Republic of the Philippines

CATANDUANES STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Arts and Sciences
Virac, Catanduanes

G
E
C
1
UNDERSTANDING THE
SELF
 DISCLAIMER

This learning material is used in compliance with the flexible teaching-learning approach espoused by
CHED in response to the pandemic that has globally affected educational institutions. Authors and
publishers of the contents are well acknowledged. As such the college and its faculty do not claim
ownership of all sourced information. This learning material will solely be used for instructional
purposes and not for commercialization.

CatSU College of Arts and Sciences

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 FACULTY PROFILE

ELEANOR G. OSIDO
Assistant Professor II
Address: Rawis, Virac, Catanduanes
Contact Number: 0947865640
Email Address: [email protected]

OMARTONY B. LLAVE
Instructor I
Address: Cabcab, San Andres, Catanduanes
Contact Number: 09608602239
Email Address: [email protected]

KRISTINE BABIE M. REYES

Instructor I
Address: Calatagan, Virac, Catanduanes
Contact Number: 09082292459
Email Address: [email protected]

FLORYMAE L. EUBRA
Instructor I
Address: Del Sur, Pandan, Catanduanes
Contact Number: 09493009652
Email Address: [email protected]

ROSE ANN M. ARCILLA

Instructor I
Address: Calatagan Tibang, Virac, Catanduanes
Contact Number: 09301945250
Email Address: [email protected]

OVERVIEW OF THE MODULE

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This learning material is designed for the course GEC 1. The purpose of this module is to provide you
with basic and fundamental ideas and significant understanding of the different concepts in
Psychology.

For you to be able to acquire significant understanding of the course concepts, the content of this
course is divided into several modules for you to learn even at your own pace. For the midterm period,
the modules are:

Module 1 – THE SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES

Module 2 – THE SELF IN THE ADOLESCENCE STAGE

Module 3 – THE SELF IN THE SOCIAL SETTING

Module 1 provides information about knowing one’s self. In this module you will be able to learn how
selves is seen in different perspectives. It will also tackle different aspect and relations of humanity
which is an important aspect in every well-being.

Module 2 is all about the different representations of the self. This module dealt with the physical
aspect primarily an adolescent's brain and sexuality. It also tackles the importance of each milestones
or developmental tasks on the maturity during adolescence as well as the essence of material and
digital self.

Module 3 presents a discussion of the self in different social set ups. Specifically, Bioecological
Systems, individualism and collectivism, Looking Glass Self, Johari’s window of the self.
For the final coverage, the modules are:
Module 4 – THE SELF IN THE LEARNING PROCESS

Module 5 – THE SELF IN THE EMOTIONAL EXPERIENCE

Module 6 – THE SELF IN SUCCESS AND HAPPINESS

Module 7 – THE SELF IN FACING CHALLENGES

Module 4 discusses about learning; its basic elements and theories. You will gain information on the
various stages of memory and certain techniques to improve memory. This module furthermore
represents the nature of intelligence and its theories.
Module 5 examines the process of emotional development, the significance of emotional regulation
and the common emotion regulation strategies.
Module 6 focuses on an individual's personality domains, types and determinants. This module also
concentrates with Big Five Personality Factors, Dweck's Core Attitudes, Duckworth's Grit and
Success, Seligman's Positive Psychology and Harvard's Life Satisfaction associating with
adolescents' view of success and happiness.
Module 7 follows on how the selves face challenges. This final unit of the module includes types of
stress and how to manage it.
The module is self-instructional. You can read, analyze concepts and ideas presented and reflect on
them. To facilitate easy understanding of the course, each module consists of:

 Overview that provides you with a general information on the module content;
 Key terms that you need to know to understand the lessons;
 Module outline/map for you to see the sequence of lessons covered by the module

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  Read me section/discussion of the different lessons consisting the module;
 Exercises for every end of the lessons;
 Synthesis to conclude or generalize the main ideas presented;

 References which contains the list of all sources used in developing the module.
Your answers on Exercises should be written on a long coupon bond attached on a colored folder
(portfolio). You may submit it through email or messenger.

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 BRIEF CONTENTS

UNIT 1 THE SELF IN DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVE

TOOL NO.1 Rationalism and Empiricism

TOOL NO.2 Mentalism, Behaviorism, and Humanism
TOOL NO.3 Nature and Nurture
TOOL NO.4 The 3 Domains of Human Development

UNIT 2 THE SELF IN THE ADOLESCENT STAGE

TOOL NO.1 The Physical Aspects of the Self

TOOL NO.2 The Sexual Aspects of the Self
TOOL NO.3 Developmental Tasks of Adolescence
TOOL NO.4 Material Self and Digital Self

UNIT 3 THE SELF IN THE SOCIAL SETTING

TOOL NO.1 Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-ecological Systems

TOOL NO.2 Individualism and Collectivism
TOOL NO.3 Cooley’s The Looking Glass Self
TOOL NO.4 Johari’s Window of the Self

UNIT 4 THE SELF IN THE LEARNING PROCESS

TOOL NO.1 Learning, Memory and Intelligence

TOOL NO.2 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
TOOL NO.3 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence

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UNIT 5 THE SELF IN THE EMOTIONAL EXPERIENCES

TOOL NO.1 Emotions and Emotional Regulations

TOOL NO.2 Emotional Intelligence

UNIT 6 THE SELF IN SUCCESS AND HAPPINESS

TOOL NO.1 Personality

TOOL NO.2 Dweck’s Core Attitudes
TOOL NO.3 Duckworth’s Grit and Success
TOOL NO.4 Seligman’s Positive Psychology
TOOL NO.5 Harvard’s Study on Life Satisfaction

UNIT 7 THE SELF IN FACING CHALLENGES

TOOL NO.1 Managing Stress

TOOL NO.2 Self-efficacy and Social Support

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 Psychology- is the science of human behavior and mental processes.

Tools in Understanding the Self

FOR FILIPINO COLLEGE STUDENTS
Orientation

 | Social Sciences Department | 

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 College is a journey. To some of you, a small happy journey is called a “road trip” or a
“joyride”. Before we ride our bikes or cars, we make sure that our vehicle can last the long road and
that our driving skills will keep us safe on the road. Just like a joyride, college life requires you to have
the right positioning or orientation about your trip even as you are yet to discover the exciting things
along the way. Let us take a 360-roadtrip in the world of college, a joyride for your future.

As a college student, you must know that entering the university means choosing a course
which will train you to master the knowledge and the skills required to realize your professional
dreams and lifelong plans. While there are various courses and subjects taught in the university,
remember that the approaches of education in dealing with knowledge and skills can be categorized
into four major disciplines. When we say discipline, that means a teaching by which a student or a
follower live by; as in disciples which means followers. You, as a student of the university, shall follow
the instructions of the school and the teachings of your course in order to master the tasks of your
industry. If you are an engineering student, for example, you shall live by the skills and standards you
learn from the science of engineering in order to be recognized and registered as a professional
engineer.

Most often, having a discipline means an adherence to the teachings as a way of life.

The Disciplines of Knowledge in Education

Let us understand now which discipline your chosen course belongs to. The four major
disciplines of knowledge are Arts, Religion, Philosophy, and Science. All these disciplines are “bodies
of knowledge” or organized collection and presentation of information. They have their own principles
and approaches in dealing with knowledge and reality.

Arts is an expression of human experiences projected or told in creative ways like painting,
sculpture, architecture, designs, acting, dance act, storytelling, etc. It requires from its students the
skills in what the human body and intellect can do to express or immortalize the human spirit and
imagination. The purpose of artistic expression is to show an idea or experience in a way that is
unique, pleasing, and appreciable to oneself or to other people. Literature, Fine Arts, Interior Design,
and Creative Writing are examples of Arts courses in college.

Philosophy literally means love of wisdom. Based from observation and speculation about
things and events, philosophers were able to explain human experiences and beliefs with the use of
reason. To them, the knowledge of reality is validated by our innate ability to grasp the truth.
(Although not anymore under Philosophy and now an independent discipline, Mathematics or our
mathematical ability is one of the functions of reason that is abstract—a reality that is purely
intellectual and immaterial.) Logic and Ethics are some of the subjects in college that are under the
discipline of Philosophy.

Religion is the human attempt to reconnect to the divine or the Creator. It uses faith, or a
strong belief that is supported by reason, in grasping the idea of the unseen power. (Religious
subjects are taught in some private and sectarian schools. Public schools and State Universities and
Colleges (SUCs) are legally bound by the principle of the Separation of Church and State contained in
the 1987 Constitution of the Philippines so they do not offer religious courses.)

Science is the systematized body of knowledge based on observation and

experimentation. It is the discipline that separated from Philosophy and Religion in order to establish
a definite understanding of reality based on experience acquired and verified by the human
senses. A student of Science must be able to explain or prove the reality of a matter or an event
based on observable evidences and from the scientific laws already established in the field of
Science.

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 As a discipline, Science aims to describe, explain, predict, and modify the matters and
events of the universe, living or non-living, in promoting progress. It uses the Scientific Method as
the only process of investigating matters and phenomena (natural or social events). Most courses in
college belong to Science like engineering, nursing, biology, technical-vocational or technological
courses, economics, political science, etc.

For this particular subject, Understanding the Self, using the book “Tools in Understanding the
Self”, our approach will mostly use the discipline of Science and some teachings from Arts and
Philosophy in enriching your knowledge of your “Self” and, therefore, in developing yourself into the
person you want to be.

Tools in Understanding the Self

The topics in this book are designed according to the developmental characteristics of late
adolescence, or the college age. They are presented in an order that will help you discover your
“Self”. We start by understanding the concept of the “Self” and then delve into the basic knowledge of
the characteristic traits of adolescence, or what you are today, and later we advance to learning the
skills in improving or “reinventing” yourself.

Our main objective is to know our strengths and weaknesses, and to find opportunities to
learn from them and improve. Simply put, you must aim to have a more effective control of your
thoughts, emotions, and actions to bring yourself into a personal transformation leading to success,
happiness, and wholeness.

Here in this book, we emphasize the importance of tools. When what the human body can do
has reached its limits, we humans invented tools. Unable to see the tiniest living organism,
Leeuwenhoek created his own microscope and discovered bacteria. Unable to see the farthest object,
Galileo used the telescope to explore the stellar and planetary movements of the universe.

In this book, each module is labeled as a tool so that we remember that what we learn from
each module must be utilized or applied in real life. You may be the best surgeon in town, but without
your medical tools, you can do nothing. You may be a good sculptor, but without your hammer and
chisel, you can do nothing.

What are the intellectual tools we need in order to understand and change our lives?
Remember, tools are extensions of our capabilities and, in life, we have to use tools to make things
work.

UNIT THE SELF IN DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES

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 ______________________________________

Module Overview:
This Unit introduces concept, definition, and processes of self-understanding encompassing
the scientific and philosophical explanations about the Self and Identity. The module also broadly
introduces the factors that contribute to one’s being and identity. It covers the different factors that
contribute to one’s being, the philosophical and theoretical explanations about the self across
generations of philosophers and theorists.

Philosophy of the self has been defined through two distinct philosophical lenses: rationalism
and empiricism which will be discussed in tool number 1. The scientific study of the self is also a
central topic in Psychology and Sociology which will be tackled in tool number 2. These sciences
associated self and personality as influence and conditioned by the different factors that surrounds an
individual. Natural and biological science and social sciences encompass a number of disciplines that
have deliberated on the nature of the Self. Such discourses will be tackled in the tool number 3.
Domains of human development that generally influences our sense of self are likewise presented in
tool number 4.

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, the students must be able to:
o Compare and contrast the two major philosophical approach of knowledge;
o Describe and synthesize the different psychological perspective in understanding
the self;
o Examine yourself against the different philosophical views on the self; and
o Explain the importance of the three domains of human development

Rationalism
Empericism

Cognitive Domain Mentalism

MODULE Psychomotor
Domain
SELF Behaviorim
Affective Domain Humanism
MAP
Nature
Nurture

DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

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 1. RATIONALISM- the source of knowledge relies on reason.
2. EMPIRICISM- is the philosophical approach to knowledge whose truth value can only be
verified by the senses.
3. INTROSPECTION- is a means of learning about one’s own conscious thoughts or recent
mental processes.
4. MENTALISM- a psychological perspective that concentrate on perception and thought
processes
5. BEHAVIORISM- defines the self by how it is shaped by our behaviors that lead to either
reward or punishment.
6. HUMANISM- gives emphasis on the value of human beings as creative and possessed with
great potentials.
7. CONSCIOUS- characterizing awareness
8. PRECONSCIOUS- which is not in consciousness but can be recalled and easily retrieved into
consciousness
9. UNCONSCIOUS- contains the childhood memories and the mental processes away from
awareness that significantly affect human behavior.
10. SELF-ACTUALIZATION- the potential realization of one’s creative, intellectual and social
potentials as driven by the love of it rather than by material or external rewards.
11. NATURE- is influenced by genetic inheritance and other biological factors. 
12. NURTURE- the influence of external factors after conception
13. PHYSICAL- the biological changes that occur in the body and brain
14. COGNITIVE- the acquisition of the ability to reason and solve problems.
15. PSYCHOSOCIAL- is the development of social skills and emotions.

TOOL No. 1: Rationalism and Empiricism

Philosophy offers us two distinct approaches in examining what we know and how we know it;
namely, rationalism and empiricism. These two major approaches are used in our attempt to
understand an object, event, or idea. Rationalism uses reason while Empiricism uses the senses as
tools of knowledge. The two philosophical approaches (also called the “isms” of knowledge) deal with
“the known, the knowable, and the unknowable,” (Acuña, 2001).

TOOL BOX No. 1

To know your “Self”, you must use your

reason and your senses.

Rationalism
Rationalism claims that we are equipped with innate ability to know what is (or, is not) true,
real, or right. This innate ability is reason, the chief source and test of knowledge in rationalism.
Reason gives a person a deeper understanding of life and the matters of the universe. Reason does
not only give us an understanding of what we can observe with the use of the senses but also of the
things our minds can think about, such as soul, God, and mathematical solutions—things which

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cannot be found in the physical world but significantly affect how humans live and progress. The
reality of the soul, God, and good and evil cannot be proven by material evidences; however, with the
use of reason, they can be found to be an essential part of the truth. These ideas are called
metaphysical concept—a reality which cannot be proven by the human senses but can be
intelligible and meaningful through the use of reason.

Socrates (470-399 BCE) is one of the great philosophers who taught about the virtue of
knowing oneself. He learned his philosophy from the seven great sages before his time (or great
thinkers ahead of his time) and adhered to the message written on the Temple of Apollo in Delphi:
“Know thyself,” (Plato, Protagoras. Translated by: Lamb, W.R.M., 1967. Retrieved from
perseus.tufts.edu). The maxim means that man must know himself first before he can make good
decisions and deal rightly with himself and other people. It is important that you know yourself well by
examining your thoughts, judgments, and purpose in life. It is hard to be a good person or to be good
at something if you do not know yourself.

The story of Socrates and his teachings was written by his great student named Plato (427-
347 BCE). Plato founded the first higher learning institution called the Academy about 2,400 years
ago. The Academy can be considered as the origin of the public education we have today. Plato
made a discussion on the nature of man through his books. He used the method of introspection as
was used by Socrates and other philosophers.

Introspection is a means of learning about one’s own conscious thoughts or recent mental
processes (Schwitzgebel, 2019. Retrieved from plato.standford.edu). It is a process that generates
knowledge, judgments, or beliefs about one’s own mental events or processes. Introspection can
roughly be translated into the Filipino language as pagmumuni-muni or pagbubulay-bulay or
pagninilay-nilay or pagsisiyasat ng sarili.

The most important aspect of introspection is that it is about monitoring and examining your
own thoughts and thinking process, and not about someone else’s. When you examine your
thoughts, you evaluate the reasons behind them if they will bring about either good or harm to yourself
and to people around you.

Plato postulated that man is not purely a physical object that often changes. The essence of
man, according to Plato, is its pure form which can be discovered only through reason. Reason
reveals the ideal form of man which is the eternal soul. By reason man is able to know the virtues or
good qualities that he must possess. This can be achieved by doing introspection.

The belief in the twofold nature of man as body and soul is called dualism, or the
philosophical belief that man is made up of body and soul (a teaching that originated from ancient
religions and expounded by Philosophy using reason). The body is the physical or material aspect
which can be observed by the senses while the soul reveals its nature through reason. The body is
imperfect and mortal, and therefore, prone to mistakes. However, the enduring characteristics of a
person in making good judgments and decisions may signify a deep connection to the pure and
eternal nature of the soul.

Empiricism
While Socrates and Plato taught that man should pursue the ideal and use reason to know
the truth and the good conducts of the self, Aristotle (384-322 BCE), who was a student of Plato, on
the other hand, focused on seeking the truth by observing nature. He insisted that “no one can learn
anything at all in the absence of sense,” (Dawes, G.W., 2017. Retrieved from plato.standford.edu).
This means that knowledge is gained through sensory experience. The tradition that claims that
sensory experience is the only source of knowledge is called empiricism.

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 Empiricism is the philosophical approach to knowledge whose truth value can only be
verified by the senses. Reality, according to empiricists, are the things which can be observed or
experienced by the senses. If a person claims that something exists but that thing cannot be proven
by using any of the senses, then it is not real. Reality then relies only on what can be observed or
experienced by the senses.

Aristotle, an empiricist himself, claimed that the body and the soul are inseparable whole, not
two entities that work together or against each other. Aristotle may be meaning that the soul is a
functional part of the body. This philosophical belief is called monism. Monism is the view that man is
one unitary organic whole with no independent parts (Merriam-Webster Inc., 2020). In modern
philosophy, Rene Descartes, whose philosophy was grounded in both reason and senses, extended
this belief by claiming that the body is a mechanical system composed of tiny fibers that activate the
muscles.

Owing to the philosophy of empiricism, Science emerged as an independent discipline of

knowledge. The scientific method has its roots in Aristotle’s curiosity about nature, along with his
works on logic called Organon, and later elaborated in the systematic process proposed by Francis
Bacon in his book Novum Organum. Science claims that man is a natural creature (naturalism), a
material being (materialism), a mechanical system (mechanism), and his actions are caused by
other natural, material and mechanistic events found inside and outside the body (cause and effect
relationship or determinism). Scientists regard reason as a function of the brain or the mind. Reason
is the mental processes involved in making decisions.

Since the soul cannot be proven by the senses, modern empiricists rejected the belief that it
is real, eternal and an independent part of the Self. In empirical science, the Self is your body whose
mechanisms work in order to adapt to the environment. Our ability to recognize ourselves and
everything we do, feel, or think is controlled by the master organ which is the brain. The brain is a part
of the body, while the mind is the function of the brain.

The belief that reason and knowledge as innate in us did not impress one of the modern
philosophers named John Locke. He theorized that the mind at birth is a blank page, or the concept of
“tabula rasa”, Latin term which means blank slate or blank page. Popularizing the term tabula rasa,
Locke explained that an infant’s mind is empty or devoid of knowledge and reason at birth. It is only
when the infant interacts with the world that it gains knowledge. Your knowledge of your “Self”
depends on the experiences that you’ve had since you were born, and continuously improves as you
learn from your community, your school, and from your wider interactions with other people or the
society.

We can apply empiricism to ourselves by understanding that we gain knowledge through

experience. If we do not involve ourselves in social, community, or school activities, we will have less
chances of learning in life. If we are exposed to a harmful environment, our development will be
negatively affected resulting to a poor regard to the self. However, if we engage in meaningful
activities and are exposed to a rich learning environment, we will be better off in life.

Rationalism Empiricism

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 The primary and most superior source of The only source of genuine knowledge
knowledge about reality is reason. about the world is sense experience.

Reason is unreliable and inadequate route

Sense experience is unreliable and
to knowledge unless it is grounded in the
inadequate route to knowledge.
solid bedrock of sense experience.

There is no such thing as innate knowledge

The fundamental truths about the world can
because knowledge is derived from
be known a priori: either innate or self-
experience. The mind before experience is
evident to our minds.
a tabula rasa, a blank state.

TOOL No. 2: Mentalism, Behaviorism, and Humanism

The scientific study of the self is a central topic in Psychology and Sociology. Psychology is
the science of human behavior and mental processes. Sociology, on the other hand, is the science of
social behavior or group interactions in a given culture. Let us now understand the Self in the
perspective of science.

TOOL BOX No. 2

The Self is composed of your conscious, preconscious
and unconscious thoughts (the mind), your observable
behaviors (action), and your drive to realize your full
potentials (motivation).

Mentalism
Psychology started by using Introspection as a tool applied to the study of consciousness
(or the awareness of what is happening in or around oneself). Through introspection, one is able to
understand his behavior by being aware of what he is experiencing with the senses and how he
interprets these experiences in his mind. However, Dr. Sigmund Freud proposed that an individual
does not just behave according to his consciousness. He likened the mind to an iceberg floating in the
middle of the ocean. At the surface of the
ocean is the tip of the iceberg which is
just a small portion of the entire iceberg.
Underneath the water is a much larger
portion of the iceberg. According to
Freud, the mind can be divided into three
different levels. The tip of the iceberg,
according to Freud, is the conscious
part of the mind which comprises the
things one is aware of; the middle part is
the preconscious that represents
ordinary memory. While we are not
aware of this information at any given
time, we can retrieve and pull it into

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consciousness when needed. However, the much bigger part below the surface of the water is the
unconscious which contains the childhood memories and the mental processes away from
awareness that significantly affect human behavior.

Inferring from his analyses of the patients in his psychiatric clinic, Dr. Freud explained that our
actions, the way we respond to situations, and our individual personalities are very much influenced
by our own past experiences, especially early childhood memories that were buried—or forgotten but
not erased from—the deep recesses of the mind. This simply means that what you have become
today is the result of your childhood experiences… painful, traumatic, curious, happy or otherwise.
Unaware of their effects in our present life, we are significantly affected by the memories of our past
which we have long forgotten. The unpleasant or painful experiences which made much damage in
our lives may have been long forgotten but still have an influence for unstable emotions in some of us.
The unstable emotions and maladaptive behavior caused by traumatic early childhood experiences
are manifestations of what Freud called neurosis. A person suffering from neurosis can still function
normally but consistently shows maladaptive or ineffective behavior and inappropriate emotional
reactions to certain situations especially when challenges in relationships or tasks arise.

If you think you have some neurotic tendency in you, do not lose hope. Dr. Freud offered a
remedy to this by having an insight of your past. When you are able to examine your past and have
an understanding of the events leading to other events of your life, you would be able to forgive
yourself and form a more stable and effective personality. If it is difficult for you to handle the pain
and the trauma in recalling your past, you may need a professional counselor or psychologist who
knows how to help you.

Behaviorism
Another way to understand yourself is by knowing the mechanisms of how observable
behavior leads to results. American psychologist John B. Watson applied a physiology experiment on
animal to humans. He used the dog experiment conducted by Russian Nobel Prize winner Ivan
Pavlov. In his laboratory experiment on the salivation of dogs, Pavlov paired the sound of the
metronome to feeding the dog. His experiment shows that initially the dog normally salivates to food
but not to the sound of the metronome, as if the sound is meaningless and does not create any
reaction from the dog. When the sound is paired to the food in several repetitions, the dog learns to
associate the sound to the food and reacts by salivating. Eventually, even without the food, the dog
salivates upon hearing the sound of the
metronome. This experiment inspired
American behaviorist J. B. Watson to believe
that behavior is not the result of mentalistic
processes but by association of observable
actions. He applied the experiment to a child
named Little Albert with the purpose of
teaching him fear of a furry animal. Little
Albert used to be fond of bunnies but later on
became fearful of them when Watson paired
a loud sound whenever a bunny was
presented to the child. Watson explained
that our behaviors which constitute the Self
are learned by associating them to pleasant
or unpleasant events. In the same way,
learning happens when a behavior either
results to a reward or a punishment.
Behaviors that lead to pleasant

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consequences (reward) tend to be repeated; while behaviors that result to unpleasant consequences
(punishment) tend to be avoided.

In the practical sense of behaviorism, when your parents or your teachers reward or praise
you for doing good at school, you tend to be consistent with your academic performance. A student
who fails in an exam may want to stop idling and start studying so that he will not have a failing grade
again and get scolded by his parents!

Behaviorism defines the self by how it is shaped by our behaviors that lead to either
reward or punishment. We do good in our studies and tasks so that we are successful and happy.
We do not want to experience hunger and poverty so we avoid laziness.

We define ourselves by the success and effectiveness of our actions.

Humanism
The humanistic perspective in understanding the self gives emphasis on the value of human
beings as creative and possessed with great potentials. It emphasizes the value of self-exploration in
your attempt to live freely and to realize your potentials. In humanistic stance, you consider yourself
as a goal-oriented person with freedom and creativity to shape or define yourself not by your past or
by your failures but by your possibilities. You are the one who makes choices for yourself so you are
responsible for your life.

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers were two of the prominent pioneers of humanistic
psychology. Maslow emphasized that a human individual must attain his basic needs before he can
go up to the next level. He proposed that human needs form a hierarchy from the most basic to the
highest: namely, (1) physiological, (2) safety, (3) love/belonging, (4) esteem and (5) self-actualization.

Maslow's idea that people are motivated by satisfying lower-level needs such as food, water,
shelter, and security, before they can move on to being motivated by higher-level needs such as self-
actualization, is the most well-known motivation theory in the world. Maslow described self-
actualization by stating, “What a man can be, he must be.” In other words, self-actualization can

17
generally be thought of as the potential realization of one’s creative, intellectual and social potentials
as driven by the love of it rather than by material or external rewards. Man’s ultimate goal is to
maximize the use of his abilities and resources for the good of the Self and the community he belongs
to.

Carl Rogers agreed with the main assumptions of Abraham Maslow. However, Rogers added
that helping a person to grow must require a non-judgmental, accepting environment that provides
unconditional positive regard, or showing support and acceptance that is free from judgment and that
motivates self-discovery.

TOOL No. 3: Nature and Nurture

In understanding human development, we consider the two major influences in a person’s life:
nature and nurture. By nature, we mean heredity or the genetic make-up that plays a major role in the
physiological changes and capacity of a person. By nurture, we mean the environment or the
external resources such as food, physical place, family and community that influence a person’s
physiological growth and psychosocial development. There is no longer a debate which between the
two is a greater factor in human development. Heredity and environment must go together in order to
maximize the development of an individual.

By the way, growth is the quantitative changes that occur in an individual like height, weight
and size while development constitutes the qualitative changes such as agility, strength and
intelligence. Simply, in terms of changes, growth pertains to the body while development pertains to
the functions or capacity of the body. Growth must occur first before development.

TOOL BOX No. 3

Optimum development depends on the
effective interaction between heredity and
environment.

