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10EE35

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC

MEASUREMENTS AND
INSTRUMENTATION

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SUBJECT CODE : 10EE35

IA MARKS : 25
NO. OF LECTURE HRS./ WEEK : 04
EXAM HOURS : 03
TOTAL NO. OF LECTURE HRS. : 52
EXAM MARKS : 100

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 4(b) Energy Measurements

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Energy Triangle

8.3 Single Phase Energy meter

8.3.1 Constructional details
8.3.2 Theory of Operation
8.3.3 Errors in Energy meters
8.3.4 Adjustments
8.3.5 Calibration

8.4 Three Phase Energy meter

8.4.1 Introduction
8.4.2 Construction, Operation and Testing

8.5 Electronic Energy meters

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8.6 Energy Tariff

8.7 Solved Problems

8.8 Exercises

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CHAPTER 4 ENERGY MEASUREMENTS

8.1 INTRODUCTION

If the average power per cycle delivered to a circuit is constant in magnitude, the
energy consumed over a period of time can be obtained from the product of the power
consumed and time. The electrical energy is the total power delivered or consumed
over a given time interval. i.e., Energy = ( Power x Time ) Watt seconds or Joules.
If t is in hours, P is in kilo-watts, then the energy is expressed in kilo-watt-hours
(KWh). One KWh is referred as one unit of energy. An Unit of energy is the energy
consumed when power is delivered at an average rate of thousand watts per hour. If
the load on the system is such that the power consumption varies, it is impossible to
obtain an accurate measure of the energy consumed by reading watts and time. Thus,
energy measurements are made with the help of a watt-hour meter or energy meter.
Energy meters are integrating instruments continuously measuring the integral value
of either the total quantity of electricity in ampere-hour or total amount of energy in
KWh supplied to the load circuit in a given time. Thus, an energy meter differs from
a wattmeter in the sense that it indicates the power or rate of energy supplied and also
considers the time for which the supply is made.

The energy meter can be broadly grouped into: Electrolytic meters, Clock meters and.
Motor meters

Electrolytic meters work on DC and hence they can be used only on DC
supplies. The electrolytic meters have the advantages of low cost, simple
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construction, no frictional loss, no stray field effects, equal accuracy at all
loads, etc.

Clock meters are restricted in use and are used as standard meters only owing
to their high degree of accuracy.

Motor meters are the most important energy meters. The motor meters for DC
supplies can be either commutator motor meters or mercury motor meters. For
AC supplies too, the motor meters can be either commutator meters or
induction watt-hour meters. While the former has not survived due to their
many drawbacks, the latter is almost universally used.

Thus, for energy measurements in AC circuits, the Induction watt-hour meters are
widely adopted. They are similar in principle and construction to that of an induction
wattmeter, except that, the spring control and pointer of wattmeter are replaced
respectively by brake magnet and recording system.

Reactive Energy Apparent Energy

KVArh KVAh

Real Energy KWh

Figure 8.1 Energy Triangle

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8.2 ENERGY TRIANGLE

The electrical energy can be of three forms: real energy, reactive energy and apparent
energy.

Real energy or simply, the energy is the energy consumed by the resistive
loads on the system. It is expressed in kilo watt hours (KWh).

Reactive energy is the energy consumed by the reactive loads on the system. It
is expressed in reactive kilo volt-ampere hours (KVArh).

Apparent energy is the vector sum of the above two energy components. It is
expressed in kilo volt-ampere hours (KVAh).

Thus, it is observed from the energy triangle shown in figure 8.1, that more is the
deviation of power factor from its unity value, more is the deviation of real energy
from the apparent energy. Also, we have
KVAh2 = KWh2 + KVArh2 (8.1)
and power factor, cos ϕ = ( KWh / KVAh ) (8.2)

8.3 SINGLE PHASE ENERGY METER

The induction type single phase energy meters are universally used for energy
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measurements in domestic and industrial establishments since they possess some of
the very useful features such as :

Accurate characteristics

Lower friction

Higher torque weight ratio

Cheaper manufacturing methods and

Ease of maintenance.

8.3.1 Constructional Details

The single phase induction energy meter is schematically shown in figure 8.2.
Basically, it has four systems of operation: driving system, moving system, braking
system and registering system.

