: Selected readings in
HarperCollins. the philosophy of perception. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Daddario, D. K. (2007). A review of the use of the health belief model Olayemi, O., Morhason-Bello, I. O., Adedokun, B. O., & Ojengbede,
for weight management. Medsurg Nursing, 16(6), 363–366. O. A. (2009). The role of ethnicity on pain perception in labor
Dozier, A., Kitzman, H., Ingersoll, G., Holmberg, S., & Schultz, A. among parturients at the University College Hospital Ibadan.
(2001). Development of an instrument to measure patient percep- Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research, 35(2), 277–281.
tion of the quality of nursing care. Research in Nursing & Health, doi:10.1111/j.1447-0756.2008.00937.x
24(6), 506–517. Pender, N. J., Murdaugh, C. L., & Parsons, M. A. (2002). Health
Freeman, W. J. (1991). The physiology of perception. Scientific Ameri- promotion in nursing practice (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
can, 264(2), 78–85. Prentice Hall.
Geary, D. C., Gilger, J. W., & Elliott-Miller, B. (1992). Gender differ- Reifsnider, E., Flores-Vela, A. R., Beckman-Mendez, D., Nguyen, H.,
ences in three-dimensional mental rotation: A replication. Journal Keller, C., & Dowdall-Smith, S. (2006). Perceptions of children’s
of Genetic Psychology, 153(1), 115–117. body sizes among mothers living on the Texas–Mexico border
Hwang, A. D., Wang, H., & Pomplun, M. (2011). Semantic guidance (LaFrontera). Public Health Nursing, 23(6), 488–495.
of eye movements in real-world scenes. Vision Research, 51(10), Roche, P. (2007). Pain and placebo analgesia: Two sides of the
1192–1205. doi:10.1016/j.visres.2011.03.010 same coin. Physical Therapy Reviews, 12(3), 189–198. doi 10.1179/
Kimura, D. (2004). Human sex differences in cognition, fact, not a 108331907X222985
predicament. Sexualities, Evolution, and Gender, 6(1), 45–53. Roget’s II: The new thesaurus (3rd ed.). (1995). New York: Houghton
Kuhn, G., Amlani, A. A., & Rensink, R. A. (2008). Towards a science Mifflin.
of magic. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12(9), 349–354. doi:10.1016/ Saxe, J. G. (n.d.). The blind men and the elephant. Retrieved from
j.tics.2008.05.008 http://www.constitution.org/col/blind_men.htm
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implica- Tierney, S., & Fox, J. R. E. (2010). Living with the “anorexic voice”: A
tions for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, thematic analysis. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research,
98(2), 224–253. and Practice, 83(Part 3), 243–254. doi:10.1348/147608309X480172
Merleau-Ponty, M. (1964). The primacy of perception and its philo- Urdapilleta, I., Cheneau, C., Masse, L., & Blanchet, A. (2007). Com-
sophical consequences. In J. M. Edie (Ed. & Trans.), The primacy of parative study of body image among dancers and anorexic girls.
perception and other essays on phenomenological psychology, the phi- Eating and Weight Disorders, 12(3), 140–146.
losophy of art, history, and politics (pp. 12–42). Chicago, IL: North- Walker, L. O., & Avant, K. C. (2005). Strategies for theory construction
western University Press. in nursing (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice
Merriam-Webster. (n.d.a). Perception. Retrieved from www.merriam- Hall.
webster.com/dictionary/perception Young, W. P. (2007). The shack. Newberry Park, CA: Windblown
Merriam-Webster. (n.d.b). Perception. Retrieved from www.merriam- Media.
webster.com/thesaurus/perception Wikipedia. (2008). Perception. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.
Munhall, P. L. (2007). A phenomenological method. In P. L. Munhall org/wiki/List_of_perception-related_topics
(Ed.), Nursing research: A qualitative perspective (4th ed., pp. 145–
210). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

8 International Journal of Nursing Terminologies and Classifications Volume ••, No. ••, ••-••, 2011