Nature
Heredity is the process and the result of the
process wherein the genetic characteristics of the
parents are handed down to the offspring. This happens at
the cellular level when the chromosomes of the egg cell
from your mother and the chromosomes of the sperm
cell from your father pair or fuse together to form a new
organism which is you. The chromosome contains the
genes of the organism and is made up of deoxyribose
nucleic acid or the DNA. The genes dictate the shape,

18
size, function, time, growth and development of the cells, the tissues and the organs. The genes set
the limit for the growth and development of the organism.

The characteristic time and process by which the genes unfold the traits of an individual in
different stages of development is called maturation. In children, for example, one of the physical
maturations that occurs is when the muscles grow and develop the capacity to walk, climb, jump and
do other motor skills. In adolescence, sexual maturation occurs rapidly at puberty and slowly declines
at late adolescence, showing noticeable changes in sex characteristics like growth of facial, underarm
and pubic hair, increase in breast size, occurrence of monthly menstrual period, onset of seminal
ejaculation, etc.

Nurture
The effects of environment to the organism form
part of the changes in yourself. The food that we eat
contains nutrients that the body uses for growth and
energy. The colorful surroundings enhance the capacity
of the eyes to appreciate what we see. The multiple
shapes, sizes and patterns of the objects around us
stimulate us to manipulate them. The teachings of our
parents or the family shape our personalities. The quality
of our education enhances our intelligence in adapting to
the changes and challenges of our culture. An enriched
environment gives optimum development in a person.
The capacity of the person to behave and make
decisions according to his developmental level or age is called maturity. This means that a mature
person (mature not ending in “d”, since matured means aged or has gone maturation such as wine) or
a mature teenager will not do tantrum when he or she doesn’t get what he or she wants. Tantrum is
an immature attitude which may be understandable for kids but not for teenagers. The mature way to
handle frustration during adolescence is to acknowledge your feelings that you are frustrated and
calmly accepting the fact that there are factors or reasons that you are not able to get what you want.
Maturity depends on the social influence on your behavior, meaning your family, friends and
community have a major impact to your attitude.

Critical Period

In the nature and nurture discussion, it is important that we understand critical period. Critical
period is an early stage in life when an organism is especially open or sensitive to specific learning,
emotional or socializing experiences that occur as part of normal development and will not recur at a
later stage (APA, 2020). It means that an animal or a person must experience environmental stimuli at
a certain age so that it can achieve optimum development. For example, cats must be able to see the
light for the first three weeks of life otherwise it will be permanently blind. This shows that
development occurs not just by heredity but by the interaction of heredity and environment – bodily
maturation must be coupled with experience of the external world to maximize development.
In humans, language is learned at the critical period of infancy up until 8 years old. With less
exposure to languages at the early age, beyond 8 years old it will be hard for us to acquire new
language.
Understanding the self is critical during adolescence. Adolescence is the stage of forming
your identity as a unique person. When you are unable to find a stable and effective understanding of
yourself, you experience confusion as to who you are or will be in life. The inability to form identity

19
may lead to future difficulties in making and maintaining intimate relationships and in performing daily
tasks.

TOOL No. 4: The 3 Domains of Human Development

Human development is a lifelong process beginning before birth and extending to death. At
each moment in life, every human being is in a state of personal evolution. Human development
refers to the physical, cognitive and psychosocial development of humans throughout the lifespan.
What types of development are involved in each of these three domains, or areas, of life? Physical
development involves growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills and health
and wellness. Cognitive development involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking,
reasoning and creativity. Psychosocial development involves emotions, personality and social
relationships. In many ways, these three domains can be seen as the body, mind and soul of a
person.
Physical, cognitive and psychosocial development are often interrelated. Physical changes
largely drive the process, as our cognitive abilities advance and decline in response to the brain’s
growth in childhood and reduced function in old age. Psychosocial development is also significantly
influenced by physical growth, as our changing body and brain, together with our environment shape
our identity and our relationships with other people.

TOOL BOX No. 4

Change is inevitable. As we grow, our physical
body matures as well as the way we think and
socialize.

Physical Domain

Physical development is defined as the biological changes that occur in the body and
brain, including changes in size and strength, integration of sensory and motor activities and
development of fine and gross motor skills.

The physical development is the most visibly obvious domain. This is evident in the bodily
changes, the maturation process and outward growth. This domain in human development is when
physical strength is built up, a sense of balance is learned, coordination evolves and motor skills are
developed. The five senses of sight, taste, hearing, touch and smell also develop within the physical
domain. Many changes transpire over the years from infancy to toddler stages, and teen years to
adulthood. Within adulthood, there are more changes in a slower progression in physical development
from young adulthood to middle age and senior years.

20
Cognitive Domain

Cognitive development refers to the acquisition of the ability to reason and solve
problems. The main theory of cognitive development was developed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss
developmental psychologist. Piaget broke childhood cognitive development into four stages spanning
from birth through adolescence. A child who successfully passes through the stages progresses from
simple sensorimotor responses to the ability to classify and create series of objects and eventually to
engage in hypothetical and deductive reasoning.

The cognitive domain is the mental part of the developmental process that goes on in the
brain. Each person develops at the individual’s own pace so no two people develop at the exact same
pace. This cognitive developmental process incorporates thinking, learning and language skills. The
mind learns to store memory through thoughts and experiences, then to recall those memories.
Cognitive development also includes creativity and imagination. The ability to perceive the
environment and surrounding develops within this domain. A large part of the development in this
domain happens by the age of 11. However, one stage of the cognitive development continues to
evolve through adulthood. The mind grows just like the body as it never stops learning.

Psychosocial Domain

The psychosocial domain is the development of social skills and emotions. It’s how a
person feels on the inside as reflected on the outside through social connections. This Is where a
person’s personality forms although some temperament traits are innate due to genetics. Building
friendships and relationships as well as learning to interact with others fall in this category. A person
develops feelings, self-esteem and how to get along with others. The person develops a sense to
recognize the feelings of others and to have empathy. Social skills allow for communication,
community involvement and getting along with others in school and work environments.
The primary theory of psychosocial development was created by Erik Erikson. He was an ego
psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential theories of development. While
his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud’s work, Erikson’s theory centered on
psychosocial development rather than psychosexual development.
Unlike Freud’s theory of psychosexual stages, however, Erikson’s theory described the
impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in how social interaction
and relationships played a role in the
development and growth of human
beings.
Each stage in Erikson’s theory
builds on the preceding stages and
paves the way for following periods of
development. In each stage, Erikson
believed people experience a conflict
that serve as a turning point in
development. In Erikson’s view, these
conflicts are centered on either
developing a psychological quality or
failing to develop that quality. During
these times, the potential for personal
growth is high but so is the potential for
failure.

21
 If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological
strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their lives. If they fail to deal effectively with these
conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills needed for a strong sense of self.

Implications
The importance of physical, cognitive and psychosocial development becomes apparent
when a person does not successfully master one or more of the developmental stages. For example,
a child who fails to achieve basic milestones of physical development may be diagnosed with a
developmental delay.
Similarly, a child with learning disability may fail to master the complex cognitive processes of
a typical adolescent.
A middle-aged adult who does not successfully resolve Erikson’s stage of generativity versus
stagnation may experience “profound personal stagnation, masked by a variety of escapisms, such as
alcohol and drug abuse, and sexual and other infidelities”, as stated by Nursing Theories. Thus, the
stakes are high for all humans as they tackle the developmental tasks they confront at every stage.

EXERCISE 1A: How Do I See My Self?

Instructions: Read and answer the succeeding questions.

1. How do you apply empiricism and/or rationalism in studying your lessons? Be specific and
concrete. Try to remember your habits and how you make sense of the lessons.
2. If we are product of both nature and nurture, which between the two contributed more to our self-
development. Justify your answer.

3. What are the physical, cognitive and psychosocial changes that you acquired during
adolescence?

EXERCISE 1B: How Do I See My Self?

Directions: From the given quotations below, choose one and relate it to either behaviorism,
mentalism or humanism.

“Knowing others is intelligence. Knowing yourself is true wisdom. Mastering others is strength.
Mastering yourself is a true power.”
- Lao Tzu

“You cannot dream yourself into a character, you must hammer and force yourself one.” -

- Henry David Thoreau

“The only person you are destined to become is the person you decide to be.”
– Ralph Waldo Emerson

22
References:
Alata, Eden Joy P., et al., (2018) Understanding the Self. Manila, Philippines: Rex Book
Store.
Corpuz, R. M., et al., (2019) Understanding the Self. Manila, Philippines: C & E
Publishing, Inc.
Lahey, B. (2009), Psychology: An Introduction, Ney York: McGraw-Hill
Macayan, Jonathan V., (2018) et al., (2019) Understanding the Self. Manila, Philippines:
C & E Publishing, Inc.

23
GEC 1
Understanding the Self

Module 2

The Self in the

Adolescent Stage

24
UNIT THE SELF IN ADOLESCENT STAGE
2
__________________________________________

Module Overview:
Adolescence is a period of life in which the sense of “self” changes profoundly. You, as a
college student is at this stage of life wherein you continuously search and expand your definition of
self. As you begin to ponder, “who am I?”, you are now able to think about yourself in more abstract
terms and this new ability to think abstractly enables you to expand your self-definition.
This module will discuss the different aspects of self during the adolescence stage. It will
focus on the important representations of the self: the physical, sexual, material and digital self. The
physical aspect which is dominated by brain and the senses explains how the brains and senses
functions and affects the rational and emotional state of a person. Sexual aspect of the self (Sex and
sexuality) discuss sexual characteristics, attributes, and orientation of adolescents and adults.
Further, it will tackle gender identity, sexual behavior and its consequences, and managing sexual
behavior. Material aspect tackles about how we maintain extensions of ourselves through our material
goods and maintenance of lifestyles, within the context of what society values as needs and wants
and what do these material goods say about ourselves and sense of self. Digital aspect discusses the
impact of social media platforms and other digital landscapes on self-representation. Also, this lesson
tackles some of the issues on interpersonal relationships in virtual communities. The developmental
tasks of adolescence are likewise presented for you to be aware, accept and be above of the
challenges that may confront you on this stage of your life.

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, the students must be able to:
o Describe the parts of the brain and explain how they function in relation to
emotions, decision-making and sensory faculties;

o Acquire knowledge, motivation, and skills in making effective and healthy

decisions pertaining to sex and sexuality;

o Understand the changes of late adolescence and adjust to the developmental

tasks required of adolescence;

o Explain the aspects of material and digital self

Module Map:

25
 Physical
Aspects

Material
Sexual
and Digital
Aspects
SELF Aspects

Developmental
Tasks

DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS:

1. BRAIN- is the organ located within the skull that is responsible for cognition, mental
processes, and control of the body and its functions. It is the location of perception,
ideas, thoughts, conscious movement, and unconscious body functions like heart rate
and digestion.
2. SENSES- the one gathers information about the external environment or about the
state of one's body in relation to the environment. They include the five
primary senses—vision, hearing, taste, touch, and smell
3. LIMBIC SYSTEM- is a group of functionally related structures in the brain. The
system is important in the regulation of emotional patterns.
4. MOTIVATION- the process of satisfying certain conditions, such as wishes, desires
or goals that are required for long-term development.
5. PRIMARY DRIVE-  are innate biological needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, and desire for
sex)
6. SEX- is used to describe what you are assigned at birth, based on what’s in between
your legs.
7. SEXUALITY- a central aspect of being human throughout life encompasses sex,
gender identities and roles, sexual orientation, eroticism, pleasure, intimacy, and
reproduction.
8. GENDER- refers to the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture
associates with a person’s biological sex.
9. GENDER IDENTITY- one's innermost sense of being male or female, a blend of both
or neither.
10. SEXUAL ORIENTATION- is an innate or immutable enduring physical, emotional,
romantic or sexual attraction to another person.
11. SEXUAL BEHAVIOR- any activity that induces sexual arousal.
12. GENDER DYSPHORIA- psychological distress that results from an incongruence
between one's sex assigned at birth and one's gender identity.
13. PARAPHILIA- any form of sexual behavior or atypical sexual practices.
14. PARAPHILIC DISORDER-  are recurrent, intense, sexually arousing fantasies,
urges, or behaviors that are distressing or disabling and that involve inanimate
objects, children or nonconsenting adults, or suffering or humiliation of oneself or the
partner with the potential to cause harm.

26
 15. ADOLESCENCE- is the developmental period occurring between childhood and
adulthood.
16. DEVELOPMENTAL TASK- tasks that arises at or about a certain period in the life of
the individual, the successful achievement of which leads to happiness and success
with later tasks, and the failed achievement of which leads to unhappiness in the
individual, disapproval by the society and difficulty with later tasks.
17. MATERIAL SELF- pertains to the objects, places, or even people which have the
label “mine”. Such possessions are viewed as extensions of individuals' identities.
18. DIGITAL SELF- is the persona you use when you're online.
19. SOCIAL MEDIA- is internet-based and gives users quick electronic communication of
content.

TOOL No. 1: The Physical Aspects of the Self

There are various changes and transformations during adolescence; one of this is the
physical modification, but in this unit we will be focusing on the brain and its functions. How the brain
matures and how it influences the senses, emotional unpredictability and impulsivity of an adolescent.

TOOL BOX No. 1

How well your brain works depends on

how well you use your senses.

The Brain and the Senses

Some brain changes happen before puberty, and some continue long after. Brain change
depends on age, experience and hormonal changes in puberty.
So even though all teenagers’ brains develop in roughly the same way at the same time,
there are differences among individual teenagers. If
a child started puberty early, this might mean that some
of a child’s brain changes started early too. Let us now
start the lesson by determining the parts and functions
of brain relating to the senses.

 CEREBRUM- consists of two halves (or

hemispheres) connected by a band of fibers
called the corpus callosum. Each of the
hemispheres is covered by a cerebral cortex—
an outer layer of gray matter that controls
sensory and motor processes, perception, and
intellectual functioning. Although identical in appearance, the left and right cerebral
hemispheres serve different functions and control different areas of the body. The left cerebral
hemisphere controls the right side of the body, and it contains centers for speech, hearing,

27
verbal memory, decision making, language processing, and expression of positive emotions.
The right cerebral hemisphere, on the other hand, controls the left side of the body and
contains centers for processing visual-spatial information, nonlinguistic sounds such as
music, tactile (touch) sensations, and expressing negative emotions (Fox et al., 1995). Each
hemisphere has four sections, called lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital.

FRONTAL LOBE- is the most anterior (front) part of the brain. It extends from the
area behind the forehead back to the precentral gyrus. The frontal lobe plays a key
role in future planning, including self-management and decision-making. People with
frontal lobe damage often struggle with gathering information, remembering previous
experiences, and making decisions based on this input.

MOTOR CORTEX- helps coordinate voluntary movements, including walking

and running.
BROCA'S AREA- a region in the frontal lobe, helps put thoughts into words.
Damage to this area can undermine the ability to speak, to understand
language, or to produce speech that makes sense.

PARIETAL LOBE-  is one of the major lobes in the brain, roughly located at the
upper back area in the skull and is associated with processing tactile sensory
information such as pressure, touch, and pain. A portion of the brain known as the
somatosensory cortex is located in this lobe and is essential to the processing of the
body's senses. 

SENSORY CORTEX- is an umbrella term that encompasses all the senses:

sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell. Although many different sections in the
brain are responsible for each particular sense, such as the occipital lobe for
visual acuity, the sensory cortex is a blanket term used to refer to all of the
senses.

HIPPOCAMPUS- is also located in the temporal lobe, which is why this

portion of the brain is also heavily associated with the formation of memories.

OCCIPITAL LOBE- is involved in the sense of sight; lesions in this area can produce
hallucinations.

TEMPORAL LOBE- is located on the bottom section of the brain. This lobe is also
the location of the primary auditory cortex, which is important for interpreting sounds
and the language we hear.

AUDITORY CORTEX- plays a critical role in our ability to perceive sound. It

is thought to be integral to our perception of the fundamental aspects of
an auditory stimulus, like the pitch of the sound.

WERNICKE'S AREA- is the region of the brain that is important for language
development. It is located in the temporal lobe on the left side of the brain
and is responsible for the comprehension of speech.

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  CEREBELLUM- Function of cerebellum is coordination of voluntary movements. Most
movements are composed of a number of different muscle groups acting together in a
temporally coordinated fashion.

Brain Processing Adolescent's Emotions

We already know the parts of the brain that manages our senses, let us now proceed
to the parts of the brain that controls our emotions.

LIMBIC SYSTEM is a group of functionally

related structures in the brain. The system is
important in the regulation of emotional
patterns (like fear, anger, and the fight or
flight response) and motivation. The
motivation that we pertain here is defined
as the process of satisfying certain
conditions, such as wishes, desires or goals
that are required for long-term development.
Psychologists believe that motivation is
rooted in basic impulse to optimize well-
being, minimize physical pain and maximize
pleasure. Motivations are commonly
separated into drives; one kind of it is the
primary drive which are innate biological
needs like thirst, hunger and desire for sex.
In connection with the lesson that we tackled in Unit 1, one example of motivational theory is the
Maslow's hierarchy of needs. According to Maslow, a need is a relatively lasting condition or feeling
that requires relief or satisfaction, and it tends to influence action over the long term. Some needs (like
hunger) may decrease when satisfied.

Here are the components of the limbic system:

THALAMUS- is a mostly gray matter structure of the diencephalon that has many essential roles in
human physiology. The thalamus is composed of different nuclei that each serve a unique role,
ranging from relaying sensory and motor signals, as well as regulation of consciousness and
alertness which are involved in learning and memory.
HYPOTHALAMUS- the lower part of the thalamus, consisting of a group of nuclei believed to be
important in the regulation of hunger, temperature, emotional control, and other visceral functions.
Another interesting topic that is relevant during adolescence is LOVE. Which part of the brain
controls love? It may sound strange, but the beginnings of romantic love are associated with the
stress response triggered by your hypothalamus. It makes more sense when you think about the
nervous excitement or anxiety you feel while falling for someone. As these feelings grow, the
hypothalamus triggers release of other hormones, such as dopamine, oxytocin, and vasopressin.
Dopamine is associated with your body’s reward system. This helps make love a desirable feeling.
Oxytocin is often referred to as the “love hormone.” This is largely because it increases when you
hug someone or have an orgasm. It’s produced in the hypothalamus and released through
your pituitary gland. It’s associated with social bonding as well. This is important for trust and building
a relationship. It can also promote a feeling of calmness and contentment. Vasopressin is similarly

29
produced in your hypothalamus and released by your pituitary gland. It’s also involved in social
bonding with a partner.

 PITUITARY GLAND- also known as the master gland; it is a pea-sized endocrine gland
situated at the bottom off the hypothalamus. Through secretion of its hormones, the pituitary
gland affects growth, blood pressure, metabolism, sexual maturation, reproduction, and many
other vital physical functions and processes.

HIPPOCAMPUS- a curved nerve tract consisting mostly of gray matter in the floor of the inferior horn
of the lateral ventricle. In shape it resembles a sea horse, hence the name hippocampus. It functions
in olfactory, visceral processes and short-term memory.

AMYGDALA- it is an almond-shaped mass of gray matter located within the cerebrum approximately
at the anterior limits of temporal lobe. It is associated with the control of aggressive behavior. The
amygdala may be best known as the part of the brain that drives the so-called “fight or flight”
response. “Adolescents activate the amygdala more in emotional…situations,” says Anna
Tyborowska. Meanwhile, their prefrontal cortex is not yet ready to take control over emotional
processing. 
The adolescent brain pours out adrenal stress hormones, sex hormones, and growth
hormone, which in turn influence brain development. The production of testosterone increases 10
times in adolescent boys. Sex hormones act in the limbic system and in the raphe nucleus, source of
the neurotransmitter serotonin, which is important for the regulation of arousal and mood. The
hormonally regulated 24-hour clocks change their settings during adolescence, keeping high school
and college students awake far into the night and making it difficult to rise for morning classes.

As long as the brain is still in formation, things can go wrong in many ways, and some of them
involve the onset of psychiatric disorders. Stress can retard the growth of the hippocampus, which
consolidates memories. According to some theories, the pruning of gray matter or the thickening of
the myelin coat in late adolescence allows the early symptoms of schizophrenia to emerge.

TOOL NO. 2 The Sexual Aspects of the Self

A vital aspect of one’s identity is the sexual self, encompassing biological, physical, emotional,
and social domains. While it is initially rooted in the distinguishing physical attributes found in men
(penis) and women (vagina), bodily transformations and development of secondary sexual
characteristics during adolescence would eventually trigger physiological responses, leading to beliefs
and behavior associated with sex.

Sex and Sexuality

During the adolescence stage, sexual curiosity is often at its peak, with adolescents engaging
in sexual activity as a result of biological and socio-cultural forces at work. Further, this stage sets the
tone for the gender orientation an adolescent adopts. Thus, it is important to be aware of one’s
sexuality, his thoughts and behavior, in order to make responsible choices concerning one’s sexual
self.

Sexuality as a central aspect of being human throughout life encompasses sex, gender
identities and roles, sexual orientation, eroticism, pleasure, intimacy, and reproduction. It is
experienced and expressed in thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviors,

30
practices, roles, and relationships. While sexuality can include all of these dimensions, not all of them
are always experienced and expressed.

TOOL BOX No. 2

Be at ease with who you are according to

your decisions, not your emotions.

SENSUALITY

SEXUAL POWER INTIMACY

SEXUAL HEALTH SEXUAL

AND IDENTITY
REPRODUCTION

Circles of Sexuality

SENSUALITY

 awareness and feeling with one’s own body and other people’s body, especially of a partner
 Enables us to feel good about how our own bodies look and feel and what they can do

 Allows us to enjoy the pleasure our bodies can give us and others

SEXUAL HEALTH AND REPRODUCTION

 One’s capacity to reproduce
 The behavior and attitude that make sexual relationships healthy and enjoyable

 Information about sexual reproduction, sexual intercourse, different sex acts, contraception,
sexual expression and reproductive sexual anatomy

SEXUAL POWER OVER OTHERS

 Using sex or sexuality to influence, manipulate, or control other people such as seduction,
flirtation, harassment, sexual abuse or rape

SEXUAL IDENTITY
 Understanding of who you are sexually; including the sense of being male or female,
culturally-defined gender roles, and sexual orientation

31
INTIMACY
 The ability and need to be emotionally close to another human being and to accept closeness
in return
 While sensuality is the need to be physically close to another human being, intimacy is the
need to be emotionally close

Human Sexual Behaviors

Human sexual behavior is defined as any activity that induces sexual arousal. There are two
major factors that determine human sexual behavior; (1) the inherited sexual response patterns that
have evolved as a means of ensuring reproduction and that become part of each individual’s genetic
inheritance; and (2) the degree of restraint or other types of influence exerted on the individual by
society in the expression of his sexuality. Listed below are the different sexual behaviors:

Traditional/coital- defined as sexual intercourse

Celibacy- abstain from sexual activity; also known as abstinence
Sexual fantasies- almost any mental imagery that is sexually arousing or erotic to the
individual
Masturbation- the induction of a state of erection of the genital organs and achievement of
orgasm by touching your own genitals for sexual stimulation
Kissing and erotic touching- also called as intimate touching
Oral-genital stimulation- stimulating your partners genital with your mouth, lips or tongue.
Anal Intercourse- according to APA, it is a form of sexual activity in which pleasure is
achieved through the insertion of the penis into the anus. Also called coitus analis

When adolescents feel sexual urges, they are likely to engage in sexual activities that would
satisfy those urges. However, the kind of sexual activities they engage in may vary. During the
adolescence stage, it is a common occurrence to watch and read pornographic materials, engage in
kissing and petting, and perform masturbation, the act of stimulating one’s genitals for sexual
pleasure. Medical professionals have cited the health benefits of masturbation, including stress relief,
better sleep, improve self-esteem, and enhance body image. Further, masturbation is a better
alternative to sexual intercourse, which may result to pregnancy and getting sexually-transmitted
diseases.

Responsible sexual behavior entails the following:

• Respect for one’s body. This would mean taking care of one’s body and avoiding
activities that undermine one’s worth and respect.
• Maturity in thoughts and deeds. This would refer to being objective, rational, and
calm, instead of being swept by one’s emotions.
• Being guided by one’s personal beliefs and core values. An adolescent should always
be grounded by his personal principles and self-worth.
• Being future-oriented. Instead of focusing on the present, always weigh your actions
now with possible consequences in the future. Sexual pleasure might be overwhelming at the
moment but always focus on what it will entail in the future.

32
The Consequences of Sexual Choice

Sexual intercourse, also known as copulation, is the reproductive act wherein the male organ
(penis) enters the female’s reproductive tract (vagina). Teenage couples who engage in sexual
intercourse are usually overwhelmed by the sensations they feel during the act. In addition, most
teenagers who have sex with their partners often rationalize the act by claiming they “love each other”
and are “ready to be committed to each other.” However, If the woman is fertile during the time of
intercourse, pregnancy is likely to occur and will last approximately nine months before the birth of the
child. Having a child entails a big responsibility and should not merely be a consequence of an
impulsive moment.

There are physical risks to having an early

pregnancy that may impact on an adolescent’s
development, including risk of miscarriage,
emotional stress, and health risks to both mother
and infant. Further, early pregnancy may result to
dropping out of school, alienation, and other similar
disruptions. Pregnancy do not only affect females;
males are also burdened by the responsibility of
caring for a new child, his partner, and may also
face the same problems as his partner.

Aside from pregnancy, another

consequence of sexual intercourse is the risk
of acquiring sexually-translated diseases.
These sexually transmitted diseases, while
most of them can be treated and cured, may
have long-term consequences to one’s health.
STD is passed on by means of exchange of
body fluids or genital contact. Among the
common diseases are syphilis, gonorrhea,
chlamydia, and genital warts. Symptoms of
these sexually-transmitted diseases include a
burning sensation during urination, warts and
sores in the genital and mouth area, pus,
abnormal and smelly discharge, genital irritation, and painful bowel movements. Treatment of these
diseases may entail medication and, in some cases, surgery. However, there are cases when these
diseases may affect one’s reproductive functions and worse, may result to death.

 Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). The most alarming sexually-transmitted disease is

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). It is a virus that can be transmitted by anal, oral, or
vaginal sex with an infected person, as well as through breast milk, during childbirth, and by
coming into contact with the blood of an HIV positive person. Untreated, HIV can lead to
AIDS, which compromises the immune system and puts the person at risk of illness and
death. In its early stages, HIV has no symptoms. Once the illness has progressed, the first
symptoms may include fever, rashes, and sores. In its final stage, a person with AIDS may
suffer from a variety of illnesses, including pneumonia and cancer. At the moment, there
remains no cure for HIV and AIDS.