Driving system consists of a series magnet and a shunt magnet. The coil of the
series magnet is excited by load current while that of the shunt magnet is
excited by a current proportional to the supply voltage. These two coils are
respectively referred as current coil and potential coil (or pressure coil) of the
energy meter.

Moving system consists of a freely suspended, light aluminum disc mounted
on an alloy shaft and placed admidst the air-gap of the two electromagnets.

Braking system consists of a position-adjustable permanent magnet placed
near one edge of the disc. When the disc rotates in the gap between the two
poles of the brake magnet, eddy currents are set up in the disc. These currents
react with the brake magnet field and provide the required braking torque
damping out the disc motion if any, beyond the required speed.. The braking

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torque can be adjusted as required by varying the position of the braking

magnet.

Recording system is a mechanism used to record continuously a number
which is proportional to the revolutions made by the disc. Thus it is the
counter part of the pointer and scale of indicating instruments. The shaft that
supports the disc is connected by a gear arrangement to a clock mechanism on
the front of the meter. It is provided with a decimally calibrated read out of the
total energy consumption in KWh.

Shunt
Magnet
Potential
Coil

Copper
Shading Band

Friction Compensator Brake

Magnet

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Aluminum
Moving Disc

Current
Coil
Series
Magnet

Figure 8.2 Induction Type Energy Meter

The energy meter, also has some additional operational features for various purposes
as discussed under.

Lag Adjustment devices : They are used to introduce a magnetic shunt

circuit which helps to provide an MMF in proper phase relation to bring
the pressure coil flux in exact quadrature with the voltage. This is done by
using either adjustable resistance or copper shading bands on the shunt
magnet as shown in figure 8.2. The copper shading bands are provided on
the central limb of the shunt magnet and they are position-adjustable. They
bring the potential coil flux exactly in quadrature with the applied voltage.
Some times the lag plates are also useful for this purpose.

Friction or Low load Compensation : The friction errors are serious at
low loads. To ensure proper reading at low loads, friction compensators are

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used, which provide a small torque, independent of the load. This torque is
equal and opposite to the friction torque. The friction compensator consists
of a small shading loop placed between the disc and shunt magnet, slightly
towards one side of the disc, as shown in figure 8.2. It is correctly adjusted
to ensure minimum friction at low loads.

Creep : In some energy meters, when the pressure coil is energized, a
slow, but continuous rotation of the disc is observed even when there is no
current in the current coil. This is called Creeping. This can be due to
several reasons such as overcompensation for friction, vibrations, stray
field effects and excessive pressure coil voltage. To prevent creeping, two
diametrically opposite holes are drilled on the disc. The disc will stall
when one of the holes comes under one of the poles of the shunt magnet.
Thus the rotation is restricted to a maximum of half a revolution.

Voltage Compensation : The errors due to voltage variations are
compensated by increasing the reluctance of side limbs of shunt magnet.
Holes are provided on the side limbs of shunt magnet for this purpose.

Temperature Compensation : Owing to temperature effects, the energy
meters may runs faster and register wrong values. In such cases, the
compensation is provided by a temperature shunt on the brake magnet.

Over load Compensation : Over load compensators are used to minimize
the self braking action of energy meters. They are in the form of a saturable
magnetic shunt for the series magnet.

8.3.2 Theory of Operation

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The energy meter operates on the principle of Ferraris type meter. The supply voltage
is fed across the potential coil as shown in figure 8.3. The current through the
potential coil is proportional to the applied voltage and lags it by nearly 900, since its
winding resistance is very small. The potential coil current- IP produces a flux- φPT,
which divides into φg, a major portion across the side gaps and φP across the disc,
whose magnitude is smaller. Thus, flux- φP is responsible for producing the driving
torque. It is proportional to IP and is in phase with it. Flux- φP induces an eddy EMF in
the disc setting up an eddy current- iP. The load current- I flows through the current
coil and produces a flux- φS. It is proportional to I and is in phase with it. Flux- φS
induces an eddy EMF in the disc setting up an eddy current- iS. The phasor diagram of
the energy meter under working conditions is as shown in figure 8.4. The eddy
current- iS interacts with φP to produce a torque. The eddy current- iP also interact
with φS to produce another torque. These two torques are in opposite directions and
hence the net torque, which is the difference between them, causes the disc to rotate.