33
 Healthy Behavior to prevent consequences of our sexual choice:

 Avoid casual, unprotected sex

 Use latex condoms
 Never share needles
 Never share razors & tattoo or piercing instruments
 Always be a self-advocate with medical professionals
 Assertively discuss protection with partners
 Abstain or refrain from sexual activities
 Be more sexually aware but less sexually active

It is prevalent among individuals who engage in unprotected sex with multiple partners.
Irresponsible sexual behavior often results in dire consequences that have significant impact on
people’s lives and futures. Aside from health risks associated with sexually transmitted diseases, it
may also ruin relationships, create a negative stigma against people with STD, and disrupt school
and employment.

Thus, it is important that an adolescent should make responsible decisions with regard
to their sexuality and sexual behavior.

Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation

At birth, one’s sexuality is dependent on his physical features and genitals. Most of the time,
one’s sexuality and gender orientation are generally the same. However, biological sex and gender
orientation are two different things; biological sex is one’s assignment upon birth and is dependent
on the physical features the person has. On the other hand, gender is an identity that is learned and
embraced by the individual. It goes beyond biological domains and is both a personal and social
construct. As a social construct, gender is known to be the socially created roles, personality traits,
attitudes, behaviors and values attributed for men and women. This also includes the relative power
and influence of each, indicating that gender is relational and refers not simply to women or men but
to the relationship between them. Thus, gender is anchored on societal beliefs and norms.

Gender identity and sexual orientation underlie our

concept of self. We express our sexuality through
individuality; our beliefs and behavioral lifestyle are based
on our own perception of sexuality. However, while sexual
orientation and gender identity are deemed to be social
constructs, it is important to highlight our self-expression
and moreover, become responsible in doing so. This will
also translate to our beliefs about sex, gender, and
behavior. We should take note that our behavior in various
situations would entail consequences; we need to realize
what are the effects of such actions and how can we
regulate our own behavior, including our sexual behavior.
Let us proceed to the next section.

34
SEX is used to describe what you are assigned at birth, based on what’s in between your legs. It is
defined by genitals.

GENDER refers to the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a
person’s biological sex. (boys are given trucks while girls are given dolls)

GENDER IDENTITY is how you feel inside; one's innermost sense of being male or female, a blend
of both or neither.
o cisgender – a person who identifies with the sex they were assigned at birth
o transgender – a person whose gender identity does not match the sex they were
assigned at birth
o agender- Having no specific gender; also called as lack of gender
o bigender- identify themselves as both man and woman
o non-binary or genderqueer- a person whose gender identity does not align with a
binary understanding of gender (i.e., a person who does
not identify fully as either a man or a woman).
o gender fluid – a person whose gender identity is not fixed and shifts depending on
the situation. These people don’t feel the need to act according to the
sex they were assigned at birth and the associated traditional roles.

SEXUAL ORIENTATION is an innate or immutable enduring physical, emotional, romantic or

sexual attraction to another person.

1. heterosexual- attracted to opposite sex (straight)

2. lesbian- a woman who is attracted to woman
3. gay- a man who is attracted to man

We avoid the terms "homosexual" in pertaining to people who are attracted to same
sex. Instead specify the gender of the individual and use specific descriptors such as gay
and lesbian.

4. bisexual – attracted to both sexes, sexually attracted not exclusively to people of one
5. asexual – absence of sexual attraction
6. pansexual – attraction to multiple genders (being based on chemistry rather than on gender)
7. transsexual - a person who emotionally and psychologically feels that they belong to the
opposite sex
8. queer/questioning- means unsure and still exploring one's sexuality

GENDER DYSPHORIA- To avoid the stigma of individuals who see and feel themselves in having
different gender than their assigned gender, DSM-5 replaces the diagnostic name "gender identity
disorder" with gender dysphoria. For a person to be diagnosed with gender dysphoria, there must be
a marked difference between the individual’s expressed/experienced gender and the gender others
would assign him or her, and it must continue for at least six (6) months. In children, the desire to be
of the other gender must be present and verbalized. This condition causes clinically significant
distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning (DSM ‐5
[American Psychiatric Association, 2013]).

35
Paraphilia and Paraphilic Disorder
What does paraphilia mean? According to the dictionary of psychology, paraphilia is an any
form of sexual behavior or atypical sexual practices differing markedly from the standards set up by a
given society, commonly used term previously as sexual deviance. pedophilia, masochism, sadism,
transvestism and fetishism are examples of paraphilia or sexual deviations in our society. Paraphilia is
a necessary but not a sufficient condition for having a paraphilic disorder, and a paraphilia by itself
does not automatically justify or require clinical intervention; in fact, a paraphilia is not a “diagnosis.”

Most people with atypical sexual interests do not have a mental disorder. To be diagnosed
with a paraphilic disorder, DSM-5 requires that people with these interests:

 feel personal distress about their interest, not merely distress resulting from society’s
disapproval; or

 have a sexual desire or behavior that involves another person’s psychological distress, injury,
or death, or a desire for sexual behaviors involving unwilling persons or persons unable to
give legal consent.

To further define the line between an atypical sexual interest and disorder, the Work Group
revised the names of these disorders to differentiate between the behavior itself and the disorder
stemming from that behavior (i.e., Sexual Masochism in DSM-IV will be titled Sexual Masochism
Disorder in DSM-5). It is a subtle but crucial difference that makes it possible for an individual to
engage in consensual atypical sexual behavior without inappropriately being labeled with a mental
disorder. With this revision, DSM-5 clearly distinguishes between atypical sexual interests and mental
disorders involving these desires or behaviors.

Now that we know the difference between sexual deviance and paraphilic disorders. Let us
proceed to enumerate and describe the eight (8) conditions of paraphilic disorders.

PARAPHILIC DISORDER ATYPICAL SEXUAL INTEREST

EXHIBITIONISTIC DISORDER A compulsive tendency to expose parts of the body, usually the
sex organs, to an unsuspecting person for the purpose of sexual
excitement
FETISHISTIC DISORDER Sexual arousal and gratification is induced by handling objects or
nongenital parts of the body
FROTTEURISTIC DISORDER Touching or rubbing against a nonconsenting person
PEDOPHILIC DISORDER Sexual attraction or preference for prepubescent children.
SEXUAL MASOCHISM An individual derives sexual pleasure from reception of pain
DISORDER such as being humiliated, beaten, bound, or otherwise made to
suffer
SEXUAL SADISM DISORDER Sexual satisfaction is associated with infliction of pain (physical
or psychological)
TRANSVESTIC DISORDER Sexual excitement urges from wearing of clothes of the opposite
sex or "cross-dressing"
VOYEURISTIC DISORDER Obtains sexual gratification by watching others undress/naked or

36
 engage in sexual activity.

TOOL No. 3 Developmental Tasks of Adolescence

What is Adolescence?

o Dorothy Rogers traces the term adolescence to its Latin root, adolescere, which means “to grow
to maturity.” She defines adolescence as “a process rather than a period, a process of achieving
the attitudes and beliefs needed for effective participation in society.”

o Hall (1904) described adolescence as a period of “storm and stress,” beginning the puberty,
around age 12 or 13, and ending when full adult status has been attained, by ages 22 to 25.

o Adolescence is the bridge between childhood and adulthood. It is a time of rapid development: of
growing to sexual maturity, discovering one’s real self, personal values, and finding one’s
vocational and social directions. It is also a time of testing: of pushing against one’s capabilities
and limitations as posed by adults. (Ambron, 1975, p.393)

o According to Erik Erikson the main task of adolescence is to achieve the state of identity. He also
notes that “adolescence is a period of rapid change – physical, physiological, psychological, and
social; a time when all sameness and continuities relied on earlier are more or less questioned
again” (1963, p. 261) Erikson points to both social and cognitive change aspects as does Piaget:
“The adolescent, unlike the child, is an individual who thinks beyond present and forms theories
about everything, delighting especially in considerations of which what is not.”

TOOL BOX No. 3

Accept challenges and be above them.

THE TEN TASKS OF ADOLESCENCE

During the teen years, adolescence grow in size, sexual maturity, emotional development and
thinking capacity. The developmental changes during adolescence rival those of infancy and early
childhood. Research indicates that the human brain does not reach full maturity until at least the
mid20s.

Most milestones occur gradually, with frustrating starts and stops along the way. Each task
depends on others to be fully accomplished, and all part of underlying developmental forces propelling
adolescents toward maturity.

In order to help parents, influence healthy adolescent growth, the Raising Teens Project
identified 10 critical developmental tasks that teenagers need to undertake to make a successful
transition to adulthood.

37
TASK 1: Adjust to Sexually Maturing Bodies and Feelings

Teens are faced with adjusting to growing bodies and newly acquired sexual characteristics. They
must learn to manage sexual feelings and to engage in healthy sexual behaviours. This task includes
establishing a sexual identity and developing the skills for romantic relationships.

TASK 2: Develop and Apply Abstract Thinking Skills

Teens typically undergo profound changes in their way of thinking during adolescence, allowing them
more effectively to understand and coordinate abstract ideas, to think about possibilities, to try out
hypotheses, to think ahead, to think about thinking, and to construct philosophies.

TASK 3: Develop and Apply a More Complex Level of Perspective Taking

Teens typically acquire a powerful new ability to understand human relationships, in which, having
learned to “put themselves in another person’s shoes,” they begin to take into account both their
perspective and another person’s at the same time. They learn to use this new ability in resolving
problems and conflicts in relationships.

TASK 4: Develop and Apply New Coping Skills in areas such as decision making, problem
solving, and conflict resolution

Teens begin to acquire new abilities to think about and plan for the future, to engage in more
sophisticated strategies for decision-making, problem solving, and conflict resolution, and to moderate
their risk-taking to serve goals rather than jeopardize them.

TASK 5: Identify Meaningful Moral Standards, Values, and Belief Systems

Teens typically develop a more complex understanding of moral behavior and underlying principles of
justice and caring for others. They question beliefs from childhood and adopt more personally
meaningful values, religious views, and belief systems to guide decisions and behavior

38
TASK 6: Understand and Express More Complex Emotional Experiences

Teens typically shift toward an ability to identify and communicate more complex emotions, understand
the emotions of others in more sophisticated ways and to think about emotions in abstract ways

TASK 7: Form Friendships that are Mutually Close and Supportive

Teens develop peer relationships that play much more powerful roles in providing support and
connection in their lives. They tend to shift from friendships based largely on the sharing of interests
and activities to those based on the sharing of ideas and feelings, with the development of mutual
trust and understanding

TASK 8: Establish Key Aspects of Identity

Identity formation is in a sense a lifelong process, but crucial aspects of identity are typically forged at
adolescence, including developing an identity that reflects a sense of individuality as well as
connection to valued people and groups.

They develop a positive identity around gender, physical attributes, sexuality, and ethnicity and, if
appropriate, having been adopted, as well as sensitivity to the diversity of groups that make up
Filipino or mixed society.

TASK 9: Meet the Demands of Increasingly Mature Roles and Responsibilities

Teens gradually take on the roles that will be expected of you in adulthood. You learn to acquire the
skills and manage the multiple demands that will allow you to move into the labor market and meet
expectations regarding commitment to family, community, and citizenship.

TASK 10: Renegotiate Relationships with Adults in Parenting Roles

Although the task of adolescence has sometimes been described as “separating” from parents and
other caregivers, it is more widely seen now as adults and teens working together to negotiate a
change in the relationship that accommodates a balance of autonomy and ongoing connection, with
the emphasis on each depending in part on the family’s background and values

39
Stages of healthy adolescent development

40
 TOOL NO. 4 Material Self and Digital Self

This tool tackles about how we maintain extensions of ourselves through our material goods
and maintenance of lifestyles, within the context of what society values as needs and wants and what
do these material goods say about ourselves and sense of self. This also discusses the impact of
social media platforms and other digital landscapes on self - representation. It also tackles some of
the issues on interpersonal relationships in virtual communities.

TOOL BOX No. 4

Your character is revealed by the things you

desire.

Material Self

While it is true that most of the material things that we possess are not the things that we
need, it is equally true that what we have in our lives can tell other people who we really are. Our
possessions, gadgets, properties and belongings tell a lot of ourselves. These things were chosen by
us because we see ourselves in these things. The products that we purchase are the products in
which we see ourselves with. For instance, the perfume you buy and wear is the perfume you think
best suits you. By knowing who we are, we also need to know what we want. But the dilemma
remains however, that our wants are not exactly what we need. Before we proceed with the material
aspect of ourselves, we have to know first the difference between wants and needs.

Most of us confuses wants with needs. Some people think that they are just the same.
However, these two are different from each other. We have learned before that needs are the things
that we cannot live without. These include food, shelter, clothing, water, air, medical care and sex. On
the other hand, wants are things that we just like but not necessarily our needs. These include a new
cellphone, a new car, jewelries and the likes. Regardless whether the things that we have are needs
or wants, we should always remember that these things tell something about ourselves.

The Meaning of Things (Mihaly Csiksentmihalyi)

Unknown to some, the things that we use, own, and surround ourselves with might accurately
reflect our personality. Needless to say, the clothes that we wear, the car that we drive and the
furnishings of our home, are all expressions of ourselves, even when they act as disguises rather than
as reflections. It only means to say that the things that surround us are inseparable from who we are.
In other words, objects or things are intimately related to the self.

41
 It is also tantamount to say that whatever material things we are having in our lives are
product of our choices. This only means that the things and the product that we purchase tell a lot of
stories about ourselves.

Accordingly, the material environment that surrounds us is rarely neutral. It can either make
our lives very chaotic in a sense that it is too random and disorganized, or it helps us to give purpose
and direction to our lives. These only prove that the material things that we have are connected to
who we are now.

Utility and Significance in Everyday Objects (John Heskett)

Aside from the association of the self and the material things that we have, we should also
know the function and significance of the things that we have for ourselves. It is not enough that we
know that we have a connection with our material things. It is also important to know their uses. For
Heskett, there are two important things that we need to know with our material things. These are:

• Utility. This is concerned with how things work and serve a practical purpose. This is also
concerned with efficiency derived from technological and material factors. (e.g., kitchen knife -
a primary utility used as a cutting tool).

• Significance. This is concerned with how forms assume meaning in the ways they are used,
or the roles and meaning assigned to them. It is also concerned with how objects become
powerful symbols or icons of habit and ritual. As per Haskett, this can be quite separate to
their function. (e.g., necklace- its function is to beautify the neck, but is significant to a person
who holds a position in the society).

Semiotics: Objects as ‘signs’ (Roland Barthes)

To further understand the term significance, Roland Barthes helped in further understanding
our material possession through semiotics. Roland Barthes who is a French critical theorist, was one
of the first to observe the relationship between the people and their objects. According to him, the
objects that we have could be decoded in order to convey subliminal messages.

During the 1950’s, Barthes popularized the field of semiology or the study of objects as signs
through a number of newspaper articles that read everyday objects and practices. In 1957, these
were collated into his book entitled Mythologies.

One of the contents in the book Mythologies is about the new (in 1950s) Citroen DS:

The new Citroen was a car with sleek lines that was technologically advanced for its time.
This was compared by advertisers to something spiritual or magical. The name ‘DS’ came
from the French word ‘deesse’ which means goddess. It was deliberate on the part of the
manufacturers because they wanted to perpetuate the idea of the car as an ‘otherworldly’
object.

In this analysis, it was obvious that the object (the car) and its ‘other’ meaning were
unpacked. This analysis is simply called semiotics. For Barthes, objects are not just things but are
reflections of the wider lives of communities and individuals.

All these suggests that objects act as a complex system of signs which allow us to read
meaning into people, places and purposes.

According to Barthes, a sign has 2 elements:

• Signifier (its physical form - a diamond ring)

42
 • Signified (the mental concept it refers to - engaged to be married)

Barthes claimed that all things, verbal or visual, could be viewed as a kind of speech or
‘language’. It is then tantamount to say that objects can speak, and that even the most ordinary object
might be eloquent.

For example, clothes may have a simple functional meaning such as to cover and protect the
body. However, this is also doubled up as signs. These jeans may construct a meaning and carry a
message, which as a member of a culture, we can understand.

Components of Material Self

The material self, according to William James in his book, The Principles of Psychology,
primarily is about our bodies, clothes, immediate family, and home.

The innermost part of our material self is our body. We are attached to this commodity that we
cannot live without. We do have certain preferential attachment or intimate closeness to certain body
parts because of its value to us.

Next to our body are the clothes we use. The fabric and style of the clothes we wear brings a
sensation to the body to which directly affects our attitudes and behavior. Clothing is the form of self-
expression. We choose and wear clothes that reflect our self.

Third in the hierarchy is our immediate family. Our parents and siblings another great
important part of our self. What they do or become affects us. When an immediate family dies, part of
our self-dies, too. When their lives are in success, we feel their victories as if we are the one holding
the trophy. We place huge investment in our immediate family when we see them as the nearest
replica of our self.

The fourth component of material self is home. Home is where our heart is. Our experiences
inside the home were recorded and marked on the particular parts and thing in our home. The home
thus is an extension of self, because in it, we can directly connect our self.

The Socio-Digital Self

With the rise of technology, our way of socializing has
significantly changed. Before, when we wish to talk to a person, we
really need to approach them personally. But now, when we want
to talk to a person, whether they are near or far, they are just a
social network away. One of the innovations that improved our
socialization processes is the use of social media.

Digital Identity
Sociological perspectives tell that people have “role identities”. These are the characters and
the roles an individual creates as a member of a particular social position. The ‘self’, on the other
hand, is the hierarchical ordering of identities by salience. It is known that the greater the commitment
on an identity is, the greater the salience of this identity. Hence, salience of identity impacts
behavioral choices in a situation.

43
 However, with the presence of the internet, our identity is affected. As mentioned, people tend
to separate himself from his physical body while engaged in social media, thus, disembodiment. It is
known that social media allows us to adopt identities independent from our bodies.

Benefits of Social Media

By the large, extant research has found that youth use social media in the service of critical
adolescent developmental tasks, such as identity development, aspirational development, and peer
engagement. As adolescents seek intimacy with their peers and strive for autonomy, their online
environments frequently reflect their off-line lives.

A consistent finding is that adolescents use social media to develop and maintain friendships.
Nearly two-thirds of teenager’s report that they make new friends through social media, 90% use
social media to connect with existing off-line friends every day. During a developmental stage when
peer support and approval is critical, social media support these needs.

Identity exploration, or the search for a coherent sense of self, takes place online as well as
offline. Adolescents use social media for self-presentation through the ways they choose to
represent themselves online by posting picture and sharing aspects of their lives.

In addition, youth use social media for impression management by attempting to use these
media to control other people’s perceptions of who they are and how they act.

Costs of Social Media

The use of social media during adolescence can also negatively impact to health and
development. These includes:

1. Cyberbullying has received a great deal of attention in both the popular press and academic
research. Research found that online bullying, often displayed through social media, is
associated with more depressive symptoms than traditional bullying. One reason this may be
the public and enduring nature of online posts. A recent study found that risky online self-
presentation increased the likelihood of receiving negative online feedback on social media.

2. Depression. Because teenagers have nearly unlimited access to peers through mobile
technologies, social media use may result in changing sleep cycles for adolescents, which
may contribute to depression. Lack of sleep is related to depressive symptoms, loss of
memory, problems at school, motor vehicle crashes and other serious issues.

3. Exposure to inappropriate content and the ability to display and consequently receive
endorsement through peer validation of risky behaviors (such as drinking alcohol) may entice
some adolescents to make poor decisions about what to share on social media.

Online Disinhibition Effect (Suler, 2004)

When we behave differently in virtual spaces than we would in a face-to-face interaction, we

loosen up, we become less restrained and we tend to express ourselves more openly. This
phenomenon is known as online disinhibition

44
 There are two main categories of behavior that fall under the online disinhibition effect, the
benign disinhibition and toxic disinhibition. Accordingly, the benign disinhibition includes behavior in
which people tend to self-disclose more on the internet than they would in real life. Also, they tend to
go out of their way to help someone or show kindness. On the other hand, toxic disinhibition includes
behavior that in which people tend to use rude language, threats, and visiting places of pornography,
crime, and violence on the internet. They may also go to places they might not have been to in real
life.

There are six factors that cause online disinhibition, these are the following:

1. Dissociative Anonymity “You Don’t Know Me”

In virtual interactions, we can hide some or all of our identity. With this, we create a separation
between our real self and our virtual identity. By being unknown, we tend to feel protected. We can be
who we want to be and we can say whatever we want to say. By being unknown, we can display
behaviors that are not present during offline. Anonymity helps you feel less vulnerable about self-
disclosing and engaging in antisocial or harmful behavior.

2. Invisibility “You Can’t See Me”

Since many of the communications done virtually are through text, this gives us a certain type of
invisibility. The internet further gives us a special kind of shield and keeps you from being physically
visible. In virtual interactions, we cannot always be sure where or when someone is actually present.
This virtual invisibility gives us the courage to do things that we perhaps would not do otherwise. This
invisibility also lets us misrepresent ourselves. For instance, a man can represent himself as a
woman, or vice versa. This of course is impossible offline.

3. Asynchronicity “See You Later”

Whatever is happening in the cyberspace doesn’t happen in real time. This asynchronicity is also
known as the emotional hit and run (K. Munro, unpublished observations, 2003). You can post
anything right now such as personal, emotional or even political opinions. You can leave it there and
go back to it again later. Soon, you will find out how people react to your post. You can also leave the
cyberworld once you are not happy with what you see on your newsfeed. With this, you can
temporarily escape the harsh things people tend to post on social media. Also, through
asynchronicity, we can think first before we react to others’ post.

4. Solipsistic Introjection “It’s all in my Head”

When we don’t know what a virtual person looks or sounds like, we tend to assign traits to those
individuals. Interactions with this introjected character feel more imaginary. In addition, when we read
another’s message, we tend to hear their voices using our own voice. We sometimes subvocalize as
we read, thus, it leads to a perception that we are talking to ourselves.

5. Dissociative Imagination “It’s All a Game”

The virtual world is in a different space entirely. This includes imaginary characters who are
completely separated from the real world. Thus, the virtual life can be viewed more as a game versus
the real - world interaction. This can lead to a feeling of escapism and can make people think that they
can adopt and shed a certain character by simply logging on and off.

6. Minimized Status and Authority “Your Rules Don’t Apply Here”

Most of the time, we see and respect an authority because of their clothes, name titles, body
gestures and their environments. But in a cyberspace, we don’t see these things. Thus, we are not
intimidated by their presence online even though we know that they hold a certain position in the
society. We are more willing to speak out and misbehave without possible disapproval and
punishment from authority figures.

45
Disinhibition and Personality

Even though there are people who exhibit online disinhibition, it should be noted that not
every person will be disinhibited in the same way or to the same level in virtual interactions.
Individuals can be predisposed to being more disinhibited based on personality. The intensity of a
person’s underlying feelings, needs, drives and the likes affect susceptibility to online disinhibition as
well.

Even though not all online disinhibitions are bad, it is better and safer for us to create a digital
footprint that is worth looking at. The following are some ways to manage our online disinhibition.

Managing Online Disinhibition

• Don’t post or send anything you would be embarrassed for certain others to see.
• Do be careful about over-sharing.
• Don’t hang out with the “wrong crowd” online.
• Don’t hang out with the “wrong crowd” offline.
• Do consider your emotional state before virtually posting or responding to anything.
• Do consider the reaction individuals are expecting from toxic disinhibition.
• Do search for yourself online.

Setting Boundaries To Your Online Self: Smart Sharing

The following guidelines will help share information online in a smart way that will protect yourself
and not harm others. Before posting or sharing anything online, consider the following:

Is this post/story necessary?

Is there a real benefit to this post? Is it funny, warm-hearted, teachable or am I making noise
online without a purpose?
Is it appropriate? Does it stay within the boundaries of our family values?

Rules to follow

Guidelines for proper sharing of information and ethical use of internet according to New (2014)

Stick to safer sites.

Guard your passwords.
Limit what you share.
Remember that anything you put online or post on a site is there forever, even if you try to
delete it.
Do not be mean or embarrass other people online.
Always tell if you see strange or bad behaviors online.
Be choosy about your online friends.
Be patient.

46
Synthesis:
Brain maturation plays a vital role on individual's sensations and control of emotions during
adolescence. On the other hand, issues of self and identity are very critical to adolescents. This
Chapter presents and conceptualized the aid to the students to further develop a more critical and
reflective attitude in exploring the issues about their self-identity. Where in fact this stage is a critical
link between childhood and adulthood characterized by significant physical, psychological and social
transitions and digital age was part of it. In the advent of technology were everything runs fast and
unsure students in this turbulent time must be aware of the risk and importance of it. This chapter fully
highlighted the significance of media self in adolescents' life.

Exercise 2
Creative Work.

1. Make a slogan regarding your point of view about sexual identity and gender orientation.

2. Debit Card Challenge – A very wealthy person gave you a debit card and told you to use it
as much as you want to make yourself happy. Make a list of what you want to have. Write as
many as you want. Put a mark on the left side of each item with the following categories:

B- if the item is related with your body

C- if the item is related with your clothes
F- if the item is related with your family
H- if the item is related with your home
Make a reflection paper about material self by answering the following questions:
Which among the categories you have the most in your list?
What do you think these things tell you about yourself?

3. Create a poster about the pros and cons of social media on the adolescents' development
especially during this world-wide pandemic. Explain the message of your poster in a
separate sheet of paper.

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renc
es:
Alata,

Eden

Joy

P., et

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(2018)

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54
org/art

icle/w

hat-iq-

and-

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Lahey

, B.

(2009)

Psych

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An

Introd

uction

, Ney

York:

McGr

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Hill

Maca

yan,

Jonat

han

V.,

(2018)

55
et al.,

(2019)

Under

standi

ng the

Self.

Manil

a,

Philip

pines:

C&E

Publis

hing,

Inc.

Mana

ster,

Guy J.

(1989)

Adole

scent

Devel

opme

nt,

U.S.A:

F.E.

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hers

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N.V.,
U. S.

56
 A:
Brown
and
Bench
mark.

GEC 1
Understanding the Self

57
 Module 3

The Self in the

Social Setting

UNIT THE SELF IN THE SOCIAL SETTING

3
__________________________________________

Module Overview:
Knowing the self is not enough. Since “who you are” is partly made up your choices, you must
also have the ability to choose on how to be a better you in different set up of environment outside

58
and inside home. The very example of it is the school setting, your knowledge of yourself should at
least enable you to become a better student.

This lesson presents an individual's development within the context of the system of
relationships that form his or her environment. Furthermore, the different proponents and psychologist
will be highlighted (BRONFRENBRENNER’S- Bioecological system), (INDIVIDUALISM AND
COLLECTIVISM), (COOLEY’S through the looking glass-self), (JOHARI’S- window of the self).

___________________________________________________________

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, the students must be able to:
o Identify the sociological perspective about self;
o Explain how culture affects or shapes one’s identity;
o Examine your sense of self through the different I-positions and the three
fundamental selves;
o Demonstrate critical and reflective thinking in showing different aspects of the self;
and
o Examine yourself using Charles Horton Cooley’s looking-glass self-theory and
Johari’s Window of the self.

Module Map:

Bronfrenbrenners
Bioecol-ogical system

Cooley's
Individualism &
Collectivism SELF Looking Glass
self

Johari's window of
the Self

DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

59
MICROSYSTEM this is the system closest to the child include family, school, neighbourhood, or
childcare environments.

MESOSYSTEM this include parent-teacher relationships (PTA), parent and peers connections, family
and parish relations.

EXOSYSTEM this system defines the larger social system in which the child does not function
directly. Parent workplace schedules or community-based family resources are examples.

MACROSYSTEM may include the socioeconomic status of his country, issues of ethnicity, societal
values embraced by social institutions, cultural beliefs and practices handed down from generation to
generation, and media content.

CHRONOSYSTEM Elements within this system can be either external, such as the timing of a
parent’s death, or internal, such as the physiological changes that occur with the aging of a child.

INDIVIDUALISM emphasizes personal freedom and achievement. Motivated by own preferences,

needs and rights.

COLLECTIVISM emphasizes embeddedness of individuals in a larger group. It encourages

conformity and discourages individuals from dissenting and standing out.

VERTICAL COLLECTIVISM – seeing the self as a part of a collective and being willing to accept
hierarchy and inequality within that collective.

VERTIAL INDIVIDUALISM – seeing the self as fully autonomous, but recognizing that inequality will
exist among individuals and that accepting this inequality.

HORIZONTAL COLLECTIVISM –seeing the self as part of a collective but perceiving all the members
of that collective as equal.

HORIZONTAL INDIVIDUALISM –seeing the self as fully autonomous, and believing that equality
between individuals is the ideal.

SELF-IMAGE - people shaping themselves based on other people’s perception, which leads the
people to reinforce other people’s perspectives on themselves.

CYBER-SELF - is the version of him or herself a person chooses to present on a digital

platform.

IMAGINED JUDGMENT – the imagination of his judgment of that appearance

JOHARI’S WINDOW - A model for self-awareness, personal development, group development and
understanding relationship

THE OPEN FRAME this area contains things you know about yourself that are visible to others as
well.

60
THE BLIND FRAME represents information that is known about a person to others, but is not known
to him/her.

THE HIDDEN FRAME Things in this area are only known to you but not others. It may be that you’re
keeping them private and hiding them from others.

THE UNKNOWN FRAME this area is for things that are either about you that no one is aware of, or
that are not applicable to you.

TOOL NO. 1: Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Systems

TOOL BOX

Connections with your family and your

community give you direction in life.

This theory looks at a child’s development within the context of the system of
relationships that form his or her environment. Bronfenbrenner’s theory defines complex
“layers” of environment, each having an effect on a child’s development. This theory has
recently been renamed “bioecological systems theory” to emphasize that a child’s own
biology is a primary environment fueling her development. The interaction between factors in
the child’s maturing biology, his immediate family/community environment, and the societal
landscape fuels and steers his development. Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple
throughout other layers. To study a child’s development then, we must look not only at the
child and her immediate environment, but also at the interaction of the larger environment as
well.

61
Bronfrenbrenner’s Structure of Environment:

MICROSYSTEM this is the system closest to the child and contains the structures with which the
child has direct contact. The microsystem encompasses the relationships and interactions a child has
with her immediate surroundings (Berk, 2000). Structures in the microsystem include family, school,
neighborhood, or childcare environments. At this level, relationships have impact in two directions -
both away from the child and toward the child. For example, a child’s parents may affect his beliefs
and behavior; however, the child also affects the behaviour and beliefs of the parent. Bronfenbrenner
calls these bi-directional influences.

MESOSYSTEM This system refers to the interconnections among aspects of the microsystems that
impact on the individual concerned. Pragmatic examples of this would include parent-teacher
relationships (PTA), parent and peers connections, family and parish relations, and the like. The
focus of the relationship is to the individual, as a family member and as a student.

EXOSYSTEM this system defines the larger social system in which the child does not function
directly. The structures in this layer impact the child’s development by interacting with some structure
in her microsystem (Berk, 2000). Parent workplace schedules or community-based family resources
are examples. The child may not be directly involved at this level, but he does feel the positive or
negative force involved with the interaction with his own system.

62
MACROSYSTEM this system may be considered the outermost layer in the child’s environment.
This system encompasses the larger cultural context in which the individual resides in. Cultural
contexts may include the socioeconomic status of his country, issues of ethnicity, societal values
embraced by social institutions, cultural beliefs and practices handed down from generation to
generation, and media content.

CHRONOSYSTEM this system encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to a child’s

environments. Elements within this system can be either external, such as the timing of a parent’s
death, or internal, such as the physiological changes that occur with the aging of a child. As children
get older, they may react differently to environmental changes and may be more able to determine
more how that change will influence them.

TOOL NO. 2: INDIVIDUALISM vs. COLLECTIVISM

TOOL BOX

Collective will supplant individual whim.

The terms Individualism and Collectivism are used by many people in different parts of the
world and are given various meanings. And because the terms are rather fuzzy, they are difficult to
measure. Galileo Galilei said, “Science is measurement.” Meaning that if we are going to understand,
classify and predict events, we need to measure them. (Triandis, 2018, p. 02)

How does one define individualism and collectivism? Broadly defined, individualism
emphasizes personal freedom and achievement. Individualist culture therefore awards social status to
personal accomplishments such as important discoveries, innovations, great artistic or humanitarian
achievements and all actions that make an individual stand out. Collectivism, in contrast emphasizes
embeddedness of individuals in a larger group. It encourages conformity and discourages individuals
from dissenting and standing out.

INDIVIDUALISTIC vs COLLECTIVISTIC

INDIVIDUALISTIC COLLECTIVISTIC

63
  Develop early independence  Learn to depend on others
 Express yourself  Read nonverbal cues
 Responsible for self  Listen to authority
 Live on one’s own  Be responsible for others
 One’s own goals take priority  Personal goals secondary to goals of
 Motivated by own preferences, needs, the group
rights  Motivated by the norms of, and duties
 Tasks more important than imposed by, the group
relationships  Relationships more important than
 Cognitive skills independent of social tasks
skills  Social and cognitive skills integrated

Looking at the table above, you may say that you have some traits that belong to the
individualistic culture, and you may also have some traits that belong to the collectivistic culture. Do
not worry, this is possible. Remember that the Philippines is the melting pot of the world, meaning to
say, our culture is influenced by different cultures as well, thus, affecting our self- construal. But one of
the things to be considered in studying this notion is that there are advantages and disadvantages in
having a particular self- construal. For instance, if you have an independent construal of the self, you
may have the tendency to be motivated by your own, hence, being too competitive.

Four Dimensions of Collectivism and Individualism:

Vertical Collectivism – seeing the self as a part of a collective and being willing to accept
hierarchy and inequality within that collective

Vertical Individualism – seeing the self as fully autonomous, but recognizing that inequality will
exist among individuals and that accepting this inequality.

Horizontal Collectivism –seeing the self as part of a collective but perceiving all the members of
that collective as equal.

Horizontal Individualism –seeing the self as fully autonomous, and believing that equality
between individuals is the ideal.

TOOL NO. 3: COOLEY’S THE LOOKING GLASS SELF

TOOL BOX

64
 What matters most is how you see
yourself.

I am not what I think I am

I am not what you think I
am
I am what I think you think
I am

In a simple way of defining this theory, it is the process of developing self-image on the basis
of the messages we get from others, as we understand them. The term refers to people shaping
themselves based on other people’s perception, which leads the people to reinforce other people’s
perspectives on themselves. People shape themselves based on what other people perceive and
confirm other people’s opinion on themselves.

The concept of the looking glass self demonstrates that self-relation, or how one views
oneself is not a solitary phenomenon, but rather includes others. Cooley states that society and
individuals do not denote separable phenomena, but are simply collective and distributive aspects of
the same thing. Developmentally, Cooley theorizes that human beings possess an inherent tendency
to reach out, interact, or socialize with those people and objects that surround them. Cooley suggests
that self-feeling and social feeling must be harmonized and made to go abreast. Since self-feeling and
social feeling are two sides of the same phenomenon, then personal freedom is tied to the relations
that comprise society. Cooley’s comment about harmonizing self-feeling with social feeling is not
intended to suggest that people should lose themselves in society, but rather that they should
examine responsibly the effects of their actions on others.

HUMAN NATURE and SOCIAL ORDER

According to Cooley, that persons make society would be generally admitted as a matter of
course, but that society makes persons would strike many as a startling notion, though we know of no
good reason for looking upon the distributive aspect of life as more primary or causative than the
collective aspect. The view that Cooley regards as sound is that individuality is neither prior in time
nor lower in rank than sociality; but that the two have always existed side by side as complementary

65
aspects of the same thing, and that the line of progress is from a lower to a higher type of both, not
from one to the other.
The question often asked is whether the individual is free or a mere piece of society. For
Cooley, he is free, but it is an organic freedom, which he works out in cooperation with others, not a
freedom to do things independently of society. It is teamwork. He has the freedom to function in his
own way, like the quarterback, but, in one way or another, he has to play the game as life brings him
into it.

The emotion or feeling of self may be regarded as instinctive, and was doubtless evolved in
connection with its important function in stimulating and unifying the special activities of individuals. It
seems to exist in a vague though vigorous form at the birth of each individual, and like other
instinctive ideas or germs of ideas, to be defined and developed by experience, becoming associated,
or rather incorporated, with muscular, visual, and other sensations, with perceptions, apperceptions,
and conceptions of every degree of complexity and of infinite variety of content, and especially with
personal ideas.

An important statement from Cooley is that when there is no communication there can be
no nomenclature and no developed thought.

THE ROLE OF SOCIAL MEDIA ON THE LOOKING-GLASS SELF

The rise of social media makes the process of the looking-glass self infinitely more
complex. Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and the like make it possible to connect with
others in ways never before imagined. However, this exposure has led to an ever-
increasing number of “mirrors,” thus proposing new questions about the development of
self.
Social media has brought with it the concept of the “cyber” self. The cyber self is
the version of him or herself a person chooses to present on a digital platform. As in real
life, the cyber self may interact with other individuals, receive social feedback, and align
to social conformities. However, the differences between the cyber self and actual self are
profound.
A person may possess many versions of the cyber self, for example. He or she
may present a professional self on LinkedIn, a casual self on Twitter, or an artistic self on
Pinterest. The cyber self also continues to exist in social spaces even when people are
not interacting with those environments in real time. In this way, social media users are
never fully removed from exposure to judgment and criticism. And unlike the actual self,
the cyber self is far more malleable when it comes to being shaped, updated, and
perfected.
These unique qualities of the cyber- self raise a host of psychological issues and
concerns. Individuals may experience a greater sense of urgency to return to or remain in
digital spaces. They may be increasingly involved in the duration of their online identities,
possibly at the cost of developing their real-world selves. The host of digital platforms
involved also brings into question whether one’s identity may become splintered, or
whether developmental problems will result. All these consequences are more severe
when digital users are young or in their teens.
However, changes to the social self via digital platforms are not always steeped in
such negative implications. A study published in the Journal of Social Media and Society,
for example, describes a host of positive outcomes that arise from the digital looking-
glass self. When YouTube video producers were interviewed about their content-creation
practices and its influence on their sense of self, they offered a range of positive
responses. Results included:

66
  A sense of gained confidence
 Enhanced creativity
 Overcoming of major social hurdles
 Increased sense of self-worth
 A strengthened professional image
 Feelings of altruism and “helping others” through their content
 Interacting in a positive social space
As we see our face, figure, and dress in the glass, and are interested in them because they
are ours, and pleased or otherwise with them according as they do or do not answer to what we
should like them to be; so in imagination we perceive in another’s mind some thought of our
appearance, manners, aims, deeds, character, friends, and so on, and are variously affected by it.

A self-idea of this sort seems to have three principle elements:

1. The imagination of our appearance to the other person
2. The imagination of his judgment of that appearance
3. Some sort of self-feeling such as pride or mortification.

The comparison with a looking glass hardly suggests the second element, the imagined
judgment, which is quite essential. The thing that moves us to pride or shame is not the mere
mechanical reflection of ourselves, but an imputed sentiment, the imagined effect of this reflection
upon another’s mind. For example, we are ashamed to seem evasive in the presence of a
straightforward man, cowardly in the presence of a brave one, gross in the eyes of a refined one, and
so on. We always imagine and in imagining share the judgments of the other man.

According to Cooley, persons of great ambitions, or of peculiar aims of any sort, lie open to
disorders of self-feeling because they necessarily build up in their minds a self-image which no
ordinary social environment can understand or corroborate, and which must be maintained by
hardening themselves against immediate influences, enduring or repressing the pains of present
depreciation, and cultivating in imagination the approval of some higher tribunal. If the man succeeds
in becoming indifferent to the opinions of his neighbors he runs into another danger, that of a distorted
and extravagant self of the pride sort, since by the very process of gaining independence and
immunity from the stings of depreciation and misunderstanding, he has perhaps lost that wholesome
deference to some social tribunal.

TOOL NO. 4: JOHARI’S WINDOW OF THE SELF

A model for self-

awareness, personal
TOOL BOX
development, group
development and
understanding
Appreciate people whom you find
comfort and confidence with.

67
THE JOHARI WINDOW MODEL

It’s no secret that emotional intelligence and self-awareness are two of the most important
leadership characteristics. The ability to read verbal & non-verbal cues, control emotions, and
compassionately empathize with others is necessities for building & sustaining any healthy
relationship.

Invented by Psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry

Ingham by combining their first names, the Johari
Window helps us to understand self-awareness and the
human interaction that results from our personal self-
awareness. We are often unaware of how others
perceive us, how we present ourselves to others, and
even how well we know ourselves. Luft and Ingham
created this model because they believed that what
happens in our life depends upon our own self-
awareness, and the awareness others have of us.

It is also referred to as a “disclosure/feedback

model of self-awareness”. Originally it was developed
for studying group relations. Later it has been found that
this model can actually benefit every individual like their
work and also relationships.

68
 The premise behind the window is that there are certain things which we know, and things we
do not know about ourselves. Similarly, there are certain things others know and do not know. Thus,
at any given point of time in life, we may see our total being as we understand it and as others know
about it in a true sense through the 4-paned Johari window.
In the explanatory diagram, all panes look equal but in reality that is not the case. The openness of
each pane will vary depending on your own personal level of:
 How well you know yourself
 How much you share about yourself with others
 How well others know you

THE 4 PANES OF JOHARI WINDOW

THE OPEN FRAME this area contains things you know about yourself that are visible to others as
well. Working in this area results in an open, honest and transparent communication and minimizes
miscommunication, mistrust and confusion.

Also known as the 'area of free activity ‘. The aim in any team is to develop the 'open area'
for every person, because when we work in this area with others we are at our most effective and
productive and the team is at its most productive too.

THE BLIND FRAME represents information that is known about a person to others, but is not known
to him/her. This is known as their “blind spot.” Everyone has blind spots. By soliciting feedback, and
by being open to feedback by others, we become more aware of how others perceive us, and we
shrink our blind spot. This leads to stronger communication and trust.

THE HIDDEN FRAME Things in this area are only known to you but not others. It may be that you’re
keeping them private and hiding them from others. Also include sensitivities, fears, hidden agendas,
manipulative intentions, and secrets - anything that a person knows but does not reveal

THE UNKNOWN FRAME this area is for things that are either about you that no one is aware of, or
that are not applicable to you. Information, feelings, latent abilities, aptitudes and experiences, that
are unknown to the person him/herself and unknown to others in the group. Can be prompted through
self-discovery or observation by others, or through collective or mutual discovery. Uncovering 'hidden
talents' - that is unknown aptitudes and skills, not to be confused with developing the Johari 'hidden
area' - is another aspect of developing the unknown area, and is not so sensitive as unknown
feelings.

SYNTHESIS:

As we grow older, doing senseless deeds decreases. The different settings in the society
gains higher value in our lifetime if we used to manage our selves to adapt in the different set ups it
give us happiness and we learned to associate this to people and other constituents with significant
meaning.

Thus, this different set ups developed our sense of self. It hugely benefited in helping us make
choices in life. From something as small as favorite foods to a larger concern like personal values
knowing what comes from our own self versus what comes from others allow us to live authentically.

Our character, values and attitude ones a product of the environment that we are dealing. It
dearly tell something about who we are, our self-concept, our past and even our future.

69
Exercise 3:
1. What is the essence of Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological System into the development of an
individual specifically on sociological perspective?

2. Give examples of individual or collective actions that promoted the common good on your
community.

3. In your own understanding, explain and expound the phrase “I am not what I think I am. I am not
what you think I am. I am what I think you think I am.”

4. Make your own Johari's Window. Write adjectives that describe yourself on the following areas:

Open Area- Certain information (characteristics/skills/talents) about yourself that is known to you and
to other people.

Blind Area- Certain information (characteristics/skills/talents) about yourself that is known to others
but not known to you.

Hidden Area- Certain information (characteristics/skills/talents) about yourself that is only known to
you but not others.

Unknown Area- Certain information (characteristics/skills/talents) about yourself that neither you nor
other people know. It can be new discovery about yourself.

Open Area Blind Area

Hidden Area Unknown Area

References:
Corpuz, R. M., et al., (2019) Understanding the Self. Manila, Philippines: C & E
Publishing, Inc.
Alata, Eden Joy P., et al., (2018) Understanding the Self. Manila, Philippines: Rex Book
Store.
Macayan, Jonathan V., (2018) et al., (2019) Understanding the Self. Manila, Philippines:
C & E Publishing, Inc.
https://books.google.com.ph/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=gwDFDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=Individualism+vs.
+Collectivism&ots=xBKmChhk5A&sig=6Xkcthu_BO2L-
jvT6dGdGFqocms&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Individualism%20vs.
%20Collectivism&f=false
https://apps.cfli.wisc.edu/johari/support/JohariExplainChapman2003.pdf
https://www.lifehack.org/570182/johari-window
https://fetzer.org/sites/default/files/images/stories/pdf/selfmeasures/CollectiveOrientation.
pdf 70
https://eml.berkeley.edu
GEC 1
Understanding the Self

Module 4

The Self in the

Learning Process
71
UNIT THE SELF IN THE LEARNING PROCESS
4
_______________________________________________

Module Overview:

Learning is defined as relatively permanent changes in behavior, skills, knowledge or

attitudes resulting from identifiable psychological or social experiences. Some learning is immediate,
induced by a single event (e.g. being burned by a hot stove), but much skill and knowledge
accumulate from repeated experiences. Human learning starts at birth (it might even start before) and
continues until death as a consequence of ongoing interactions between people and their
environment.
Knowing the ‘self’ is not enough. Since ‘who you are’ is partly made up of your choices, you
must also have the ability to choose especially to be better ‘you’.
This module will presents several techniques that you adapt depending on your situation and
preferences to make you a better learner. Learning should not just mean studying for your quizzes
and exams in school. Learning could also occur outside the confines of a book or classroom, like
when you want to acquire a new move in your favorite sports, or the skills for a certain hobby, among
others. Furthermore, the techniques here are not the only techniques available and months or years
from now, new ways on how to study better will be discovered or rediscovered. What is important at
this moment is that you learn how to learn these things.

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, the students must be able to:
o Explain the three cognitive processes;
o Assess the role of culture in your sense of self and identify;
o Identify and explain multiple intelligence; and
o Develop ways to become an effective learner.

________________________________________________________________

Bandura's
Social 72
Learning
M
O
Theory
Learning,
 Memory, and Multiple
Intelligence Intelligence

The Self
in the
Learning
M Process

Definition of Terms

Conjure – to call or bring upon outside our mind

Cosmic – relating to universe, especially as distinct from the earth.

Covert – not openly acknowledged or displayed

Feminine – having qualities or an appearance traditionally associated with women.

Introspective – person examining his own thoughts and feelings; to look inside.

Laborious – requiring or characterized by hard and sustained effort.

Masculine – having qualities or appearance traditionally associated with men.

Myriad – a countless or extremely great number; a unit of ten thousand.

Nuances – a subtle difference in or shade of meaning, expression, or sound.

Oedipus complex – the complex of emotions aroused in a young child, by an unconscious sexual
desire for the parent of the opposite sex and wish to exclude the parent of the same sex.

Overt – done or shown openly: plainly or readily apparent, not secret or hidden.

Reflexive – persons thinking deeply; characterized by or being a relation that exists between an entity
and itself.

Reinforcement - the process of encouraging or establishing a belief or pattern of behavior, especially

by encouragement or reward.

Sociocultural – system which a human population viewed in its ecological context and as one of the
many subsystems of a larger ecological system.

Vicarious – experienced in the imagination through the feelings or actions of another person

TOOL No. 1 Learning, Memory, and Intelligence

73
 Nearly all human behavior involves learning. The process of learning occurs not only in
school but also in practically everything that we do everyday. A baby learns to walk, play with toys,
etc. a student learns so many things in school by listening to the teacher and his classmates, reading
books, magazines, etc. every kind of habit formed in life is learned.
Learning implies memory and intelligence. We are able to reflect on what we have learned
from our experiences through a wide range of mental activities that occur in thinking.
This unit deals with these two cognitive processes; learning and memory. As well as
Intelligence.

TOOL BOX
Learning is a relatively permanent change in immediate or
potential behavior that results from experience, and
memory is the ability to store information so that it can be
used at a later time.
-Ludy T. Benjamin

What is Learning?
Learning is defined as relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of prior
experience (Atkinson 1990). It is a process in which the person interacts with the effective
environment to produce a stable change in behavior (Worell and Stilwell 1981). Basically, a change in
behavior is a product of learning. Learning could therefore be simply defined as “profiting” from
experience. However, some learning dos not really result to “profit” for the learner, since useless and
harmful habits are learned just as well as the useful ones.

For example, after being reprimanded by your teacher for coming late to class, you learn to
be punctual. You may also learn not to attend your class because you see your friends doing it.

Basic Elements of Learning

Learning involves changing one’s behavior under the influence of one’s environment. There
are four important prerequisites to learning:

1. Learning involves a person. Learning is a continuous process which is influenced by

traits carried by one’s genes which emerge through the process of maturation.

2. Learning involves an environment. A person’s environment is neither constant nor

stable. It is changing from moment to moment. The environment may consist of a person,
an object, an event, or situation to which the individual is responding.

3. Learning involves interaction. We interact with our environment to promote learning.

We develop through a process of interaction with our family and friends. We react to the
social and physical stimuli around us.

74
 4. Learning involves behavior change. If the behavior is repeated under more or less
similar environmental conditions, we may say that the behavior change is stable and that
the behavior has been learned. Changes in behavior due to fatigue or drugs, however are
not considered as learned behavior. Behavior change may be visible and overt or it may
be invisible and covert. Covert behavior such as drying of the mouth, stomach pains, and
feelings of love or fear can only be discerned by the person concerned. However, we
know that covert behavior change occurs when we observe some changes in the overt
behavior.

Theories of Learning
Three popular psychologists made experiments with animals as subjects; they were able to
postulate three theories of learning: classical condition, operant conditioning and cognitive learning.

Classical Conditioning. This is the simplest form of learning. It is a type of learning in

which an originally neutral stimulus evokes a new response after having been paired with another
stimulus that reflexively evokes the same response.

Pavlov’s experiment in classical conditioning

Ivan Pavlov conducted an experiment with dogs. Normally, a dog salivates when presented
some food. In his experiment, Pavlov rang a bell and presented a piece of meat to the dog. After
several repetitions of the pairings of the sound of the bell and dog, the dog’s salivation response
became conditioned not only by the food but also by the sound of the bell, with or without the
presence of the food. The sound of the bell is called conditioned stimulus or CS and the salivation
produced by the CS is conditioned response or CR. The meat is called unconditioned stimulus (US).
The US is a stimulus which can naturally produce a response without training. The response to the
US is called unconditioned response (UR).

Pavlov’s experiment shows that learning occurs from the pairing of US and CS, resulting to
UR.

US UR
(meat) (salivation)
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CS
In classical conditioning, learning operates under the following principles:

1. Association – learning the association between the unconditioned stimulus (US) and he
conditioned stimulus (CS).

There are three conditioning processes in which association of the two stimuli takes place:
a. Simultaneous conditioning. The CS is presented a fraction of a second before the US
is given and this is left until the subject responds.
b. Delayed conditioning. The CS is presented several seconds before the US is given
and this is left until the subject responds.
c. Trace conditioning. The CS is presented and then removed before the US is given,
leaving only a memory trace of the CS to be conditioned.

2. Extinction – the period in classical conditioning when there is a decrease in response

due to the absence of the US. The dog will stop in salivating if the sound is repeatedly
presented without food.

In actual life situations, an individual may gradually forget what he has learned, when the
stimulus that produced learning is removed.

3. Generalization – a phenomenon in classical conditioning when, a stimulus similar to

the CS elicits the same conditioned response. Thus, the dog salivates on hearing sounds
coming from other similar sources, such as buzzer or tuning fork. Generalization is
reaction to similarities.

4. Discrimination – the principle in classical conditioning, which is the opposite of

generalization. In the case of Pavlov’s experiment, the salivation of the dog is elicited only
by the original stimuli (sound of a bell) and not by the other stimuli (sound of a fork,
buzzer, etc.). Discrimination is reaction to differences.

Operant Conditioning. It is also called instrumental learning. Operant conditioning is a type of

learning in which organism learns through consequences of its behavior. Operant conditioning is
divided into two categories: 1. Reinforcement 2. Punishment

REINFORCEMENT refers to anything that increases the likelihood of a response to occur.

Reinforcement is defined by the effect that it has in behavior-- it increases or strengthens the
response. Both positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement encourage a behavior. There are
two types of reinforcement, namely the positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement- To increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring in the future,

an operant response is followed by the presentation or addition of an pleasant or rewarding stimulus.

 example: A teacher gives 100 pesos load to a student who got the highest score in
midterm exam.

-100 pesos load will serve as a positive reinforcer, in order for the students to study harder and got
the highest score in the midterm exam.

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Negative Reinforcement- To increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring in the future,
an operant response is followed by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus.

 Negative reinforcement is not a negative thing. Instead, it's about removing a negative thing.
Negative reinforcement is not the same as punishment or a negative consequence for an
action. Negative reinforcement is about encouragement.
 example: A teacher will exempt students from taking the midterm exam if she got an
average higher than 2.0 in her quizzes and performance.
-Being exempted from taking the midterm exam will act as negative reinforcer and increase the
likelihood of the students to study harder whenever there are quizzes and they will also perform well
in the class.
PUNISHMENT is a process by which a consequence immediately follows a behavior which
decreases the future frequency of that behavior. Punishment is used to reduce a behavior. There are
two types of punishment: the positive punishment and negative punishment.