Let V be the applied voltage of frequency, f Hz., I be the load current, Z be the
impedance to eddy current paths, φP & φS be the pressure coil and current coil flux
values (rms), iP,iS be the corresponding eddy current values and & eP,eS, the eddy
EMF values respectively. Also, let ϕ be the phase angle of load, ∆ be the phase angle
between supply voltage and pressure coil flux, α be the phase angle of eddy currents
and β be the phase angle between the shunt coil and series coil flux values. Thus the
mean torque deflecting the disc is given by the following analysis.
Td = k [ φP iS cos ( 90 - β + α ) - φS iP cos ( 90 + β + α ) ]
= k [ φP iS sin ( β - α ) + φS iP sin ( β + α ) ] (8.3)

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Where k is a constant. Since we have, es ∝ f φS , eP ∝ f φP , iP = eP / Z and iS = eS /

Z, we get after simplification from (8.3)

IP φP

Moving
disc

I
Supply φS
V
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Figure 8.3 Working of Single Phase Energy Meter

V
I
ϕ
φS
∆ β φP IP

900
β
α
α iS

iP eS

eP

Figure 8.4 Energy meter Phasor diagram

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Td = kI (φP φS f / Z ) [ sin ( β - α ) + sin ( β + α ) ]

= kII (φP φS f / Z ) [ sin β cos α ] (8.4)

Further, since f, Z, α are constants and β = ( ∆- ϕ ), we have

Td = kIII (φP φS ) sin ( ∆- ϕ ) (8.5)

Also, φP ∝ V and φS ∝ I, and hence we have

Td = kIV V I sin ( ∆- ϕ ) (8.6)

If N is the steady speed of rotation of the moving disc, then the braking or controlling
torque, which is proportional to this speed, can be represented as
TC ∝ N
i.e., TC = kV N (8.7)
At steady speed, Td = TC and so from (8.6) and (8.7), we have
N ∝ V I sin ( ∆- ϕ ) (8.8)

If the potential coil flux and voltage phasors are maintained to be in quadrature, then
we have ∆ = 900, so that, from (8.8) we get
N ∝ V I cos ϕ
∝ single phase power in AC circuits (8.9)
Consider the total number of revolutions = ∫ N dt
= ∫ V I sin ( ∆- ϕ ) dt (8.10)

.
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If ∆ = 900, then the no. of revolutions = K ∫ VI cos ϕ dt
= K ∫ (power) dt
= K [Energy] (8.11)

Thus, the total number of revolutions made by the moving disc is a direct measure of
the energy consumed by load circuit.

8.3.3 Errors in Energy meters

The energy measurements by energy meters involve errors owing to many sources and
reasons as follows:

Errors in driving system include errors due to incorrect magnitude of flux
values, phase angles, etc. and lack of symmetry in magnetic circuit.

Errors in braking system such as changes in the strength of brake magnet,
changes in disc resistance, self braking effect of series magnet flux and
abnormal friction of the moving parts.

Errors in registering system are also expected to be present since they
involve mechanical parts. They are taken care of by calibration of the meter.

Other errors include errors caused due to friction, overloads, phase angle
variations, temperature effects, creeping of the meter, etc. These errors are
avoided by correct adjustments made using the various compensator facility
provided on the meter.

The energy meters read accurately if the errors fall within the allowable limits. In
other words, for the energy meter to be adaptable, the registration of the meter should
be with in ± 0.5 % of the true value of the measurand

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8.3.4 Adjustments
For the energy meters to read accurately, it is needful to make some adjustments on
the meter. The adjustments to be made in sequence are: preliminary light load
adjustment, full load UPF adjustment, lag or LPF adjustment, light load UPF
adjustment and creep adjustment.

Preliminary Light Load Adjustment: Rated voltage is applied to potential
coil with no current in the current coil. The light load device is adjusted until
the disc just fails to start. In this adjustment, care should be taken to see that
the disc is positioned in such a way that the holes do not come under the
electromagnet.

Full Load UPF Adjustment: The potential coil is connected across rated
supply voltage and rated full load current at unity power factor is passed
through the current coil. The brake magnet position is adjusted to vary the
braking torque so that the moving system moves at correct speed.

Lag or LPF adjustment: It is clear from equation (8.10) that the energy meter
will register correct value only if the angle between the shunt magnet flux, φP
and the supply voltage, V is 900 ( ∆ = 900 ). Hence the pressure coil should be
designed to be highly inductive. Also, various lag adjustment devices are made
use of for this purpose. For LPF adjustments, the pressure coil is connected
across the rated supply voltage and rated full load current at 0.5 lagging power
factor is passed through the current coil. The lag device is adjusted until the
meter runs at true speed.