Positive punishment- Presentation or addition of an unpleasant stimulus after an undesired

behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future. 
example: A father scolded his son after knowing that he got failing grades in Math.
- The unpleasant stimulus in the given example is the scolding of the father and the undesired
behavior exhibited is the failing grades of the son. So in the future, the son will study well in order to
pass his subject and not be scolded again by his father.
Negative punishment- Removal of a pleasant or rewarding stimulus after a particular undesired
behavior is exhibited, resulting in the behavior happening less often in the future.
example: Parents confiscated daughter's cellphone because he got failing grades in Math.
-Confiscation of the cellphone is the removal of rewarding stimulus because of the undesired behavior
which is the failing grades of the daughter. So in the future, the daughter will work harder to pass her
subject and she will be able to get her phone back.

Experiment in operant
Conditioning
B.F. Skinner conducted an experiment using a rat as his subject. He placed the rat in a cage
which he called Skinner’s box. In the box are two bars, one that releases food pellets and the other
produces electric shock. After a period of training and movement in the cage, the rat learned to press
the lever that releases food pellets and avoided the bar the produces electric shock.

Behavior is strengthened by the satisfying condition or reward. Of a behavior is rewarded,

most likely the same behavior will be repeated. When a behavior is followed by punishment, it is
avoided because it is not satisfying. Learning occurs when the response or behavior is reinforced
either positively or negatively. For a reinforcement to be effective, it must be given right after the
behavior is elicited. According to Skinner and his followers, most behaviors are influenced by one’s
past history of reward and punishment.

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 Training animals do certain tricks is made possible through reward and punishment.

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

State of Learner passive Active

Response Elicited emitted

Reinforcement Simultaneous, delayed or traced The learner is asked to do the

reinforcement occurs no matter response before a
what the learner does reinforcement follows

Extinction When the CS is presented When response is not followed

without the US by a reinforcement

Cognitive Learning. This is a form of learning

which involves organizing information, making
comparison, and forming association resulting to
new information (Engle and Shellgrove 1979).
This form of learning gives importance to the roles
of perception and knowledge. This is
demonstrated in an experiment conducted by
Kohler.

Kohler used a chimpanzee as the subject

in his experiment on cognitive learning. The
chimpanzee was kept in a cage. He placed a fruit
beyond the chimpanzee’s reach outside its cage
and sticks of varying length. Upon seeing a fruit,
the chimpanzee tried to reach for it but failed.
Then he picked the shorter stick near the cage and tried to get the fruit with stick. He failed again.
After some pauses, he reached for the longer stick using the short stick. With the longer stick, the
chimpanzee finally got the fruit. The chimpanzee’s learning and satisfaction was dependent on its
ability to discover the uses and relationship of the objects around it. He was able to solve the problem
by understanding the relationship between the sticks and the fruit. Learning occurs when the situation
is taken as a whole, not in parts.

A person’s behavior is dependent on his perceptions of the environment or situation he finds

himself in. For example, if you consider a book relevant and useful to your studies, you will learn from
it faster than a useless material. One’s knowledge or previous experience also influences one’s
behavior.

Cognitive learning is learning through insight or “aha” phenomenon, the flash of insight that all
of us had experienced. Learning is therefore considered as a process, whereby problems are solved
through a series of discoveries facilitated by our experience.

Classical and operant conditioning theories of learning are essentially behavioristic, whereas
cognitive theory is humanistic.

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The Learning Process
There are several factors that can help or hinder the learning process. Defective senses,
illness, fatigue, and lack of sleep are some of the factors that can hinder learning. Among those that
facilitate learning are: (1) feedback, (2) transfer of learning, (3) practice, and (4) motivation.

1. Feedback. This enables you to know the results of your action or performance, and
thereby avoid repeating the same mistakes. The feedback serves as a reinforcement for
continuing the action that you know is right or satisfying,

Knowing your grades serves as a basis whether or not you need to study harder.

2. Transfer of Learning. This occurs when your learning in one situation influences your
learning and performance in other situations. There are two types of transfer:

a. Positive transfer – when a previously learned response helps you to learn a new task.
For example, if you know how to ride a bicycle, it will be easier for you to learn how to
drive a motorcycle.
b. Negative transfer – when a previously learned task hinders present learning. For
example, an expert drivers in the Philippines may find it difficult to drive a car in
Japan since there are steering wheel is on the car’s right side while here, it is on the
left side.

3. Practice. The repetition of a task binds responses together. Psychologists have found
out that it is better to space out practice (distributive practice) rather than do it all at once
(massed learning). It is better to study one chapter at a time rather than to study two or
more chapters at one time.

Preschoolers learn to read and write the letters of the alphabet through frequent
practice. The children learn a few letters over a period of time before learning the
succeeding letters.

4. Motivation. The sources of motivation may be internal or external.

a. Self or intrinsic motivation. The self-motivated person sets realistic goals, takes
concrete steps to meet those goals, and evaluates progress accordingly (Worell and
Stilwell 1981). The desire and the interest to learn comes from the person himself. If
you really want to learn, you don’t need your parent or teacher to push you to study
hard.
b. Environmental or extrinsic motivation is a motivation provided by others. It is provided
by the situation, the tasks on which the person is working, and the consequences of
his efforts. If you go to school because you want to be with your friends, most likely
you will quit school when your friends stop studying.

5. Learning Styles. Drs. Kenneth and Rita Dunn developed the Learning Styles Model.
They believe that each person has a unique learning style. Learning is situational and one
may prefer different styles of learning in different situations.

a. Visual Learning Style. Visual learners make use of visual imaging to picture what they
are trying to learn. They use visual words to describe shape, form, color, or size.
b. Auditory Learning Style. Auditory learners learn by listening and prefers to read aloud
while studying,
c. Kinesthetic (Manipulative) Learning Style. Kinesthetic learners learn best through
movement and manipulation of object. They are interested to know how things work.
These type of students want involvement in experiments, field works and other similar
activities.

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 They contend further that one may learn better with the music on. Another one
learns faster while eating. Other may find studying with friends more effective than
studying alone.

Memory
Learning and memory are closely related. We cannot reproduce from memory what has not
been learned and we cannot assess what has been learned without tapping memory (Schnieder
1980). Learning always implies memory. If we cannot remember anything from our experiences, we
learn nothing.

Stages of Memory

The intellectual ability of an individual to organize materials in his memory is one factor that
contributes to a well-rounded personality.

Memory passes through three stages: (1) encoding, (2) decoding, and (3) retrieval.

Encoding. The information brought about by an object, person, experience, or environment is

transformed. Illustration: on the bus to school, you met a friend. He asked you to call him; he gave you
his telephone number. You deposited these numbers into your memory so you can call him later.

Storage. The information can be stored and retrieve in your nervous system for a span of
time. To continue with the illustration: the telephone number your friend gave you stayed in your mind
while you were in school until you reach home.

Retrieval. The information stored can be retrieved or recalled later from your memory. In the
illustration: you decided to call up your friend. You get from storage the phone numbers needed. You
dialed the numbers correctly and you were able to call and talk to your friend.

Memory can fail at any of these three stages. Memory failure may be due to your limitations in
acquiring the materials (encoding and storage), or it can be due to difficulty in retrieving information
from storage, or both. Mental operations are not the same in all three stages. Some situations ay
require you to store materials and information for a matter of seconds and some for longer periods of
time.

Any information that is active in your consciousness, which can be retrieved easily and
immediately, Is found in Short-term Memory (STM). Those information that are coded for meanings
are stored in Long-term Memory (LTM).

Three Stages of Memory

Stages Short-term Memory Long-term Memory

Encoding Encodes only what has been Encodes material based on meaning
selected; the code may be acoustic of items, imagery and by elaboration.
(sound), mental picture (visual) or
semantic (meaning)

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 Storage Has a limited capacity; the limit is Depends on context and organization
seven items (7); one displaced by the of materials stored by means of
other items, the original is lost; items categories, hierarchical arrangement,
that are rehearsed are not orders, and cues
immediately or easily displaced.

Retrieval Access to information is immediate; Difficult to retrieve and requires the

requires a search in which the items right kind of retrieval cue; the
are examined one at a time. information is not listed, it only waits
for the right cue

Improving Memory
There are certain techniques to improve memory. You can try them to improve your memory.

Grouping letters, words and numbers stored in the Long-term Memory into larger meaningful
units and then storing them into smaller units called chunking. In remembering phone numbers, we
usually chunk the numbers. Instead or remembering 5246671 separately, we chunk them into 524-66-
71.

When the information consists of verbal items such as digits, letter or words, repeating it over
in our mind may help us retain the items. This is called rehearsal. Reading your lessons several times
will make remembering them easier.

But when a new items enters the STM, the old item is displaced in your memory. This is
called displacement. The old item is now difficult to retrieve when it is displaced. This somehow
causes the item to be on the “tip of [your] tongue”. You seem to know the information but cannot
retrieve it form storage. To overcome displacement, you need to overlearn the information through
rehearsal.

Some people have photographic memories. This makes them recall easily the image of what
they hear, see or experience. This is called eidetic image.

Organization is a process used in the Long-term Memory. When information is organized by

context, you have to include the situation, location and your internal state or condition to recall it. This
is the most effective retrieval cue. We could easily retrieve an information that is similar to the context
in which we encoded it. For example, we could easily retrieve an emotional moment with our parents
when we were young, if we were back in the place where the incident occurred than if we were
somewhere else.

Another technique is to use a mnemonic device, a trick or combination that forces us to

remember. Examples are jingles in advertisement of products or slogans employed by political
candidates during election campaigns.

A helpful strategy in retrieving information, particularly for you students, is by making a

hierarchical organization. For instance, by making an outline of this chapter, noting its headings and
subheadings, you will help yourselves remember better what you have learned.

As we grow older, many things preoccupy us. Information, memories, and other materials that
we encounter in our everyday experiences interfere with each other in our mind. We don’t stop putting
in order and organizing these stimuli around us. We want to satisfy our needs and wants. And, as we
increase the power of our memory to recall things, it is inevitable that some factors may weaken.

For example, you are taking an exam. You target stimuli are the answers to the test. You
cannot recall easily most of the answers because a personal problem or preoccupation will tend to
decrease your retrieval ability.

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Forgetting

When information stored in Long-term Memory cannot be retrieved, it is said to be forgotten.

Some theories indicate that out inability to remember involves (1) decay, (2) interference or (3)
repression.

Decay. Some inputs may fade away or decay over time. Information stored in memory-if they
are not used-will eventually die or fade away from memory. However, the ability of old people to recall
their childhood days shows that memories persist over a relatively long period of time.

Interference. This refers to a memory being blocked or erased by precious or subsequent

memories. The blocking of a memory by an experience that occurred after we learned the materials is
called retroactive inhibition. If the memory is blocked by an experience that occurred before we
learned the materials, the process is called proactive inhibition.

For example, if we were introduced to many people in a party, we ,ay forget the names of
people (retroactive inhibition) or we remember the names of those introduced earlier and forget the
name of those we meet later (proactive inhibition).

Repression. A person may intentionally block memories of an embarrassing or frightening

experience. The material is still in the person’s memory somewhere, but it has been unconsciously
made inaccessible because it is disturbing. This kind of forgetting is called repression.

Intelligence
What makes an individual capable of reasoning, judging and comprehending events in life?
Events and occurrences in our daily life demand from us a lot of mental activities. This is manifested
in our ability to comprehend, to judge, to reason, to evaluate, to choose and do many other things.

Mental activities take place in one of the main divisions of the human brain called cerebrum.
Behavior is influenced by these mental activities which are essentially the functions of intelligence.

The Nature of Intelligence

Intelligence is manifested in many ways within and across cultures. Different circumstances
demand different types of coping and resourcefulness. People can behave intelligently in so many
different situations. This diversity in intelligent behavior is even more complicated when we consider
what different societies value as intelligent. In the Philippines, we tend to judge a person who is fluent
in English as intelligent. Similarly, North Americans consider one who exhibits verbal fluency as
intelligent. In certain African countries, intelligence means expert hunting. It is clear that people value
different behaviors as intelligent.

Theories of Intelligence
The term “intelligence” was popularized I the late 1800s to 1900s by the following theorists:

1. Sir Francis Galton

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 He viewed intelligence as a single general factor that provides the basis for the more
specific abilities that each of us possesses. This ties up with the concept that if we are
generally intelligent, we will be more likely to develop strong mechanical, musical, artistic, and
other kinds of abilities.

2. Charles Spearman
He used the term g to refer to the general factors of intelligent or generally dull. He based
his opinion on complex mathematical analysis of intelligence scores.

An individual is classified as generally intelligent or generally dull. He described g as a

wellspring of mental energy that flows intro everything an individual does. However, there are
factors for certain functions. These specific factors are labeled the s factor. Performance on a
numerical test taps a specific s, while verbal fluency would be a separate s. thus, a person’s
intelligence reflects the g plus the s factors.

3. David Wechsler
He also held the concepts of a g factor of intelligence. He is the author of the most widely-
used intelligence tests for children and adults in the US.

4. Louis Thurstone
He viewed intelligence as a collection of many separate specific abilities. He develop the
Primary Mental Abilities which are as follows:

a. Verbal comprehension – the ability to understand and comprehend words

b. Word fluency – the ability to express oneself either orally or in writing as well as the
ability to think of the proper words fast.
c. Number – the ability to do arithmetic and other numerical tasks.
d. Memory – the ability to remember facts easily
e. Perceptual - the ability to group visual details and distinguish similarities and
differences between pictures.
f. Space – the ability to visualize figures and objects as well as see relationship of
forms.
g. Reasoning – the ability to formulate a general rule based on presented data.

5. J. P Guilford
He proposed the 150 different abilities that make up intelligence.

He provided a three-dimensional structure of intelligence. The components are as follows:

a.Operation – what the individual does or the processes involved in knowing such as
cognition, memory and evaluation. This refers to the style or approach one uses.
b.Content – what the individual knows or the nature of the information.
c. Products – the end results or the processed information

The interaction of these components produces the 150 factors of intelligence.

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 Guilford’s structure of the intellect

6. Robert Sternberg
He proposed a tentative theory which states that intelligence has cognitive components
which a person must use in reasoning and solving some kinds of problems. Sternberg’s
triarchic theory distinguishes three aspects of intelligence.

a.Knowledge-acquisition component – learning new information or creative intelligence

b.Performance- acquisition component – solving specific problems o analytical
intelligence.
c. Motor component – solving problems in general or practical intelligence.

These three aspects of intelligence work together to produce an intelligent behavior.

7. Multiple Intelligence
Howard Gardner has identified seven kinds of intelligence (Musical, Bodily-kinesthetic,
logic-mathematical, linguistics, spatial, interpersonal, and intrapersonal)

Intelligence Tests
Intelligence tests are tasks formulated to assess mental ability. It was considered impossible
to measure complex intellectual functions objectively until Alfred Binet developed the first valid
intelligence test. Intelligence tests are designed either for individuals or for groups. Commonly known
as IQ (Intelligence Quotient) test, these tests can measure your intelligence.

Individual Intelligence Tests

Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon were able to devise a 50-item test that became the
forerunner of all modern tests of intelligence. The Binet-Simon test successfully distinguished mentally
retarded from normal children, thus confirming the idea of this famous psychologist indicators of
intelligence than perceptual and physical attributes developed by Galton.

After some test revisions, Binet and Simon eventually identified the average performance of
children of different ages, ranging from 3 to 13 years old. They are as follows:

Age Level Task Performed

3 repeat to digits
Point to nose, eyes and mouth
4 identify own sex

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 Repeat three digits
5 copy a square
Repeat a sentence with ten syllabus
6 copy a diamond
Count 13 pieces
7 show right hand and left ear
Name four colors
8 count backward from 20 to 0
Note omissions from pictures of familiar objects
9 recognize nine common coins
Name the months of the year in order
10 arrange the books in order of weight
11 discover the meaning of a disarranged sentence
12 define three abstract words
13 name three rhymes for a given word in one minute
Interpret pictures

Intelligence Quotient

The following table presents a descriptive classification of intelligence Quotients.

IQ Description
180 – above Genius
140 – 179 Very Superior
120 – 139 Superior
110 – 119 High Average
90 – 109 Average or Normal
80 – 89 Low Average or Low Normal
70 – 79 Borderline
Below 70 Mentally Retarded
The classification is a rough measure of intelligence. However, an individual’s IQ tends to
remain approximately stable throughout his life.

Intelligence-Heredity and the Environment

One extreme view of intelligence is that it is hereditary, transmitted from parents to offspring
through the genes. Another extreme view is that intelligence is totally a function of the environment
and experience. However, it can be safely stated that intelligence is a product of both hereditary and

85
the environment. Most scientist conclude that IQ has a substantial heritability. One comparison made
is between similarities of IQ scores for pairs of identical twins and for pairs of fraternal twins. If IQ is
heritable then we would expect the IQs of identical twins to be more highly correlated than the IQs of
fraternal twins. A study by Arthur Jensen showed that identical twins manifested similar intelligence
than the fraternal twins. This result established the fact that hereditary plays a great role in the
determination of IQ.

On the other hand, another study conducted by H.M Skeels indicated the influence of
environment on the development of intelligence. Skeels was working at an orphanage where children
lived in cramped quarters. They ate, slept, and plays according to a rigid schedule. Skeels notice in
particular two baby girls who were underweight, sad, and inactive. Sometime later, he was surprised
to find the two girls active, smiling, and healthy. He learned that each of girls been “adopted” by an
older retired woman in the institution who devoted many hours each day caring for the children.

If the genes determine the raw material for intelligence, the environment provides the
opportunities to develop the raw material to the fullest.

TOOL No. 2 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling
the behaviors, attitudes and emotional reactions of others. Bandura (1977) states: “Learning would be
exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their
own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally
through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and
on later occasions this coded serves as a guide for action. Social learning theory explains human
behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental
influences. The competent process underlying observational learning are: (1) Attention; (2)
Retention: (3) Motor Reproduction; (4) Motivation.

The Bobo Doll Experiment

Figure 1.

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 In 1950’s, Dr. Bandura has a study known as Bobo doll experiment. In
this experiment, the sample children were presented with new social models of
violent and nonviolent behavior toward an inflatable redounding bobo doll. The
result were: the group of children who saw the violent behavior model became
violent to the doll, while the control group who was presented with the
nonviolent behavior rarely violent to the doll. This experiment has proven right
the hypothesis that social modelling is a very effective way of learning. Dr.
Bandura introduced the social learning theory that focuses on what people
learn from observing and interacting with other people. Bandura’s social
cognitive theory states that people are active participants in their environment
and are not simply shaped by that environment.

Individuals that are observed are called models. In society children are surrounded by many
influential models, such as parents within the family, characters on children’s TV, friends within their
peer group and teachers at school. These models provide examples of masculine and feminine
behavior to observe and imitate. They pay attention to some of these people (models) and encode
their behavior. At a later time they may imitate (i.e. copy) the behavior they have observed. They may
do this regardless of whether the behavior is ‘gender appropriate’ or not but there are a number of
processes that make it more likely that a child will reproduce the behavior that its society deems
appropriate for its sex.

First, the child is more likely to attend to and imitate those people it perceives as similar to
itself. Consequently, it is more likely to imitate behavior modeled by people the same sex as it is.

Second, the people around the child will respond to the behavior it imitates with either
reinforcement or punishment. If a child imitates a model’s behavior and the consequences are
rewarding, the child is likely to continue performing the behavior. If parent sees a little girl consoling
her teddy bear and says “what a kind girl you are”, this is rewarding for the child and makes it more
likely that she will repeat the behavior. Her behavior has been reinforced (i.e. strengthened).

Reinforcement can be external or internal and can be positive or negative. If a child wants
approval from parents or peers, this approval is an external reinforcement, but feeling happy about
being approved of is an internal reinforcement. A child will behave in a way which it believes will earn
approval because it desires approval. Positive (or negative) reinforcement will have little impact if the
reinforcement offered externally does not match with an individual's needs. Reinforcement can be
positive or negative, but the important factor is that it will usually lead to a change in a person's
behavior.

Third, the child will also take into account of what happens to other people when deciding
whether or not to copy someone’s actions. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. This relates to
attachment to specific models that possess qualities seen as rewarding. Children will have a number
of models with whom they identify. These may be people in their immediate world, such as parents or
elder siblings, or could be fantasy characters or people in the media. The motivation to identify with a
particular model is that they have a quality which the individual would like to possess.

Identification occurs with another person (the model) and involves taking on (or adopting)
observed behaviors, values, beliefs and attitudes of the person with whom you are identifying. The
term identification as used by Social Learning Theory is similar to the Freudian term related to the
Oedipus complex. For example, they both involve internalizing or adopting another person’s
behavior. However, during the Oedipus complex the child can only identify with the same sex parent,
whereas with Social Identity Theory the person (child or adult) can potentially identify with any other
person. Identification is different to imitation as it may involve a number of behaviors being adopted
whereas imitation usually involves copying a single behavior.

TOOL No. 3 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence

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 In our day to day life, different people are likely to
agree fairly well on who the bright people in their class or work
group or social circle are. However, there are wide variations in
lay man’s definitions of the concept. We come across the
concept of ‘intelligence’ very often in our lives.

Every individual is unique with their own individual

differences. Our schools with the rigid curriculum and teaching
methods, are strictly standardized. It doesn’t fit into the myriad
intelligences of the students, instead the students have to
struggle to fit into the burden of the curriculum that is heavily
based on the verbal – linguistic and spatial intelligence.

Gardner’s gift to the classroom is in his

conceptualization of intelligence as multifaceted and
multidimensional (1983). He defines human potential in terms
of the ability to solve problems in a culturally valued setting. In light of this broad perspective, Gardner
identified eight realms of intelligence: verbal, logical, visual, musical, bodily, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, and naturalistic. As seen in countless classrooms, these multiple intelligences work in
various combinations as students interact and connect in the execution of complex tasks.

Multiple Intelligences Theory focuses human’s to real life circumstances, and emphasizes the
training of students to solve problems. This connects to the real world, rather than abstract class room
learning, places it close to the true reason humans learn, for this reason, it has caught wide spread
attention from various international circles.

TOOL BOX
“An intelligence is the ability to solve problems, or to create
products, that are valued within one or more cultural settings.” --
Howard Gardner

The Multiple Intelligences theory is a

Psychological and Educational theory which states that
“An array of different kinds of intelligences, are present
in Human beings”. He says that there are at least ‘8’
ways that people have of perceiving and understanding
the world. Gardner labels each of these ways as distinct
‘intelligence’. He has identified 8 core intelligences in
the book, “Frames of Mind”- The theory of Multiple
Intelligences and two more later, in the book,
“Intelligences Reframed” in 1999

They are, Verbal – Linguistic, Logical –

Mathematical, Visual – Spatial, Bodily – Kinesthetic,
Musical – Rhythmic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal,
Naturalistic, Existential and Moral Intelligence.

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 1. Verbal-Linguistic
Intelligence (“word smart”
or “book smart”)
This intelligence involves the
knowing which comes through language;
through reading, writing, and speaking. It
involves understanding the order and
meaning of words in both speech and writing
and how to properly use the language. It
involves understanding the sociocultural
nuances of a language, including idioms,
plays on words, and linguistically-based
humor.

If this is a strong intelligence for you, you have highly developed skills for reading, speaking,
and writing and you tend to think in words. You probably like various kinds of literature, playing word
games, making up poetry and stories, engaging in involved discussions with other people, debating,
formal speaking, creative writing, and telling jokes. You are likely precise in expressing yourself and
irritated when others are not! You love learning new words, you do well with written assignments, and
your comprehension of anything you read is high.

2. Mathematical-Logical Intelligence (“math smart” or “logic smart”)

This intelligence uses numbers, math, and
logic to find and understand the various patterns
that occur in our lives: thought patterns, number
patterns, visual patterns, color patterns, and so on.
It begins with concrete patterns in the real world
but gets increasingly abstract as we try to
understand relationships of the patterns we have
seen.

If you happen to be a logical-

mathematically inclined person you tend to think
more conceptually and abstractly and are often
able to see patterns and relationships that others miss. You probably like to conduct experiments, to
solve puzzles and other problems, to ask cosmic questions, and analyze circumstances and people’s
behavior. You most likely enjoy working with numbers and mathematical formulas and operations, and
you love the challenge of a complex problem to solve. You are probably systematic and organized,
and you likely always have a logical rationale or argument for what you are doing or thinking at any
given time.

3. Visual-Spatial Intelligence (“art smart” or “picture smart”)

We often say “A picture is worth a thousand
words” or “Seeing is believing”. This intelligence
represents the knowing that occurs through the
shapes, images, patterns, designs, and textures we
see with our external eyes, but also includes all of
the images we are able to conjure inside our heads.
If you are strong in this intelligence you tend to think
in images and pictures. You are likely very aware of

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object, shapes, colors, textures, and patterns in the environment around you. You probably like to
draw, paint, and make interesting designs and patterns, and work with clay, colored markers,
construction paper, and fabric. Many who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence love to work jigsaw
puzzles, read maps and find their way around new places. You probably have definite opinions about
colors that go together well, textures that are appropriate and pleasing, and how a room should be
decorated. And, you are likely excellent at performing tasks that require “seeing with the mind’s eyes,”
such as visualizing, pretending, imagining, and forming mental images.

4. Intrapersonal Intelligence (“self-smart” or “introspection smart”)

At the heart of this intelligence are our human self-

reflective abilities by which we can step outside of ourselves and
think about our own lives. This is the introspective intelligence. It
involves our uniquely human propensity to want to know the
meaning, purpose, and significance of things. It involves our
awareness of the inner world of the self, emotions, values, beliefs,
and our various quests for genuine spirituality.

If this intelligence is one of your strong points you may

like to work alone and sometimes you may shy away from others.
You are probably self-reflective and self-aware and thus you tend
to be in tune with your inner feelings, values, beliefs, and thinking
processes. You are frequently bearers of creative wisdom and
insight, are highly intuitive, and you are inwardly motivated rather
than needing external rewards to keep you going. You are often strong willed, self-confident, and
have definite, well-thought out opinions on almost any issue. Other people will often come to you for
advice and counsel.

5. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence ("body smart" or "movement smart")

We often talk about “learning by doing.” This

way of knowing happens through physical movement
and through the knowing of our physical body. The
body “knows” many things that are not necessarily
known by the conscious, logical mind, such as how to
ride a bike, how to parallel park a car, dance the
waltz, catch a thrown object, maintain balance while
walking, and where the keys are on a computer
keyboard.