Light Load UPF Adjustment: Firstly, full load UPF and LPF adjustments are
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made on the meter until it runs at correct speed. Then rated supply voltage is
applied across the pressure coil and a very low current of 5-10 % of full load
value is passed through the meter at unity power factor. The light load
adjustment is done so that the meter runs at proper speed.

Creep Adjustment: Firstly, full load UPF and light load adjustments are
made for correct speeds at both the loads and the performance is rechecked at
0.5 power factor. Then, as a final check on all the above adjustments, the
pressure coil is excited by 110 % of the rated voltage with zero load current. If
the light load adjustment is proper, the meter should not creep under these
conditions. If the error still persists, then all the above adjustments are carried
out once again.

8.3.5 Calibration
Any electrical instrument has to be tested for its measuring accuracy. Such a testing is
called as Calibration. Thus the calibration of energy meter is required in order to
validate its performance on service mains. The calibration is to be done in such a way
that the errors are reduced to their minimum. In case of energy meters, it is necessary
to first carry out sequentially all the required adjustments on the given meter, before
proceeding for calibration. After successfully carrying out all adjustments, the
calibration is done using the circuit connections as shown in figure 8.5. The AC
supply is fed at 230 V, 50 Hz. and load is applied on to the circuit up to full load by
using the lamp load arrangement. In all the trials, the readings of ammeter-A,
voltmeter-V, wattmeter-W are taken. Also, the time taken by the disc for a given
number of revolutions, is recorded for each trial, using a stop clock. The actual
reading can be calculated from the name plate details as described next.

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Considering the design data given for the energy meter, the energy meter test constant
kE, represented in Wh/rev. can be calculated. If for example, the name plate reading
is, say, 3000 rev./KWh, then, the test constant, kE equals 1/3. Thus the indicated value
of energy, IRE in watt hours as per the energy meter name plate details for given time
period and for N -number of revolutions is given by
IRE = kE N (8.12)

On the other hand, the true value of energy, TRE in watt hours in terms of the
wattmeter reading, W and time, t in hours recorded by the stop clock for N revolutions
is given by TRE = (W) (t) (8.13)

Thus, Error = TRE - IRE (8.14)

and percentage error as a percent of the true reading is given by
Error = (1 / TRE ) (TRE - IRE) x 100 % (8.15)

PC

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Brake
Moving Disc Magnet Single phase
Energy meter
CC

Watt meter
5 A / 300 V

A
0-5 A W
1-phase
230 V V 0-230 V Lamp
AC supply Load

Figure 8.5 Calibration of Energy Meter

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The percentage errors in disc speed, time taken for given number of rotations or
wattage consumption can also be similarly determined. It is to be noted that the
accuracy of calibration depends on the accuracy with which the wattage is measured
using a standard wattmeter. It is also needful to ensure the accuracy of the stop clock
used for time measurements. Finally a calibration curve can be drawn as a plot of the
percentage error on the y- axis and indicated energy reading- IRE or ammeter reading-
I on the x- axis as shown in figure 8.6. It should be observed that the different points
so obtained are joined using straight lines to get the complete calibration curve. The
use of calibration curves are obvious. Whenever an already calibrated meter is used
for measurements, the reading shown by the meter can be converted to its true value
by using the calibration curve. The meter is usually adjusted to read within ± 0.5 % of
the correct registration.

+
Percentage 3
Error 1 6

0
5 Current, I
2 4
7
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-

Figure 8.6 Sample Calibration Curve of Energy Meter

8.4 THREE PHASE ENERGY METER

8.4.1 Introduction
It is well established that for measurement of total power or energy in a n- conductor
system, it is required to use a meter with (n-1) elements. The principle of single phase
energy meter can as well be extended to obtain a poly-phase energy meter, in
particular a three phase energy meter. Usually, a three phase energy meter is available
as a 2-element meter or 3-element meter, each element being similar in construction to
the single phase meter and all elements mounted on a common shaft. The torque
developed by each element is summed up mechanically and the total number of
revolutions made by the shaft is proportional to the total three phase energy
consumption.