If you have strength in this intelligence area

you tend to have a keen sense of body awareness.
You like physical movement, dancing, making and
inventing things with your hands, and roleplaying.
You probably communicate well through body language and other physical gestures. You can often
perform a task much better after seeing someone else do it first and then mimicking their actions. You
probably like physical games of all kinds and you like to demonstrate how to do something for

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someone else. You may find it difficult to sit still for long periods of time and are easily bored or
distracted if you are not actively involved in what is going on around you.

6. Interpersonal (“people smart” or

“group smart”)
This is the person-to-person way of
knowing. It is the knowing that happens when we
work with and relate to other people, often as part of
a team. This way of knowing also asks use to
develop a whole range of social skills that are
needed for effective person-to-person communication
and relating.

If this person-to-person way of knowing is

more developed in you, you learn through personal
interactions. You probably have lots of friends, show a great deal of empathy for other people and
exhibit a deep understanding of other points of view. You probably love team activities of all kinds and
are a good team member--you “pull your own weight” and often much more! You are sensitive to other
people’s feelings and ideas, and are good at piggybacking your ideas on others’ thoughts. And you
are likely skilled at drawing others out in a discussion. You are also probably skilled in conflict
resolution, mediation, and finding compromise when people are in radical opposition to each other.

7. Naturalist Intelligence (“nature smart” or “environment smart”)

The naturalist intelligence involves the full
range of knowing that occurs in and through our
encounters with the natural world including our
recognition, appreciation, and understanding of the
natural environment. It involves such capacities as
species discernment, communion with the natural
world and its phenomena, and the ability to
recognize and classify various flora and fauna.

If the naturalist intelligence is one of your

strengths you have a profound love for the
outdoors, animals, plants, and almost any natural
object. You are probably fascinated by and
noticeably affected by such things as the weather, changing leaves in the fall, the sound of the wind,
the warm sun or lack thereof, or an insect in the room. At a young age you were likely nature
collectors, adding such things as bugs, rocks leaves, seashells, sticks, and so on to your collections.
You probably brought home all manner and kinds of stray animals and today you may have several
pets and want more. You tend to have an affinity with and respect for all living beings.

8. Musical-Rhythmic Intelligence (“music smart” or “sound smart”)

This is the knowing that happens through
sound and vibration. In the original research on the
theory of multiple intelligences this intelligence was
called musical-rhythmic intelligence. However, it is not
limited to music and rhythm so I’m calling it auditory-
vibrational, for it deals with the whole realm of sound,
tones, beats, and vibrational patterns as well as music.

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 If you are strong in this intelligence area you likely have a love of music and rhythmic
patterns. You are probably very sensitive to sounds in the environment; the chirp of cricket, rain on
the roof, varying traffic patterns. You may study and work better with music in the background. You
can often reproduce a melody or rhythmic pattern after hearing it only once. Various sounds, tones,
and rhythms may have a visible effect on you, others can often see a change in facial expressions,
body movement, or emotional responses. You probably like to create music and you enjoy listening to
a wide variety of music. You may be skilled at mimicking sounds, language accents, and others’
speech patterns, and you can probably readily recognize different musical instruments in a
composition.

SYNTHESIS:

Learning is a relatively permanent change in immediate or potential behavior that results from
experience. Learning implies memory and intelligence. We are able to reflect on what we have
learned from our experiences through a wide range of mental activities that occur in thinking.
Social learning theory posits that there are three regulatory systems that control behavior.
First, the antecedent inducements greatly influence the time and response of behavior. The stimulus
that occurs before the behavioral response must be appropriate in relationship to social context and
performers. Second, response feedback influences also serve an important function. Following a
response, the reinforcements, by experience or observation, will greatly impact the occurrence of the
behavior in the future. Third, the importance of the cognitive functions in social learning. For example,
for aggressive behavior to occur some people become easily angered by the sight or thought of
individuals with whom they have had hostile encounters, and this memory is acquired through the
learning process.

Intelligence is a mixture of several abilities (Gardner explains seven intelligences, and alludes
of other) that are all of great value in life. But nobody’s good at them all. In life we need people who
collectively are good at different things. A well-balanced world, and well-balanced organizations and
teams, are necessarily comprised of people who possess different mixtures of intelligences. This
gives the group a fuller collective capability than a group of identically able specialists.

Schools have often sought to help students develop a sense of accomplishment and self-
confidence. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences provides a theoretical foundation for
recognizing the different abilities and talents of students. This theory acknowledges that while all
students may not be verbally or mathematically gifted, children may have an expertise in other areas,
such as music, spatial relations, or interpersonal knowledge. Approaching and assessing learning in
this manner allows a wider range of students to successfully participate in classroom learning.

EXERCISE 4:

1. “Intelligence: Hereditary or Influence of Environment?” Prove your stand and cite examples.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

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_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

2. Cite an incident in your life in which you or other people applied at least one of the learning
theories. Be specific and support your answer.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_

3. Among the 8 Multiple Intelligence of Howard Gardner, which one do you think you excel the most?
Justify your answer and put a picture of yourself doing what you’re good at.

Your Picture

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

References:
Alata, Eden Joy P., et al., (2018) Understanding the Self. Manila, Philippines: Rex Book
Store
Bandura, A. Ross, D., & Ross, S. A (1961). Transmission of aggression through the
imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575-582
Bandura, Albert (1977). Social Learning Theory. New York: General Learning Press.
Engle, T.L. and L. Shellgrove. Psychology: It’s Principles and Applications. 7 th ed. New
York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979.
Worell and Stilwell. Psychology for Teachers and Students. New York. McGraw Hill, 93
1981.
Wortman, Camille and Elizabeth Loftus. Psychology. 2 nd ed. New York. Alfred A. Knopf,
1985.
 Unit
The Self in the Emotional Experiences
5
_______________________________________________

Module Overview:
The most fundamental emotions, known as the basic emotions, are those of anger, disgust,
fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. The basic emotions have a long history in human evolution,
and they have developed in large part to help us make rapid judgments about stimuli and to quickly
guide appropriate behaviour (LeDoux, 2000). The basic emotions are determined in large part by one
of the oldest parts of our brain, the limbic system, including the amygdala, the hypothalamus, and the
thalamus. Because they are primarily evolutionarily determined, the basic emotions are experienced
and displayed in much the same way across cultures (Ekman, 1992; Elfenbein & Ambady, 2002;
Fridland, Ekman, & Oster, 1987), and people are quite accurate at judging the facial expressions of
people from different cultures.

This unit focuses on the ways in which the human ability to self-reflect affects emotional
experience. As we have shown, possessing a self allows people to experience emotions from
imagining self-relevant events, to react to representations of themselves in their own minds, to think
about the causes of emotion-eliciting events and their reactions to them, to respond to how they are
perceived by other people, and to regulate their emotional experiences. It also covers discussions on
emotional intelligence and emotional regulation.

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, the students must be able to:
o Describe and explain their emotional development as adolescents;

o Examine specific mechanisms of emotional expression and regulation; and

o Identify appropriate situations in which emotional regulation should be practiced.

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________________________________________________________________

Module Map:

Emotions &
Emotional
Regulation

SELF

Emotional
Intelligence

DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

EMOTION- a natural instinctive state of mind deriving from one’s circumstances, mood or
relationships with others.

EMOTIONAL REGULATION- is the ability to respond to the ongoing demands of experience with the
range of emotions in a manner that is socially tolerable and sufficiently flexible to permit spontaneous
reaction as well as the ability to delay spontaneous reactions as needed.

LIMBIC SYSTEM- a complex system of nerves and networks in the brain, involving several areas
near the edge of the cortex concerned with instinct and mood.

STIMULI/STIMULUS- a thing or event that evokes a specific functional reaction in an organ or tissue.

AMYGLADA- region of the brain primarily associated with emotional processes.

HYPOTHALAMUS- is a portion of the brain which contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of
functions.

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THALAMUS- either of two masses of gray matter lying between the cerebral hemispheres on either
side of the third ventricle, relaying sensory information and acting as a center for pain perception.

COGNITIVE APPRAISAL- is the subjective interpretation made by an individual to stimuli in the

environment. It is a component in a variety of theories relating to stress, mental health, coping and
emotion.

ADOLESCENCE- the period following the onset of puberty during which a young person develops
from a child into an adult.

BEHAVIOR- the way in which one acts or conducts oneself, especially toward others.

RUMINATION- a deep or considered thought about something.

EMOTIONAL INTELLEGENCE- the capacity to be aware of, control, and express one’s emotions,
and to handle interpersonal relationships judiciously and empathetically

TOOL NO. 1: Emotions and Emotional Regulation

ALL OF US FEEL AND EXPERIENCE EMOTIONS – negative and positive – each and every
day. Emotions are a normal part of our everyday lives. Everyone experiences them. For some
though, feeling these emotions can seem overwhelming, like an out-of-control roller coaster. It is
common for one or more strong emotions to occur before an individual engages in self-injury. These
often include: guilt, sadness, feeling overwhelmed or frustrated, anger, self-blame, and low self-worth.
This feeling of being overwhelmed emotionally can lead to a deep need to do something that will stop
the intensity. Self-injury can serve as a short-term fix to stop the overwhelming-ness of the feeling – at
least for a little while. The purpose of our conversation here is to discuss how to help ourselves – and
others – with managing or regulating strong emotions when they feel overwhelming.

Not all of our emotions come from the old parts of our brain; we also interpret our experiences
to create a more complex array of emotional experiences. As we discussed on Unit 2 with the topic
about Brain Processing Emotions, for instance, the amygdala may sense fear when it senses that the
body is falling, but that fear may be interpreted completely differently (perhaps even as excitement)
when we are falling on a roller-coaster ride than when we are falling from the sky in an airplane that
has lost power. The cognitive interpretations that accompany emotions — known as cognitive
appraisal — allow us to experience a much larger and more complex set of secondary emotions, as
shown in Figure “The Secondary Emotions.” Although they are in large part cognitive, our experiences
of the secondary emotions are determined in part by arousal (on the vertical axis of Figure, “The
Secondary Emotions”) and in part by their valence — that is, whether they are pleasant or unpleasant
feelings (on the horizontal axis of Figure, “The Secondary Emotions”).

96
 When you succeed in reaching an important goal, you might spend some time enjoying your
secondary emotions, perhaps the experience of joy, satisfaction, and contentment. But when your
close friend wins a prize that you thought you had deserved, you might also experience a variety of
secondary emotions (in this case, the negative ones) — for instance, feeling angry, sad, resentful, and
ashamed. You might mull over the event for weeks or even months, experiencing these negative
emotions each time you think about it (Martin & Tesser, 2006).

The distinction between the primary and the secondary emotions is paralleled by two brain
pathways: a fast pathway and a slow pathway (Damasio, 2000; LeDoux, 2000; Ochsner, Bunge,
Gross, & Gabrieli, 2002). The thalamus acts as the major gatekeeper in this process. Our response
to the basic emotion of fear, for instance, is primarily determined by the fast pathway through the
limbic system. When a car pulls out in front of us on the highway, the thalamus activates and sends
an immediate message to the amygdala. We quickly move our foot to the brake pedal. Secondary
emotions are more determined by the slow pathway through the frontal lobes in the cortex. When we
stew in jealousy over the loss of a partner to a rival or recollect our win in the big tennis match, the
process is more complex. Information moves from the thalamus to the frontal lobes for cognitive
analysis and integration, and then from there to the amygdala. We experience the arousal of emotion,
but it is accompanied by a more complex cognitive appraisal, producing more refined emotions and
behavioural responses.

Emotional Regulation
Adolescence is considered a turbulent time of development due to the biological,
psychological, and social changes that adolescents experience and encounter. Part of the reason why
this is a crucial point of development is the emotional issues that teenagers are confronted with. In the
midst of exploring their self and identity, adolescents begin to develop values, cognitions, and engage
in risk-taking behavior that have both positive and negative consequences, which is underlined by
fluctuating, rapidly changing emotions. The same can be attributed to the millennial generation, who
are known to be inquisitive, active in learning, egocentric, and dislike delay of gratification. It is
important that at this stage, adolescents begin to curb their impulsivity, develop emotional efficacy,
and ultimately, acquire emotional maturity. This will enable them to make viable future plans and long-
term goals.

Meta-analytic Research has outlined ten (10) common strategies employed in emotional
regulation, namely, rumination, distraction, acceptance, problem solving, behavioral avoidance,
experiential avoidance, expressive suppression, reappraisal, mindfulness, and worry. However,

97
employing these strategies are dependent on a number of factors, including person characteristics,
external stimuli, specific emotional regulation goals, nature of the emotion to be regulated, long-term
goals, and available cognitive resources. Thus, emotional regulation varies from person to person,
from context to context.

However, there are common characteristics shared by individual who have achieved
emotional maturity and efficacy. These individual manifest the following qualities that enable effective
emotional regulation:

1. Self-control. Managing disruptive impulses.

2. Trustworthiness. Maintaining standards of honesty and integrity.
3. Conscientiousness. Taking responsibility for one’s performance.
4. Adaptability. Handling change with flexibility.
5. Innovation. Being open to new ideas.
6. Empathy. Understanding other people and putting yourself in their shoes.

In a cultural aspect, emotional regulation is defined as “all the processes that help to attain
culturally appropriate or functional emotional experiences”. This definition underlies the importance of
culture in our emotional behavior. We need to contextualize how we manage our emotions in an
appropriate manner; we need to adopt strategies that would fit the cultural context we live in. In the
Asian context, emotional regulation is influenced by “culturally valued relationship frameworks”. This
will ensure our social competence in a variety of situations; within our homes, our school
environments, and society at large.

How do we develop emotional regulation abilities? We learn to regulate emotions primarily

through observational learning, and social referencing, particularly on the basis of family.

Examples of Common Emotion Regulation Strategies:

HEALTHY UNHEALTHY
 Talking with friends  Abusing alcohol or other substances
 Exercising  Self-Injury
 Writing in a journal  Avoiding or withdrawing from
 Meditation difficult situations
 Therapy  Physical or verbal aggression
 Taking care of self when physically ill  Excessive social media use, to the
 Getting adequate sleep exclusion of other responsibilities
 Paying attention to negative thoughts
that occur before or after strong
emotions
 Noticing when you need a break – and
taking it!

Do women and men differ in their ability to regulate their emotions?

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 Some research suggests that men and women experience emotions differently, which
may ultimately lead to different reasons for self-injury. Women in general report experiencing
both positive and negative emotions more intensely than men, which might explain why
females report greater difficulties with emotion regulation skills compared to males (Robinson
et al., 2014). Also, females tend to report more depressive symptoms, and have more
difficulty controlling ruminating behaviors (e.g., thinking over and over again about something)
than males. Compared to males who self-injure, females who self-injure repetitively think
about negative thoughts, and have difficulty thinking in healthy ways (Macklem, 2008).

It is interesting to note that “rumination” is conceptualized on a continuum –

rumination at one end, and reflection at the other end. With reflection, thoughts are
considered over and over and effectively used to gain insight or to make change. The upside
of the tendency to be more emotionally inclined is that while women are more prone than men
to rumination, women are also more prone to reflection, meaning they are more likely to
understand and deal with emotions in effective ways. Although men and women experience
the same emotions, they may have different internal experiences of the intensity and different
ways of regulating and expressing them. One source of this difference may be due to
socialization, cultural norms, and learned behaviors. Men in many cultures are taught that
they have to be tough, and not to express their emotions, while women learn that it is ok to
talk about their feelings and express themselves.

The adolescent years may be particularly precarious. Men and women also
experience different emotions at different times in their lives, specifically during adolescent
years. Adolescence itself is often a difficult time, and emotion regulation during adolescence
is even more difficult than it is at other times in life. Internal distress and sensitivity may be
difficult for some females to cope with, and they may choose to cope by self-injuring, abusing
alcohol or other substances, or other unhealthy strategies. Adolescent females seem to
experience more interpersonal stress than males. Specifically, females tend to report more
stress relating to friends, while males tend to report more stress related to school (Hilt et al.,
2011).

TIPS FOR REGULATING EMOTIONS:

• Take Care of Your Physical Needs: Getting a good night’s rest, eating healthfully, and
exercising your body are all essential to being able to feel satisfaction in life. We’ve all noticed
how much better we can feel after having a good night of restful sleep or after eating a diet of
healthy foods. It can be as though we have an entirely fresh perspective on life and it is much
easier to overlook the little things that might have annoyed or upset us otherwise.

• Engage in activities that build a sense of achievement: Doing one positive thing every
day can lead to a sense of achievement and contentment. We can each benefit from paying
more attention to the positive events in our lives. The things that bring us joy have been
shown to decrease negative moods and increase positive moods.

• Changing thoughts is easier than changing feelings: Thoughts play a critical role in how
we experience a situation. When you notice yourself first becoming upset, try to evaluate what
you are thinking that is causing that emotion. Here are some questions to ask yourself:

• What is it that’s really pushing my buttons here?

• Why am I reacting so strongly?
• What’s the worst (or best) that could happen?

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 • How important will this be tomorrow? Next week? Next month?

TOOL NO. 2: Emotional Intelligence

This unit will delve into understanding of one’s emotional self through the lens of emotional
intelligence theories, particularly in the aspects of emotional awareness and emotional management.

Learning Checkpoint
 
Do you AGREE or DISAGREE?

 Emotions are as important as logic and reasoning.

 Emotions cannot be managed.

 Emotions do not influence our interpersonal relationships.

 Every individual has the same level and expression of emotionality.

 There are universal ways of expressing emotions.

An important aspect of our Self is acknowledging that we have emotions. Emotions serve as a
driving force in many of our behaviors; we use it as one of the basis in making a decision, embracing
certain lifestyles, and relating to others. However, while we can immediately recognize our emotions,
there is difficulty in defining it and for some people, difficulty in controlling it. However, it is not to say
that our emotions rule us and become the basis of our decisions; an important point to remember is
every individual has the capacity to manage them.

Emotions is defined as the “lower level responses occurring in the brain, creating biochemical
reactions in the body, which results in changes of one’s physical state” (Hampton, 2015). Thus,
emotions serve a critical survival function in making us aware of threats coming from the environment
that affect our inner consciousness.

Emotional intelligence with its specific components has been

outlined by 3 models to explain its importance.

The first model (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004) as outlined 4 branches:
Emotional Perception and Expression

100
 Emotional Facilitation as aids to make sound judgment
Emotional Understanding and Analysis
Reflective Emotional Regulation

Goleman (2005) came up with his own clusters of emotional intelligence, namely:

Self-awareness
Self-management
Social awareness
Relationship management

Bar-On’s model (1997) is made up of 5 composites:

Self-perception
Self-expression
Interpersonal
Decision-making
Stress management

These 3 models seem to underlie 2 general aspects of emotional

intelligence: Intrapersonal and Interpersonal.

Research has supported the positive impact of emotional intelligence in a variety of settings. It
has been seen to have positive effects on thinking abilities during anxiety-provoking testing conditions
and enable students to obtain good scores.

In the workplace, emotional intelligence, EQ, is said to be more important than IQ. Employees
with high EQ achieve corporate success and exhibit flexibility skills in dealing with superiors,
colleagues, and subordinates.

The results of various research have highlighted the importance of emotional intelligence for
all individuals. The application of emotional intelligence can be seen in different aspects of daily life.
Emotional intelligence research has also produced a number of self-reports and assessment tools to
measure EQ levels in specific individuals.

SYNTHESIS

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 This chapter addresses one of the most fundamental aspects of the human experience. As
we mature and continually grow cognitively more complex, we begin to experience an even wider
array of emotions. The adult human, as compared to other animals, is a highly emotional being. We
experience joy, boredom, surprise, rage, peace, thrill, disgust, and a list of emotions that is well over
300 words. Before we are establishing an identity, however the development of our sense of self is in
full swing quite early in life. This chapter fully highlighted how we come to understand others, not just
ourselves.

EXERCISE 5:
1. Why it is important to manage your emotions?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

2. What is your most intense emotion? Do you experience it often? How do you manage this emotion
when it gets more intense than you like?

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_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
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References:
Alata, Eden Joy P., et al., (2018) Understanding the Self. Manila, Philippines: Rex
Book Store.
Chapman, A.L., Gratz, K.L., & Brown, M.Z. (2006) Solving the puzzle of deliberate
self- harm: The experiential avoidance model. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44,
371- 394.
Corpuz, R. M., et al., (2019) Understanding the Self. Manila, Philippines: C & E
Publishing, Inc.
Duggan, J.M.,Toste, J.R., & Heath, N.L. (2013) An examination of the relationship
between body image factors and non-suicidal self-injury in young adults: The
mediating influence of emotion dysregulation.Psychiatry Research, 206, 256-264.
Gratz, K.L., & Chapman, A.L. (2007).The Role of Emotional Responding and
Childhood Maltreatment in the Development and Maintenance of Deliberate Self-
Harm Among Male Undergraduates, Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 8, 1-14.
Hilt, L.M., Hanson, J.L., & Pollak, S.D. (2011). Emotion Dysregulation, Encyclopedia
of Adolescence, 3, 160-169.
https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontopsychology/chapter/10-1-the-experience-of-
emotion/
https://positivepsychology.com/emotional-intelligence-training/
https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2009-07773-040
Macayan, Jonathan V., (2018) et al., (2019) Understanding the Self. Manila,
Philippines: C & E Publishing, Inc.
Macklem, G.L. (2008). Emotion dysregulation, Practitioners Guide to Emotion
Regulation in School-Aged Children, 13-24.
Polk, E., & Liss, M. (2009). Exploring the motivations behind self injury, Counseling
Psychology Quarterly, 22, 233-241.
Robinson, A.L., Mansfield-Green, S., & Lafrance, G. (2014). Disordered eating
behaviours in an undergraduate sample: Associations among gender, body mass
index, and difficulties in emotion regulation, Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science,
46, 320-326.
Young, R., Van Beinum, M., Sweeting, H., & West, P. (2007).Young people who self
harm, The British Journal of Psychiatry, 191, 44-49.

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UNIT THE SELF IN THE SUCCESS AND HAPPINESS
6
_______________________________________________

Module Overview:
Knowing oneself is power! Self-awareness or knowing oneself is one of the cornerstones for
happiness and success in life. Without good awareness, people often pursue the WRONG CAREER
(usually because it pays well or it’s easy to do),get in a relationship with wrong person, struggle with
indecisiveness and low self-confidence, and generally find themselves just going along with things.

According to Ingrid Bergman “Success is getting what you want; happiness is wanting what
you get.”

The aim of this chapter is to understand the meaning of personality, to know the determinants
affecting personality as well as provide concept on how a person can achieve success and happiness.

TOOL BOX
Success is not the key to happiness. Happiness is the key to
success. If you love what you are doing, you will be successful.
-Albert Schweitzer

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, the students must be able to:

o Define personality and identify its domains, types and determinants;

o Describe what constitutes the Big Five Personality factors;

o Identify Core Attitudes and their implications to one’s growth and development;

o Explain the importance of Positive Psychology; and

o Discuss Harvard’s Study on Life Satisfaction.

Module Map:

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 Personality

Self
Duckworth's
Study onSelf- Success
Grit and
Satisfaction and
Success
Happiness

Seligman's
Positive

DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS:

PERSONALITY- is the collective qualities, characteristics, disposition and values of a person which
distinguish him/her from others

COGNITION- mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought,
experience, and the senses.

BEHAVIOR- is the actions and mannerisms made by individuals, organisms, systems or artificial
entities in conjunction with themselves or their environment

PERSONALIY TYPES- are any of the specific categories into which human beings may be classified
on the basis of personality traits, attitudes, behavior patterns, physique or other outstanding
characteristics. 

EXTRAVERT- individual who enjoy more frequent social interaction, and feel energized after
spending time with other people.

INTROVERT- individual who tend to be thought-oriented, enjoy deep and meaningful social
interactions, and feel recharged after spending time alone.

CONSCIENTIOUSNESS- the tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement
against measures or outside expectations.

NEUROTICISM- is the tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, or

depression.
ATTITUDE- a relatively stable and enduring predisposition to behave or react in a certain way toward
persons, objects, institutions, or issues.

MINDSET- refers to a mental attitude or inclination.

GRIT- is about working on something you care about so much that you’re willing to stay loyal to it.

TOOL No. 1: Personality

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 Personality can be descried as: the collective qualities, characteristics, disposition and values
of a person which distinguish him/her from others, and which will affect the manners he/she reacts
toward or interacts with other people and his/her environment. The word personality comes from the
Latin word persona. In the ancient world, a persona was a mask worn by an actor. While we tend to
think of a mask as being worn to conceal one’s identity, the theatrical mask was originally used to
either represent or project a specific personality trait of a character (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Happy, sad, impatient, shy, fearful, curious, helpful. What characteristics describe
your personality?

 A person’s personality should be seen as on-going development.

 Every person has a different personality and set of traits.

Personality Domains
1. Cognition (Think/ Brain) – knowledge and belief

It is the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through

thought, experience, and the senses.

2. Emotion (Feel/ Heart) - Social- Emotional Aspects and Attitude

This include the knowledge, attitudes, and skills necessary for youth to recognize and
control their emotions and behaviors; establish and maintain positive relationships; makes
responsible decisions and solve challenging situations; and set and achieve positive goals.

3. Behavior (Behave/ Hands and Feet) – Behavioral Efficacy

It is the actions and mannerisms made by individuals, organisms, systems or artificial

entities in conjunction with themselves or their environment, which includes the other systems
or organisms around as well as the physical environment.

PERSONALITY TYPES. According to American Psychological Association, personality

types are any of the specific categories into which human beings may be classified on the basis of
personality traits, attitudes, behavior patterns, physique or other outstanding characteristics. 

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 The Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator is a self-report inventory designed to
identify a person's personality type, strengths, and preferences. The questionnaire was
developed by Isabel Myers and her mother Katherine Briggs based on their work with  Carl
Jung's theory of personality types. Today, the MBTI inventory is one of the most widely used
psychological instruments in the world.

Both Myers and Briggs were fascinated by Jung's theory of psychological types and
recognized that the theory could have real-world applications. During World War II, they began
researching and developing an indicator that could be utilized to help understand individual
differences. By helping people understand themselves, Myers and Briggs believed that they
could help people select occupations that were best suited to their personality types and lead
healthier, happier lives.

4 Different Scales of Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator:

1. Extraversion (E) – Introversion (I)

Extraverts are "outward-turning" and tend to be action-oriented, enjoy more frequent social
interaction, and feel energized after spending time with other people. Introverts are "inward-turning"
and tend to be thought-oriented, enjoy deep and meaningful social interactions, and feel recharged
after spending time alone.

2. Sensing (S) – Intuition (N)

It involves looking at how people gather information from the world around them. People who
prefer sensing tend to pay a great deal of attention to reality, particularly to what they can learn from
their own senses. They tend to focus on facts and details and enjoy getting hands-on experience.
Those who prefer intuition pay more attention to things like patterns and impressions. They enjoy
thinking about possibilities, imagining the future, and abstract theories.

3. Thinking (T) – Feeling (F)

This scale focuses on how people make decisions based on the information that they
gathered from their sensing or intuition functions. People who prefer thinking place a greater
emphasis on facts and objective data.
They tend to be consistent, logical, and impersonal when weighing a decision. Those who prefer
feeling are more likely to consider people and emotions when arriving at a conclusion.

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 4. Judging (J) – Perceiving (P)
The final scale involves how people tend to deal with the outside world. Those who lean toward
judging prefer structure and firm decisions. People who lean toward perceiving are more open,
flexible, and adaptable. These two tendencies interact with the other scales.
Remember, all people at least spend some time extraverting. The judging-perceiving scale helps
describe whether you extravert when you are taking in new information (sensing and intuiting) or
when you are making decisions (thinking and feeling).
Determinants of Personality

 Biological Factors

1. Brain – Brain is one of the most important factors of personality determinant. It is

generally believed that child inherit 40-60% of their mother’s intellects or brain
stimulation. And the rest are the result of the environment in which the child has
been grown up.

2. Physical Factors – Another factor is physical characteristics of an individual. It is

believed that this factor plays a vital role in determining one’s behavior in any
organization. Example: height of a person (short or tall), color (white or black), his
health status (fat or skinny) and his beauty (handsome or ugly). Physical factors
are involved when interacting with any other person and thus contribute in the
personality development in many ways.

3. Heredity Factors – Lastly, the heredity factors play a very important role as a
major determinants and factors of personality. It is the one that determined at the
time of conception. These factors does not only affect the physical features of a
person, but also the intelligence level, attentiveness, gender, temperament,
various inherited diseases as well as the energy level.

 Social Influences

Social Influences also plays a vital role in determining one’s personality. The things
that surround us on a regular basis determine of who we are. The society that we live in,
cultural environment that we face daily, the community we get interacted to, are all included in
this factor.

Relationships with family, friends, colleagues, neighbors and societies, all contribute
in a way or another in personality determinants.

 Cultural and Religious Factors

The culture in which one lives in, that may involve traditional practices, norms,
customs, procedures, rules and regulations, precedents and values, all are important
determinants of personality.

Moreover, the creed, religion and believes are also very important factors of
personality determinants.

 Situational Factors

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 Although these factors do not literally create and shape-up an individual’s personality,
situational factors do alter a person’s behavior and response from time to time. Situational
factors can be commonly observes when person behaves contrastingly and exhibits different
traits and characteristics. For example, a person’s behavior is totally different when he is in
front of his boss, compared when hanging-out with his friends.

In this way, situational factors impact a personality in a significant way. They often
bring-out the traits of person that is not commonly seen.

The Big Five Personality Factors

In psychological trait theory, the Big Five personality traits, also known as the five-factor
model (FFM) and the OCEAN model, is a suggested taxonomy, or grouping,
for personality trait developed from the 1980s onwards. When factor analysis (a statistical technique)
is applied to personality survey data, it reveals semantic associations: some words used to describe
aspects of personality are often applied to the same person. For example, someone described
as conscientious is more likely to be described as "always prepared" rather than "messy". These
associations suggest five broad dimensions used in common language to describe the
human personality and psyche.

The Big Five model resulted from the contributions of many independent researchers.

1. Gordon Allport and Henry Odbert first formed a list of 4,500 terms relating to personality traits
in 1936 (Vinney, 2018). Their work provided the foundation for other psychologists to begin
determining the basic dimensions of personality.
2. In the 1940s, Raymond Cattell and his colleagues used factor analysis (a statistical method)
to narrow down Allport’s list to sixteen traits. However, numerous psychologists examined
Cattell’s list and found that it could be further reduced to five traits. Among these
psychologists were Donald Fiske, Norman, Smith, Goldberg, and McCrae & Costa (Cherry,
2019).

In particular, Lewis Goldberg advocated heavily for five primary factors of personality
(Ackerman, 2017). His work was expanded upon by McCrae & Costa, who confirmed the model’s
validity and provided the model used today: conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism,
openness to experience, and extraversion.

The model became known as the “Big Five” and has seen received much attention. It has
been researched across many populations and cultures and continues to be the most widely accepted
theory of personality today.

Each of the Big Five personality traits represents extremely broad categories which cover
many personality-related terms. Each trait encompasses a multitude of other facets.

For example, the trait of Extraversion is a category that contains labels such as
Gregariousness (sociable), Assertiveness (forceful), Activity (energetic), Excitement-seeking
(adventurous), Positive emotions (enthusiastic), and Warmth (outgoing) (John & Srivastava, 1999).

Therefore, the Big Five while not completely exhaustive, cover virtually all personality-related
terms.

The theory identifies five factors:

The five factors are abbreviated in the acronyms OCEAN or CANOE. Beneath each proposed
global factor, there are a number of correlated and more specific primary factors. For

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 example, extraversion is typically associated with qualities such as gregariousness,
assertiveness, excitement-seeking, warmth, activity, and positive emotions.

Family life and upbringing will affect these traits. Twin studies and other research have shown
that about half of the variation between individuals results from their genetic inheritance and half from
their environment. Researchers have found conscientiousness, extraversion, openness to experience,
and neuroticism to be relatively stable from childhood through adulthood.

The Big Five Personality Factors Openness to Experience

 Openness to experience refers to
one’s willingness to try new things as well as
OPENNESS to Experience engage in imaginative and intellectual
activities. It includes the ability to “think
outside of the box.”
Conscientiousness  If you’re curious of how and why
things work, and are keen to uncover
explanations, then you’re four times more
Extraversion likely to succeed than your closed-off
classmates.
 In business settings, openness is a
AGREEABLENESS strong predictor of who will become and
succeed as a leader.

NEUROTICISM

Openness vs. Closedness to Experience

Those who score high on openness to experience are perceived as creative and artistic. They
prefer variety and value independence. They are curious about their surroundings and enjoy traveling
and learning new things.

People who score low on openness to experience prefer routine. They are uncomfortable with
change and trying new things so they prefer the familiar over the unknown. As they are practical
people, they often find it difficult to think creatively or abstractly.

Conscientiousness
 Tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement against measures or
outside expectations.
 Conscientious people are excellent at planning ahead.
 Grit may be related to conscientiousness.
 The conscientious person is going to have a plan. Even if there is a failure, they’re going to
have a plan to deal with that failure.
 Conscientiousness is the best predictor of both personal and professional success. It’s also
the strongest predictor of leadership

Conscientiousness vs. Lack of Direction

Those who score high on conscientiousness can be described as organized, disciplined,
detail-oriented, thoughtful, and careful. They also have good impulse control, which allows them to
complete tasks and achieve goals.

Those who score low on conscientiousness may struggle with impulse control, leading to
difficulty in completing tasks and fulfilling goals.

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They tend to be more disorganized and may dislike too much structure. They may also engage in
more impulsive and careless behavior.

Extraversion
 Extraverts enjoy interacting with people, and are often perceived as full of energy.
 Extraversion is another strong predictor of who will become a leader- although new
researcher shows introverts can be as successful a leader as the extraverts.

Extraversion vs. Introversion

Those high on extraversion are generally assertive, sociable, fun-loving, and outgoing. They
thrive in social situations and feel comfortable voicing their opinions. They tend to gain energy and
become excited from being around others.

Those who score low in extraversion are often referred to as introverts. These people tend to
be more reserved and quieter. They prefer listening to others rather than needing to be heard.

Introverts often need periods of solitude in order to regain energy as attending social events
can be very tiring for them. Of importance to note is that introverts do not necessarily dislike social
events, but instead find them tiring.

Agreeableness

 Agreeable people are generally considerate, kind, generous, trusting and trustworthy,
helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others.
 Agreeable people also have an optimistic view of human nature.
 Agreeable people tend to be happier, possibly because they try to avoid negative
experiences.

Agreeableness vs. Antagonism

Those high in agreeableness can be described as soft-hearted, trusting, and well-liked. They
are sensitive to the needs of others and are helpful and cooperative. People regard them as
trustworthy and altruistic.

Those low in agreeableness may be perceived as suspicious, manipulative, and

uncooperative. They may be antagonistic when interacting with others, making them less likely to be
well-liked and trusted.

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Neuroticism

 Tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, or depression.

 It is something called emotional instability.
 Those who score high in neuroticism are emotionally reactive.
 Neurotic people may show poor performance both in school and work.
 Neurotic people experience difficulty in maintaining satisfying relationships.

Neuroticism vs. Emotional Stability

Those who score high on neuroticism often feel anxious, insecure and self-pitying. They are
often perceived as moody and irritable. They are prone to excessive sadness and low self-esteem.

Those who score low on neuroticism are more likely to calm, secure and self-satisfied. They
are less likely to be perceived as anxious or moody. They are more likely to have high self-esteem
and remain resilient.

Stability of the Traits

People’s scores of the Big Five remain relatively stable for most of their life with some slight
changes from childhood to adulthood. A study by Soto & John (2012) attempted to track the
developmental trends of the Big Five traits.

They found that overall agreeableness and conscientiousness increased with age. There was
no significant trend for extraversion overall although gregariousness decreased and assertiveness
increased.

Openness to experience and neuroticism decreased slightly from adolescence to middle

adulthood. The researchers concluded that there were more significant trends in specific facets (i.e.
adventurousness and depression) rather than in the Big Five traits overall.

Women reported themselves to be higher in Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Warmth (a facet of

Extraversion), and Openness to Feelings compared to men. Men reported themselves to be higher in
Assertiveness (a facet of Extraversion) and Openness to Ideas.
Another interesting finding was that bigger gender differences were reported in Western, industrialized
countries. Researchers proposed that the most plausible reason for this finding was attribution
processes.

They surmised that actions of women in individualistic countries would be more likely to be
attributed to her personality whereas actions of women in collectivistic countries would be more likely
to be attributed to their compliance with gender role norms.

TOOL No. 2: Dweck’s Core Attitudes

We are often believed that the only way to succeed is to be blessed with an exceptional IQ.
But according to researches, personality traits and attitudes are more accurate predictors of success
than intellects.

According to psychologist Carol Dweck, people’s core attitudes can be categorized into two:

1. Growth Mindset
2. Fixed Mindset

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Growth Mindset
A growth mindset is “the understanding that abilities and understanding can be developed”
(Mindset Works, n.d.).Those with a growth mindset believe that they can get smarter, more intelligent,
and more talented through putting in time and EFFORT. Even when they have lower IQ, they
outperform those with a fixed mindset, because they embrace challenges, treating them as
opportunities to learn something new.
It’s easy to see examples of a growth mindset in students. Those with a growth mindset are
apt to see challenges as a natural part of the learning process. They work harder and smarter, helping
them to learn and achieve more than students with a fixed mindset.
Students with a growth mindset may display behaviors like:
 Asking the teacher to demonstrate a new way to do a math problem
 Volunteering answers in class even when unsure
 Asking a question even if it might seem basic or “stupid”
 Seeking out problems that will push them instead of problems that keep them safely within
their comfort zone (Character Lab, n.d.) 
It may seem like a growth mindset is hard to see in adults, since they’re not in a constant learning
environment—or are they? That perspective on the environment is a clear-cut example of a growth
mindset vs. fixed. Those with a growth mindset are more likely to see every environment as a learning
environment and scan for opportunities to improve their skills and enhance their knowledge.
For specific examples, John Rhodes (2015) shares a few scenarios that typify a growth mindset in
adults:
Example: Running late and missing the bus or carpool

You’ve certainly been here before: your alarm doesn’t go off (or maybe you hit snooze a few
too many times) and you oversleep. You jump out of bed and race into your clothes, skipping any part
of your morning ritual that isn’t completely necessary before racing outside to catch the bus. As you
run to the street, you see the bus pulling away and you know you’re going to be late.
For someone with a fixed mindset, this scenario might just ruin their whole day. They may feel
angry with themselves or look for someone or something else to blame.
On the other hand, someone with a growth mindset is more likely to think about the root
cause of the mess they’re in and consider how to avoid it next time. They may conclude that they
need to go to bed earlier tonight, or set their alarm a little bit louder. The point is, the person with a
growth mindset will think about ways to fix the problem because they believe it is fixable.
Fixed Mindset
On the flipside, a fixed mindset is one that assumes abilities and understanding are relatively
fixed. Those with a fixed mindset may not believe that intelligence can be enhanced, or that you either
“have it or you don’t” when it comes to abilities and talents. This creates problems when challenged
because anything that appears to e more than you can handle is bound to make you feel hopeless
and overwhelmed.

WHAT IS THE MAIN DIFFERENCE (GROWTH MINDSET VS. FIXED)?

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 The main difference between the two mindsets is the belief in the permanence of intelligence
and ability; one views it as very permanent, with little to no room for change in either direction, while
the other views it as more changeable, with opportunities for improvement (or, for that matter,
regression).
This difference in mindset may lead to marked differences in behavior as well. If someone
believes intelligence and abilities are immutable traits, they are not likely to put in much effort to
change their inherent intelligence and abilities. On the other hand, those who believe they can change
these traits may be much more willing to put in extra time and effort to achieve more  ambitious
goals. With a growth mindset, individuals may achieve more than others because they are worrying
less about seeming smart or talented and putting more of their energy into learning (Dweck, 2016).

Misconceptions encountered by Dweck about Growth Mindset:

1. “I already have it, and I always have.” Dweck warns that a growth mindset is not simply
being open-minded or optimistic or practicing flexible thinking; it’s more specific than that.
2. “A growth mindset is just about praising and rewarding effort.” Although praising and
rewarding effort is generally a good idea, it must be undertaken with an eye on outcomes as
well. Effort that is unproductive is not to be rewarded, and learning and progress should also
be met with praise.
3. “Just espouse a growth mindset, and good things will happen.” Espousing a growth
mindset is a positive step that can lead to positive outcomes, but it’s not a guarantee; the
mindset needs to be backed up with effort applied to worthwhile activities, and even then
success is not inevitable (Dweck, 2016).
The growth mindset will lead you to new skills, new knowledge, and new areas of
expertise, while the fixed mindset will leave you about where you started—with little skill in the
task at hand and little confidence in your abilities.

TOOL No. 3: Duckworth's Grit and Success

“What we eventually accomplish may depend

more on our passion and perseverance than on
our innate talent.”

“Skill is not the same thing as achievement, either.

Without effort, your talent is nothing more than your
unmet potential. Without effort, your skill is nothing
more than what you could have done but didn’t. With
effort, talent becomes skill and, at the very same
time, effort makes skill productive.”

What is Grit?

 GRIT is about working on something you

care about so much that you’re willing to stay
loyal to it…it’s doing what you love, but not
just falling in love – staying in love.
 GRIT is passion and perseverance for
long-term goals. It’s not talent, not luck, nor
how intensely you want something as of the
moment.

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 The Refrain of all paragons of
 GRIT may matter as much, if not, more than grit:
Talent. Talent and luck is important for success
but is not a guarantee of GRIT.
 GRIT alone may not be sufficient for success “Whatever it takes, I want to
but sure is necessary. improve!”
It doesn’t matter how excellent
What is Talent?
they already are.

TALENT X EFFORT = SKILL

SKILL X EFFORT = ACHIEVEMENT

Talent is specifically the rate at which a person improves in skill.

According to Duckworth’s formula, TALENT counts ONCE but EFFORT counts TWICE

Who is Successful and Why?

Successful people are not just those talented ones. Successful people are those who have
the passion and perseverance to reach their goals. They are those individuals who LOVE WHAT
THEY DO. We’ve always heard it over again, FOLLOW your PASSION. If you enjoy what you do, you
will be more satisfied, happy and eventually will do a better job.

FACTORS TO BECOME GRITTY AND GRITTIER

1. Develop a Fascination

Before the Theory of Evolution was developed, Charles Darwin first develop an obsessive
fascination about Natural Science. He always had the question about how living things are correlated
to each other. You can also do this by finding a question that fascinates you and you’ll find the
capacity to stay gritty.

2. Daily Improvement

Aim to improve yourself every single day. Always compete with who you were yesterday. For
example, if you’re having a difficulty in one of your subject, you will start allotting of your time to read
and understand the discussion given by Professor.

3. Greater Purpose

Always remind yourselves of the greater purpose…and make it a habit.

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16,000 Adult Americans

The illustration above shows that upper half of Grit Scale experience the same level of pleasure while
the higher level of PURPOSE is directly correlated to higher level of GRIT.

4. Long-Term Goal

Learning to stick to something is a life skill that we can all develop. We all have the capacity
to grow our GRIT. We can develop the confidence to start taking action despite how talented we think
we are. We should develop a growth mindset which is significant for accomplishing a long-term goal.
Neuroscience has shown that we have enormous capacity to change our brain. So, scratch the
mindset saying that abilities are fixed.

 Being GRITTY is the ability to persevere. It’s about being unusually resilient and
hardworking, so much so that you’re willing to continue on in the face of difficulties,
obstacles and even failures. It’s about being constantly driven to improve.
 Being GRITTY is being passionate about something, and be loyal to it. For the highly
successful, the journey was just as important as the end result. An enduring passion,
emotional involvement or love of what you do is an important element to success. It is
your dedication throughout your career journey.

Grit also requires PRACTICE – continuous improvement; a persistent desire to do better. The very
best accumulate 10,000 hours/mature in ten years (Malcolm Gladwell).

All extraordinary people progressed through three distinct periods of development:

1. Early years – Interest

2. Middle years – Practice

3. Later years – Larger purpose and meaning

“Grittier people are dramatically more motivated than others to seek a meaningful, other-centered life.

What can I use the Grit Scale for?

Duckworth created the Grit Scale so that she could study grit as a scientist.  Why? Because
you cannot study what you cannot measure.

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 I also think this questionnaire is useful as a prompt for self-reflection. For example, some of
the most effective coaches and teachers I know give this questionnaire to their players and
students in order to prompt a conversation about their evolving passion and perseverance.
In sum, I think the Grit Scale can be used for research and for self-reflection, but its limitations
make it inappropriate for many other uses, including selecting employees, admitting students
to college, gauging the performance of teachers, or comparing schools or countries to each
other.
“To compete means excellence. Compete comes from the Latin and quite
literally means STRIVE TOGETHER. It doesn’t have anything in its origins
about another person losing.

TOOL No. 4: Seligman’s Positive Psychology

American psychologist Martin Seligman led the development of the field “positive
psychology”. While research and practice in psychology focus on dysfunctions like depression,
neurotic behavior, anxiety and other forms of mental and behavioral problems- that is, aimed to
eliminate suffering- positive psychology wants to understand the factors that contribute to the
experience of wellbeing.

Better Than Just Okay

Wellbeing, according to Seligman, is the overall sense of emotional health and happiness The
aim is not just to eliminate suffering but to create a life that is fulfilling and worth living.

What rises above the base level of being just “all right”?

Positive psychology is the study of happiness, flourishing, and what makes life worth living.
Seligman points to five factors as leading to well-being  — positive emotions, engagement,
relationships, meaning and purpose, and accomplishment.

 Positive Emotions

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 Optimism, enjoyment, love, contentment, amusement- any emotion that feels good or makes
us kind.
Positive emotions make us more open, resilient, creative, and observant- even physically
healthier.

 Engagement
Getting into a state of “flow”, where we’re immersed in something that captures full attention
and focus.
Engagement comes when we’re feeling confident about our skills. It can be such a pleasant
experience that we end up honing these skills the more you’ll be able to get into the flow.

 Relationship
Loving, close, and trusting bonds with other people.
This includes those with family, friends, romantic partners, colleagues, and your community.
Relationship is a mutual bond between you and the person you care about.

 Meaning
Having a sense of purpose beyond mere personal gain; feeling part of something bigger.
Meaning makes us more satisfied, confident, and robust. What are the things that you value
most? Family, friends, money, recognition- looking at these material objects, what deeper
purpose do you find in working to realize them beyond selfish gain?

 Accomplishment
The satisfaction of achieving goals; even small accomplishments help us feel good.
Besides the sense of pride, accomplishment can give us more confidence about the future by
developing perseverance out of having surpassed day-to-day challenges.

Benefits of PERMA:

Each of the five aspects of happiness is things we pursue for their own sake: they are
valuable in themselves, or “intrinsically” rewarding.

How Positive Psychology Starts

The story of positive psychology starts, its founder often says, in 1997 in his rose garden.
Martin Seligman had just been elected head of the American Psychological Association and was in
search of a transformational theme for his presidency. While weeding in his garden one day with his
young daughter, Seligman found himself distracted and frustrated as Nikki, then 5, threw flowers into
the air and giggled. Seligman yelled at her to stop, at which point Nikki took the professor aside. She
reminded him how, from ages 3 to 5, she had been a whiner, but on her fifth birthday, had made a
conscious decision to stop. If she could change herself with an act of will, couldn’t Daddy stop being
such a grouch?
Seligman had an epiphany. What if every person was encouraged to nurture his or her character
strengths, as Nikki so precociously had, rather than scolded into fixing their shortcomings?
Kaiser Permanente commissioned a mural on a downtown Denver building to encourage people to
talk about depression and other mental illnesses.

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“POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY GIVES THE IMPRESSION YOU CAN BE WELL AND HAPPY JUST BY
THINKING THE RIGHT THOUGHTS.

____________________________________________________________________________

TOOL No. 5: Harvard's Study on Life Satisfaction

 Good life is built in good relationships.
 According to a 75- year longitudinal study conducted by Harvard University:
People who are more connected SOCIALLY CONNECTED to FAMILY, FRIENDS, and
COMMUNITY are Happier, Physically Healthier, and Live Longer than people who are
isolated or less connected.
 Effective interpersonal skills create social connections, social connections lead to professional
success and personal happiness.
 Over the years, researchers have studied the participants’ health trajectories and their
broader lives, including their triumphs and failures in careers and marriage. According to
Robert Waldinger, findings show that our relationships and how happy we are in our
relationships has a powerful influence on our health.
 He also said that taking care of the body is important but tending to your relationship is a form
of self-care too.
 "The people who were the most satisfied in their relationships at age 50 were the healthiest at
age 80,” said Robert Waldinger with his wife Jennifer Stone.
 Close relationships, more than money or fame, are what keep people happy throughout their
lives, the study revealed. Those ties protect people from life’s discontents, help to delay
mental and physical decline, and are better predictors of long and happy lives than social
class, IQ, or even genes.
 The researchers also found that marital satisfaction has a protective effect on people’s mental
health. People who had happy marriages in their 80’s reported their moods didn’t suffer even
on the days they have more physical pain.
 Those who kept warm relationships got to live longer and happier, said Waldinger, and the
loners often died earlier. “Loneliness kills,” he said. “It’s as powerful as smoking or
alcoholism.”
 Waldinger said that good relationships don’t just protect our bodies; they protect our brains.

Psychiatrist George Vaillant, who joined the team as a researcher in 1966, led the study from 1972
until 2004. Trained as a psychoanalyst, Vaillant emphasized the role of relationships, and came to
recognize the crucial role they played in people living long and pleasant lives.

“When the study began, nobody cared about empathy or attachment. But the key to healthy
aging is relationships, relationships, relationships.”— George Vaillant

In a book called “Aging Well,” Vaillant wrote that six factors predicted healthy aging for the Harvard
men:

1. physical activity
2. absence of alcohol abuse and smoking,
3. having mature mechanisms to cope with life’s ups and downs,
4. And enjoying both a healthy weight and a stable marriage.
For the inner-city men, education was an additional factor. “The more education the inner city
men obtained,” wrote Vaillant, “the more likely they were to stop smoking, eat sensibly, and use
alcohol in moderation.”

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 Vaillant’s research highlighted the role of these protective factors in healthy aging. The more
factors the subjects had in place, the better the odds they had for longer, happier lives.

“When the study began, nobody cared about empathy or attachment,” said Vaillant. “But the
key to healthy aging is relationships, relationships, relationships.”

Asked what lessons he has learned from the study, Waldinger, who is a Zen priest, said he
practices meditation daily and invests time and energy in his relationships, more than before.

“It’s easy to get isolated, to get caught up in work and not remembering, ‘Oh, I haven’t seen
these friends in a long time,’ ” Waldinger said. “So I try to pay more attention to my relationships than I
used to.”

Synthesis:
Personality is defined as the characteristics sets of behaviors, cognitions and emotional
patterns that evolve from biological and environmental factors. There are different determinants,
domains and types of personality. Lewis Goldberg advocated heavily for five primary factors of
personality which is known as “The Big Five Personality Factors”. The Big Five Personality Factors is
abbreviated In the acronyms OCEAN or CANOE which means Openness to experience,
Consciousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism.

According to Carol Dweck, people’s core attitudes can be categorized into two: the Growth
mindset and fixed mindset. A growth mindset is ‘the understanding that abilities and understanding
can be developed”. They believed that they can improve by putting in time and effort while fixed
mindset is one that assumes abilities and understanding are relatively fixed. They don’t believe that
intelligence can be enhanced.

Success needs passion and perseverance from a person which is a total description for grit.
Grit is about working on something you care about so much that you’re willing to stay loyal to it.
Angela Lee Duckworth, an associate professor of Psychology, and the author of the book, GRIT.
According to Angela Duckworth, TALENT counts ONCE but EFFORT counts TWICE in order to
become successful. On the other hand, Positive Psychology aimed to understand the factors that
contribute to the experience of wellbeing. Wellbeing, according to Seligman, is the overall sense of
emotional health and happiness. Seligman points to five factors as leading to well-being, known as
the PERMA model—positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning and purpose, and
accomplishment.

Exercise 6:
1. PERSONALITY CHECKLIST. Directions: Look at each pair of items and select the one that
describes you best. Answer the indicated question below after completing the checklist.