8.4.2 Construction, Operation and Testing

In a two-element, three phase energy meter the two discs are mounted on a common
spindle and each disc has its own brake magnet. The moving system drives a single
gear train. Each unit is provided with its own copper shading ring, shading band,
friction compensator, etc., for adjustments to be made to obtain the correct reading.

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PC

Disc Element 1

R CC R

Common shaft
Y Y

PC

Element 2

B CC B

Figure 8.7 Three Phase Energy Meter

A two element energy meter used for three phase energy measurements in three phase,
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three wire systems, is schematically shown in figure 8.7. It is needful that for the same
power/ energy, the driving torque should be equal in the two elements. This is checked
by torque adjustment. For torque adjustment, the two current coils are connected in
series opposition and the two potential coils are connected in parallel. Full load
current is allowed to pass through the current coil. This set up causes the two torques
to be in opposition and so, if the torques are equal, then the disc should not move. If
there is any slight motion indicating inequality of the two torques, then the magnetic
shunt is adjusted until the disc stalls. Thus the torque balancing is obtained before
testing the meter. The friction compensator and brake magnet positions are adjusted to
each of the two/three elements separately, treating each of them as a single phase
element on single phase AC supply. The calibration of three phase meter can also be
performed in a similar manner, as that described earlier, for single phase energy
meters.

8.5 ELECTRONIC ENERGY METERS

With the use of conventional Ferraris type induction watt hour meters at the consumer
premises for tariff purposes, the supply undertakings as well as consumers are put to
many disadvantages:

The supply undertakings are at a loss when the meters do not properly record the
energy values. This could be due to many reasons such as meter tampering, meters
exposed to different atmospheric disturbances and delay in resetting.

In cases where the meters record readings with a positive error i.e., the meter
records the energy value higher than that consumed by the circuit in which it is

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connected for metering purposes, then the consumer is expected to pay more for
the energy consumed than what he really is supposed to.

Besides the above problems faced with malfunctioning of energy meters causing
wrong billing, these meters fail to record the effect of leakage currents, harmonics
in supply waveforms, etc.

It is not justifiable to charge the consumer for the harmonic energy, passing
through the meter, for which both the consumer and utilities are equally
responsible. Besides, this energy is not at all generated by the utilities !

Recently, the interest is towards using the digital methods for energy metering
purposes. The electronic energy meter is one such method adopted by most of the
utilities. Although the requirements of accuracy in energy meters is still debatable, the
hue and cry about the installation of electronic energy meters can be defended with a
list of their advantages as under:
• Simple in construction & reliable.
• Very accurate compared to conventional energy meters.
• Friction and magnetic leakage errors are absent since they are disc-less meters.
• Tampering of meters is not possible at the consumer end.
• Maintenance-free in operation.
• Can record even the small leakage currents, thus raising the bill amounts.

8.6 ENERGY TARIFF

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Different Tariff schemes have been evolved as a means for realizing a balance
between costs of power production, transmission & distribution with the cost
recovered through bills from the different consumers on the supply network. Different
tariff methods are adopted depending on the type of consumer. The total charges are
divided mainly in to the following two categories:

Fixed Charges: The maximum demand to be simultaneously met with, fixes
the rating of a generating plant. In other words, a fixed amount is spent for the
given plant in proportion to its maximum demand requirement. Such expenses
include the cost of plant, buildings, transmission and distribution equipment,
etc. This part is referred as Fixed Charges.

Running Charges: The expenses made on fuel, salaries to employees,
maintenance, etc., depend on the current load and hence the total number of
generated units of energy by the system. This part is referred as Running
Charges.

Thus the consumer has to be charged in such a way that the total cost of electric
generation and supply of power is equitably shared by all types of consumers in
proportion to their respective maximum demand. This should be in addition to the
charge to be borne by them for their total energy consumption. In AC systems, the
power factor also plays a very important role. A low power factor (LPF) causes many
disadvantages, especially from the supply authorities view point, as listed below:

Consumers with LPF loads require a much larger current for a given
amount of active power, than would be necessary if their PF is high.

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The increased current requirements at LPF necessitate the use, in the power
station, of generators of a correspondingly high current capacity.

LPF results in poor voltage regulation.

LPF causes the copper losses in machines and distribution lines to be high.

In effect, LPF results in increased running changes to the utilities.