Extravert (E) Introvert (I)

___Energized by social interaction ___Energized by having quiet time alone

___Tend to talk first and think later ___Tend to think first and talk later
___Tend to think out loud ___Tend to think things through quietly

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 ___Tend to respond quickly, before thinking ___Tend to respond slowly, after thinking
___Easy to get to know, outgoing ___Difficult to get to know, private
___Have many friends, know lots of people ___Have a few close friends
___Can read or talk with background noise ___Prefer quiet for concentration
___Talk more than listen ___Listen more than talk
___View telephone calls as a welcome break ___View telephone calls as a distraction
___Talk to many different people at parties ___Talk to a few people at parties
___Prefer to study with others in a group ___Prefer to study alone
___Described as talkative or friendly ___Described as quiet or reserved
___Work systematically
___Work through trial and error
___Work alone or with individuals
___Much public contact ___Quiet for concentration
___Work alone or in small groups
___High energy environment ___Focus on one project until complete
___Work as part of a team ___Work without interruption
___Variety and action ___Communication one-on-one
___Talk to others
___Present ideas to a group

____Total Extravert ____Total Introvert

Sensing(S) Intuitive (N)

___Trust what is certain and concrete ___Trust inspiration and inference

___Prefer specific answers to questions ___Prefer general answers which leave
___Like new ideas if they have practical room for interpretation
applications (if you can use them) ___Like new ideas for their own sake (you
___Value realism and common sense don’t need a practical use for them)
___Think about things one at a time and step-by-step ___Value imagination and innovation
___Like to improve and use skills learned before ___Think about many ideas at once as they
___More focused on the present come to you
___Concentrate on what you are doing at the moment ___Like to learn new skills and get bored
___Do something using the same skills
___See tangible results ___More focused on the future
___If it isn’t broken, don’t fix it ___Wonder what is next
___Prefer working with facts and figures ___Think about doing something
___Focus on reality ___Focus on possibilities
___“Seeing is believing” ___There is always a better way to do it
___Tend to be specific and literal (say what you mean) ___Prefer working with ideas and theories
___See what is here and now ___Use fantasy
___Work with known facts ___“Anything is possible”
___Focus on practical benefits ___Tend to be general and figurative (use
___Learn through experience comparisons and analogies)
___Work step-by-step
___See the big picture
___Explore new ideas and approaches
___Use imagination and be original
___Freedom to follow your inspiration
___Work in bursts of energy

____Total Sensing ____Total Intuitive

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Thinking (T) Feeling (F)

___Apply impersonal analysis to problems ___Consider the effect on others

___Value logic and justice ___Value empathy and harmony
___Fairness is important ___There are exceptions to every rule
___Truth is more important than tact ___Tact is more important than truth
___Motivated by achievement and ___Motivated by being appreciated by
accomplishment others
___Feelings are valid if they are logical ___Feelings are valid whether they make
___Good decisions are logical sense or not
___Described as cool, calm and objective ___Good decisions take others’ feelings
___Love can be analyzed into account
___Are firm-minded ___Described as caring and emotional
___More important to be right ___Love cannot be defined
___Remember numbers and figures ___Are gentle-hearted
___Prefer clarity ___More important to be liked
___Find flaws and critique ___Remember faces and names
___Prefer harmony
___Prefer firmness
___Look for the good and compliment
___Maintain business environment ___Prefer persuasion
___Close personal relationships
___Be treated fairly
___Work matches personal values
___Fair evaluations ___Make a personal contribution
___Solve problems
___Challenging work

____Total Thinking ____Total Feeling

Judging (J) Perceptive (P)

___Happy when the decisions are made ___Happy when the options are left open-
and finished something better may come along
___Work first, play later ___Play first, do the work later
___It is important to be on time ___Time is relative
___Feel comfortable with routine ___Dislike routine
___Generally keep things in order ___Prefer creative disorder
___Set goals and work toward them ___Change goals as new opportunities arise
___Emphasize completing the task ___Emphasize how the task is done
___Like to finish projects ___Like to start projects
___Meet deadlines ___What deadline?
___Know what they are getting into ___Like new possibilities and situations
___Relax when things are organized ___Relax when necessary
___Follow a routine ___Explore the unknown
___Work steadily
___Work in spurts of energy
___Follow a schedule
___Clear directions ___Be spontaneous
___Organized work
___Minimal rules and structure
___Logical order
___Stability and security ___Flexible
___Work on one project until done
___Like having high responsibility ___Many changes
___Take risks and be adventurous
___Juggle many projects

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 ___Like having interesting work

____Total Judging ____Total Perceptive

What have you learned about your personality by filling out the checklist? Write a summary of
your personality type using this outline. Do not use cut and paste for this summary. Read the
material and summarize it in your own words. You can use this form for your summary or be
creative and use a PowerPoint or other creative media to cover these paragraphs.

Paragraph 1: I am an (introvert, extrovert, or combination type.) This means that . . . .Tell how it
affects your personal or social life.

Paragraph 2: I am a (sensing, intuitive or combination type.) This means that . . . . Tell how it affects
your personal or social life.

Paragraph 3: I am a (feeling, thinking, or combination type.) This means that . . . . Tell how it affects
your personal or social life.

Paragraph 4: I am a (judging, perceptive, or combination type.) This means that . . . .Tell how it
affects your personal or social life.

Just as a quick review, here is a brief definition of all personality types. Please review these definitions
before you write your paragraphs.

(I) Introvert: private, likes quiet for concentration, likes to think before speaking

(E) Extravert: social, likes variety, sometimes speaks before thinking

(S) Sensing: works step-by-step, learns from experience, trusts what is concrete and certain

(N) Intuitive: values imagination and innovation, focus on possibilities, creative and imaginative

(T) Thinking: calm and objective, makes decisions based on logic, analyzes emotions, likes debate

(F) Feeling: makes decisions based on personal values, values empathy and harmony, caring,
emotional

(J) Judging: orderly, organized, work first and play later, follows a routine, meets deadlines (Note: it
does not mean to judge others!)

(P) Perceptive: spontaneous, go with the flow, play first and do the work later, dislike routine, difficulty
meeting deadlines

2. POSITIVE REMINISCE EXERCISE. Directions: Take time to think about an event from your past
that reminds positive emotions. Visualize the event in as much detail as possible, and focus on the

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pleasant feelings that were experienced at the time. Connect that event into at least one of Seligman
points to five factors (P.E.R.M.A.). Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.

References:
https://angeladuckworth.com/qa/
https://en.m.wikipedia.org.wiki/Behavior
https://en.m.wikipedia.org.wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality/
https://nationalmentoringresourcecenter.org
https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2017/04/over-nearly-80-years-harvard-study-has-been-showing-how-to-
live-a-healthy-and-happy-life/
https://positivepsychology.com/growth-mindset-vs-fixed-mindset/
https://studentsuccess.unc.edu/files
https://thriveglobal.com/stories/knowing-yourself-is-a-cornerstone-of-success-and-happiness/
https://www.learning-theories.com/positive-psychology-perma-theory-seligman.html

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UNIT THE SELF IN FACING CHALLENGES
7 ________________________________________________________

Module Overview:
Challenges are a part of everyday life. They make us stronger and without them life becomes
somewhat meaningless because we have nothing to compare the good times too. But regardless of
the challenge, facing up to it is the key. Doing will make you feel like you can take care of yourself, it
will also make you understand the value of what you have now.

This module will discuss the different aspects of self in facing challenges in their life. It will
focus on definition and types of stress and also the techniques on how to manage them. Further, it will
tackle on how we developed and maintain self-efficacy and the important sources of it: Performance
accomplishments or mastery experiences or enactive mastery; Vicarious experiences or vicarious
modelling; Social persuasion or verbal persuasion; and Physiological (somatic and emotional) states
or arousal. Self-efficacy tackles about one’s ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a
task. Also, this module tackles about the importance of having a social support network, its types and
definition.

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, the students must be able to:
o Explain the effects of stress to one’s health;

o Examine design a self-care plan; and

o Cultural dimension of stress and coping

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____________________________________________________________________________

Module Map

The self in
Facing
Challenges

Self -
efficacy Managing
Definition of Key Terms:
and Social stress
support
1. Stress – whole process by (which environmental events, called stressors, threaten or
challenge us (Gatchel & Baum, 1983).
2. Self-efficacy – It is commonly defined as the belief in one’s capabilities to achieve a
goal or an outcome.
3. Anxiety – feeling of worry: nervousness or agitation, often about something that is
going to happen.
4. Depression – psychiatric disorder: a psychiatric disorder showing symptoms such as
persistent feelings of hopelessness, dejection, poor concentration, lack of energy,
inability to sleep, and, sometimes, suicidal tendencies
5. Vicarious experiences - experienced in the imagination through the feelings or
actions of another person.
6. Emotional distress —anger or irritability, anxiety and depression, short-tempered,
impatient, tense.
7. Cognitive distress— compromised attention/concentration, compromised
processing speed, compromised new learning and new learning memory
consolidation and retrieval, and mental fatigue.
8. Muscular distress—tension, headache, back pain, jaw pain, pulled muscles,
tendons, and ligament problems
9. Chronic - describes an illness or medical condition that lasts over a long period and
sometimes causes a long-term change in the body
10. Acute - extremely serious, severe, or painful

TOOL No. 1: Managing Stress

“Just because we’re in a STRESSFUL situation doesn’t mean that we have to get
stressed out. You may be in the storm. The key is, don’t let the storm get in you.”

~Joel Osteen~

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 Stress is a feeling that people have when they are struggling to cope with challenges related
to finances, work, relationships, environment, and other situations. Moreover, stress is felt when an
individual perceives a real or imagined challenge or threat to their well-being. People often use the
word stress interchangeably with anxiety, feeling anxious, fearful, nervous, overwhelmed, panic, or
stressed-out.

Stress is the body’s natural defense against real or imagined danger. It flushes the body with
hormones to prepare systems to evade or confront danger. This is known as the “fight-or-flight or
freeze” response.

The body is an intelligent operating system, but the body cannot determine the difference
between life threatening external threat from imagined or perceived non-life threatening stressors.
The body reacts the same either way. The body produces significantly greater quantities of the
chemicals cortisol, adrenaline, and noradrenaline. The Neurobiology of stress is a complex operating
mechanism.

According to American Psychological Association, there are Three (3) types of stress.

Stress management can be complicated because each of the 3 different types of stress can
present as single, repeated, complicated, or chronic. Therefore, they require different levels of
treatment interventions, management, and psychological treatment modalities due to the nature of the
person’s environment, lifestyle, developmental history, coping resources, and personality.

1. ACUTE STRESS

Acute stress is usually brief. It is the most common and frequent presentation. Acute stress is
most often caused by reactive thinking. Negative thoughts predominate about situations or events that
have recently occurred, or upcoming situations, events, or demands in the near future.

For example, if you have recently been involved in an argument, you may have acute stress
related to negative thoughts that are repetitive about the argument. Or you may have acute stress that
is about an upcoming work deadline, again the stress is thought induced. However, most often when
the thinking induced stress is reduced or removed the stress will subside too. However, if the stress
meets DSM-5 criteria, then individual may be diagnosed with Acute Stress Disorder

Acute stress causes signs and symptoms in the body + brain + emotions, but does not cause
the significant amount of damage as Episodic Stress and Chronic stress.

Short-term Effects of Acute Stress

The most common signs + symptoms:

 Transient Emotional distress — some combination of anger or irritability, anxiety and

depression.
 Transient Muscular distress—tension, headache, back pain, neck pain, jaw pain, and other
muscular tensions that lead to pulled muscles and tendons and ligament problems.
 Transient stomach, gut and bowel problems, heartburn, acid stomach, flatulence, diarrhoea,
constipation.
 Transient hyperarousal—elevated blood pressure, rapid heartbeat, rapid pulse, sweaty palms,
heart palpitations, dizziness, migraine headaches, cold hands or feet, shortness of breath,
sleep problems, and chest pain.

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Acute stress can present in anyone’s life. It is highly treatable and manageable. However, repeated
acute stress can become very harmful for your physical and mental health.

2. EPISODIC ACUTE STRESS

People who frequently experience acute stress, or whose lives present with frequent triggers of
stress, have episodic acute stress.

There are 2 main personality types that frequently present with Episodic Acute Stress: 1) “Type A”
personality 2) The “Worrier”

 “Type A” personality: Type A personality have an excessive competitive drive,

aggressiveness, impatience, abrupt, and a sense of time urgency. In addition, Type A
personality presents as reactive with hostility, and almost always a deep-seated insecurity
about performance. These personality traits create frequent episodes of acute stress for the
Type A individual. The cardiologists, Friedman and Rosenman found Type A’s to be
significantly likely to develop coronary heart disease.
 The “Worrier”: The Worrier presents with almost incessant negative thoughts causing
episodic acute stress on physical and mental health. “Worry warts” project probable disaster
and negatively forecast catastrophe in almost every situation. They have core beliefs that the
world is a dangerous, unrewarding, punitive place where something awful is always about to
happen. These negative binge thinkers also tend to be over aroused and tense, but are more
anxious and depressed than angry and hostile. Their thoughts are frequently filled with “What
if….” statements that are with projected negative outcomes. They are often diagnosed DSM-5
with generalized anxiety disorder.

Signs and Symptoms of Episodic Acute Stress:

The most common signs + symptoms are similar to acute stress, but due to the extended frequent
over arousal or extended hyper arousal there is ongoing damage and suffering.

 Emotional distress —anger or irritability, anxiety and depression, short-tempered, impatient,

tense.
 Cognitive distress—compromised attention/concentration, compromised processing speed,
compromised new learning and new learning memory consolidation and retrieval, and mental
fatigue.
 Interpersonal relationships deteriorate, The workplace becomes a very stressful place for
them.
 Muscular distress—tension, headache, back pain, jaw pain, pulled muscles, tendons, and
ligament problems.
 Stomach, gut, bowel problems, heartburn, acid stomach, flatulence, diarrhea, constipation,
irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).
 High blood pressure, rapid heartbeat, sweaty palms, heart palpitations, dizziness, migraine
headaches, cold hands or feet, shortness of breath, insomnia, chest pain, and heart disease.
 Immune System Compromise: frequent colds/flu, allergies, asthma, and other immune system
compromise illnesses.

Episodic acute stress leads to more pronounced health issues such as, high blood pressure and heart
disease, and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).

Treatment for Episodic Acute Stress. Episodic acute stress requires intervention on a many
levels. The treatment requires professional help spanning many months.

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3. CHRONIC STRESS

Chronic stress is the most harmful type of stress. If chronic stress is left untreated over a long
period of time, it can significantly and often irreversibly damage your physical health and deteriorate
your mental health. For example, long term poverty, repeated abuse in any form, unemployment,
dysfunctional family, poor work environment, substance abuse, or an unhappy marriage can cause
significant chronic stress.

Chronic stress can also set in when an individual feels hopeless, does not see an escape
from the cause of stress, and gives up on seeking solutions. Chronic stress can be caused by a
aversive experiences in childhood or traumatic experiences later in life.

People with chronic stress have the list of signs and symptoms previously mentioned, but the
signs and symptoms are chronic and can result in a physical and mental breakdown that can lead to
suicide, violent actions, homicide, psychosis, heart attacks, and strokes.

Treatment for Chronic Stress

When a person never sees a way out of a

miserable situation, feels anxiety of unrelenting
demands and pressures for seemingly interminable
periods of time. With no hope, the individual gives up
searching for solutions.

Some chronic stressors or triggers stem from

traumatic early childhood experiences that become
internalized and remain forever painful and present.
Early childhood experiences profoundly affect
personality; often resulting in core belief systems that
are created by causes of unending stress for the
individual (e.g., the world is a threatening place, you
must be perfect at all times). When personality or
deep-seated convictions and beliefs must be
reformulated, recovery requires active self-examination with professional psychological help. Good
news is psychological treatment is very effective.

People with Chronic Stress require extended medical and psychological treatment that
includes behavioural and stress management.

SIGNS OF STRESS
When we face a stressful event, our bodies respond by activating the nervous system and
releasing hormones such as adrenalin and cortisol. These hormones cause physical changes in the
body which helps us to react quickly and effectively to get through the stressful situation. This is
called the “fight or flight” response.

The hormones increase our heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, metabolism and muscle
tension. Our pupils dilate and our perspiration rate increases. Other effects include sleeping
problems, chest pains, nausea and others.

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 While these physical changes help us try to meet the challenges of the stressful situation,
they can cause other physical or psychological symptoms if the stress is ongoing and the physical
changes do not settle down.

These symptoms can include:

1. Headaches, other aches and pains

2. Sleep disturbance, insomnia
3. Upset stomach, indigestion, diarrhea
4. Anxiety, anger, irritability
5. Depression
6. Fatigue
7. Feeling overwhelmed and out of control
8. Feeling moody, tearful
9. Difficulty concentrating
10. Low self-esteem, lack of confidence
11. High blood pressure
12. Weakened immune system
13. Heart disease

Techniques to Reduce Stress (Self-Care Therapy and Self-Compassion Therapy)

One positive way to counter stress is Self-Care Therapy by Nancy Apperson (2008) of
Northern Illinois University.

Self-Care Therapy has provided the following steps:

1. Stop, breathe, and tell yourself: “This is hard and I will get through this one step at a time.”
Identify the steps to take first, write them down, and focus on each step one at a time.

2. Acknowledge to yourself what you are feeling. All feelings are normal so accept whatever you
are feeling. During periods of extreme stress and grief, it is very hard to hold back your feelings,
particularly, your tears and anger.

3. Find someone who listens and is accepting. You do not need advice. You need to be heard.
Sharing the story is how you begin to accept whatever happened and integrate it into reality.

4. Maintain your normal routine as much as possible. Making everyday decisions gives you a
sense of control and feels comforting as it is a familiar activity. Avoid making major decisions based
on the stress you feel right now.

5. Allow plenty of time for a task. You will not be as productive as you normally are. Accept how
much you are able to do right now and recognize it will not be this way forever.

6.Take good care of yourself. Remember to:

a. Get enough rest and sleep. Sleep at least six (6) hours and not more than nine (9)
hours. Sleep helps our body heals and strengthens our immune system.
b. Eat regularly and make healthy choices. Healthy food choices maintain blood
sugar level, energy, and concentration of the body.
c. Know your limits and when you need to let go. Some problems are beyond our
control. If something cannot be changed, work at accepting it for what it is.

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 d. Identify or create a nurturing place in your home. A rocking chair, a nice view,
and a soothing music are important components to a nurturing place.
e. Practice relaxation or meditation. Time spent in meditation or prayer allows yur
mind and body to slow down and let go of the stress.
f. Escape for a while through meditation, reading a book, watching a movie, or
taking a short trip.

Another positive way to counter stress is Self-Compassion Therapy discussed by Kristin

Neff (2012) in her article, “The Science of Self-Compassion.”

The major points of Self-Compassion Therapy include:

a. Self-compassion entails being warm and understanding toward ourselves when

we suffer, fail, or feel inadequate, rather than punish ourselves with self-criticism.
b. It recognizes that being imperfect and experiencing life difficulties is inevitable,
so we soothe and nurture ourselves when confronting our pain.
c. We clearly acknowledge problems and shortcomings without judgment, so we
can do what is necessary to help ourselves.
d. We cannot always get what we want. We cannot always be who we want to be.
When this reality is accepted with benevolence, we generate positive emotions of
kindness and care that help us cope.
e. Self-compassion recognizes that life challenges and personal failures are part
of being human, an experience we all share.

TOOL No. 2: Self-efficacy and Social Support

Perceived self-efficacy is defined as people's beliefs about their capabilities to produce
designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives. Self-
efficacy beliefs determine how people feel, think, motivate themselves and behave. Such beliefs
produce these diverse effects through four major processes. They include cognitive, motivational,
affective and selection processes.

In order to succeed, people need a sense of self-efficacy, to struggle together with resilience to
meet the inevitable obstacles and inequities of life
Self-efficacy
~Albert Bandura~

Psychologist Albert Bandura has defined self-efficacy as one's belief in one's ability to

succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task.

One's sense of self-efficacy can play a major role in how one approaches goals, tasks, and
challenges.

Self-efficacy typically comes into play when there is an actual or perceived threat to one’s
personal safety, or one’s ability to deal with potentially aversive events.

Dr. Bandura identified acts of people with “high assurance in their capabilities,” such as:

a. Approach difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered;

b. Set challenging goals and maintain strong commitment to them;

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 c. Heighten or sustain efforts in the face of failures or setbacks;
d. Attribute failure to insufficient effort or deficient knowledge and skills which are acquirable;
and
e. approach threatening situations with assurance that they can exercise control over them.

In contrast, people who” doubt their capabilities:”

1. shy away from tasks they view as personal threats;

2. have low aspirations and weak commitment to goals they choose to pursue;
3. dwell on personal deficiencies, obstacles they will encounter, and all kinds of adverse
outcomes, rather than concentrating on how to perform successfully;
4. slacken their efforts and give up quickly in the face of difficulties;
5. are slow to recover their sense of efficacy following failure or setbacks; and
6. fall easy victim to stress and depression.

Ways to develop and maintain Self-Efficacy:

Self-efficacy can be developed. People with high self-efficacy have been found to stop smoking the
moment they decide to do so.

Our society, our parents and our own positive experiences can help in the development of a strong
sense of self-efficacy by presenting positive models during the formative years of children.

Dr. Bandura described four main sources of influence by which a person’s self-efficacy is developed
and maintained. These are:

1. Performance accomplishments or mastery experiences or enactive mastery

Mastery experiences or personal performance accomplishments are the most effective ways
to create a strong sense of efficacy. Successes build a robust (strong and healthy) belief in

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one’s personal efficacy. Failures undermined it, especially if failures occur before a sense of
efficacy is firmly established.

2. Vicarious experiences or vicarious modeling

Seeing people similar to oneself succeed by sustained effort raises observers’ beliefs that
they, too, possess the capabilities to succeed, given the comparable activities.

Vicarious experiences through observance of social models influence one’s perception of self-
efficacy. The most important factor that determines the strength of influence of an observed
success or failure of one’s own self-efficacy is the degree of similarity between the observer
and the model.

The impact of modelling on perceived self-efficacy is strongly influenced by perceived

similarity to the models. The greater the similarity, the more persuasive is the models’
successes and failures.

3. Social persuasion or verbal persuasion

It is a way of strengthening people’s

beliefs that they have what it takes to
succeed. Verbal or social persuasion can
provide a temporary boost in perceived
ability.

When it is effective in mobilizing a

person to action, and their actions lead to
success, the enhanced self-efficacy may
become more permanent.

People who are persuaded verbally,

that they possess the capabilities to master given activities, are likely to mobilize greater effort
and sustain it than if they harbour self-doubts and dwell on personal deficiencies when
problems arise. This increases their chances of success.

4. Physiological (somatic and emotional) states or arousal.

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 People also rely on their somatic or emotional states when judging their capabilities.
Dr. Bandura notes that it is not the intensity of the emotional or physical reaction that is
important, but rather, how it is perceived and interpreted.

People with a high sense of self-efficacy may perceive affective arousal as an

energizing facilitator of performance, whereas those who are beset by self-doubts regards
their arousal as a debilitator (cause to lose strength).

SOCIAL SUPORT

Social support is often identified as a key component of solid relationships and strong
psychological health, but what exactly does it mean? Essentially, social support involves having a
network of family and friends that you can turn to in times of need.

Whether you are facing a personal crisis and need immediate assistance, or you just want to
spend time with people who care about you, these relationships play a critical role in how you function
in your day-to-day life.

It is social support that builds people up during times of stress and often gives them the
strength to carry on and even thrive. But social support is certainly not a one-way street. In addition to
relying on others, you also serve as a form of support for many people in your life.

Social support is commonly categorized into four types of behaviors.

1. Emotional
2. Instrumental
3. Informational
4. Appraisal

The ways in which types of social support differ may best be illustrated using an example.

Example: A 39-year-old graduate student and mother of 2 young children is feeling overwhelmed after
being diagnosed with breast cancer.

Types of Social Support

Content Definition Application

Emotional Expressions of empathy, love Close friends and family provide hope and a
trust and caring listening ear
Her husband decides to work from home 2
Instrumental Tangible aid and service days per week to baby-sit the children while
she attends her chemotherapy
Doctors provide facts about breast cancer
Informational Advice, suggestions, and and guidance during the treatment process.
information Her mother offers advice about her own
chemotherapy treatment 3 years prior
A close friend of 15 years reminds her of all
Appraisal Information that is useful for of the qualities that equip her to “beat” breast
self-evaluation cancer (to encourage an accurate
assessment of her current situation)

Why Strong Social Support Is So Important?

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Psychologists and other mental health professionals often talk about the importance of having a
strong social support network. When trying to reach our goals or deal with a crisis, experts frequently
implore people to lean on their friends and family for support.

Research has also demonstrated the link between social relationships and many different aspects of
health and wellness. Poor social support has been linked to depression and loneliness and has been
shown to alter brain function and increase the risk of the following:
 Alcohol use
 Cardiovascular disease
 Depression
 Suicide

Synthesis:

How we react to a difficult situation will affect how stress affects our life and our physical and
mental health. A person who feels they do not have enough resources to cope will be more likely to
have a stronger reaction that triggers significant physical and mental health problems. It is paramount
to remember that the mind and body are connected — meaning that psychological factors affect how
a person feels physically and the longevity of the body.

A persistently negative response to challenges can have a detrimental effect on mind + body
+ emotions. However, being aware of how you react to stressors and seeking professional help can
help reduce the negative feelings and effects of stress, and to manage it more effectively.

Perceived self-efficacy is concerned with people's beliefs in their capabilities to exercise

control over their own functioning and over events that affect their lives. Beliefs in personal efficacy
affect life choices, level of motivation, quality of functioning, resilience to adversity and vulnerability to
stress and depression. People's beliefs in their efficacy are developed by four main sources of
influence. They include mastery experiences, seeing people similar to oneself manage task demands
successfully, social persuasion that one has the capabilities to succeed in given activities, and
inferences from somatic and emotional states indicative of personal strengths and vulnerabilities.
Ordinary realities are strewn with impediments, adversities, setbacks, frustrations and inequities.
People must, therefore, have a robust sense of efficacy to sustain the perseverant effort needed to
succeed. Succeeding periods of life present new types of competency demands requiring further
development of personal efficacy for successful functioning. The nature and scope of perceived self-
efficacy undergo changes throughout the course of the lifespan.

Synthesis:
How we react to a difficult situation will affect how stress affects our life and our physical and
mental health. A person who feels they do not have enough resources to cope will be more likely to
have a stronger reaction that triggers significant physical and mental health problems. It is paramount
to remember that the mind and body are connected — meaning that psychological factors affect how
a person feels physically and the longevity of the body.

A persistently negative response to challenges can have a detrimental effect on mind + body
+ emotions. However, being aware of how you react to stressors and seeking professional help can
help reduce the negative feelings and effects of stress, and to manage it more effectively.

EXERCISE 7

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1.Self-Care Plan. Design for yourself a self-care plan for one whole month. Involve activities that will
help you stay fit and healthy, and manage stress.

2. COLLAGE-MAKING. Make a collage of your own perceived self-efficacy using Albert Bandura’s
four sources of influence for the development and maintenance of self-efficacy.

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References:
3G E-Learning. (2018). Understanding the Self. 3G E-Learning LLC: New York, USA.
Alata, Eden Joy Pastor, et. al. (2018). Understanding the Self. Rex Book Store: Manila,
Philippines.
https://spacioustherapy.com
https://ww.linkedin.com

https://www.med.upenn.edu
www.psychreg.org