Thus, it is reasonable that a consumer, especially the industrial establishments, should

be charged extra to compensate for the increase in costs for which their LPF is
responsible. The tariff should be such that the consumers maintaining good power
factor values, up to unity, should be encouraged to do so and those who do not
maintain good power factor should be charged extra. Various tariff schemes have
been used in practice by the supply undertakings. Some of the very common schemes
are as follows:

KWh or Flat Rate Tariff : This involves charging the consumer in proportion
to the KWh of energy consumed by him.

MD or Two- Part Tariff : Here, the total charge includes two parts: the first
part is the fixed charges based on the maximum demand and the second part is
the running charges based on the KWh of energy consumed. The maximum
demand is the average power over 20 – 30 minutes of predetermined period.

PF or Three- Part Tariff : This is followed mainly to encourage consumers
to maintain a high power factor. Here, the total charge includes three parts: the
first part is the fixed charges based on the maximum demand, the second and
third parts are the running charges based on the KWh and KVArh of energy
consumption.
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Thus the tariff schemes, necessarily make use of different special meters such as
maximum demand indicators, KVArh meters and KVAh meters. These meters are
installed at required strategic points in the industrial establishments.

8.7 SOLVED PROBLEMS

1. A 240 volt, 5 ampere, single phase energy meter has a constant of 1200
revolutions per kilo watt hour (KWh). When tested by applying 240 volts, the
meter took 99.8 seconds to complete 40 revolutions. Find the percentage error.
Is it running fast or slow ?

Solution:
The total energy consumed = V I t (cos ϕ) Wh
i.e., TREnergy = [ (240) (5) (99.8 / 3600) (1.0) ]
= 33.2667 Wh
The indicated reading, IREnergy = revolutions made / kE in rev./ KWh
= ( 40 / 1200 ) 103
= 33.3333 Wh
Thus, energy error = TREnergy – IREnergy
= 33.2667 – 33.3333
Percentage error = (- 0.0666 / 33.2667 ) 100 %
= - 0.2 % (more)

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Since the energy recorded is more, the energy meter is running fast under the
given operating conditions.

2. The meter constant of a 240 volt, 30 ampere, single phase energy meter is1800
revolutions per KWh. When tested at half load, rated voltage and 0.8 power
factor, the meter is found to make 100 revolutions in 70 seconds. Determine
the percentage error at half load.

Solution:
The energy consumed at half load = V (I/2) t (cos ϕ) Wh
i.e., TREnergy = [ (240) (15) (70 / 3600) (0.8) ]
= 56 Wh
The indicated reading, IREnergy = revolutions made / (kE in rev./ KWh)
= ( 100 / 1800 ) 103
= 55.5555 Wh
Thus, energy error = TREnergy – IREnergy
= 56 – 55.5555
Percentage error = (0.4444 / 56 ) 100 %
= 0.7936 % (less)

It is observed that the energy recorded is less and hence the energy meter is
running slow under the given operating conditions.

3. The meter constant of an energy meter is1200 revolutions per KWh. It is found
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to make 20 revolutions in 80 seconds. Determine the load on the meter.

Solution:
The energy consumed = revolutions made / (kE in rev./ KWh)
= 20 / 1200
= 0.0167 KWh
Thus, load on the meter = Energy in KWh / Time in hours
= ( 0.0167 ) / (80 /3600 )
= 0.75 KW

4. A single phase, 50 A, 230 V energy meter on full load test makes 61

revolutions in 37 seconds. If the normal disc speed is 520 revolutions per
KWh, determine the percentage error as a percentage of true speed. Is the
situation beneficial to the consumer ? Reason out.

Solution:
The total energy consumed = V I t (cos ϕ) Wh
= [ (230) (50) (37/3600) (1.0) ] 10-3 KWh.
= 0.1182 KWh
Since the energy meter constant, kE is 520 rev./ KWh, the total revolutions
should have been, TRRev = ( 0.1182 KWh ) (520 rev./KWh )
= 61.4611 revolutions.
But the indicated speed is 61 revolutions. Hence, the error in speed is
The Speed error = TRRev – IR Rev = 61.4611 – 61
Percentage error = (0.4611 / 61.4611 ) 100 % = 0.75 % (slow)

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The situation is beneficial to the consumer, since the meter is running slow for
a given amount of energy consumed.

5. Determine the registration error of an AC energy meter tested for a period of

20 minutes at half load yielding the test results as follows :
Supply voltage = 220 V
Load current = 20 A
Power Factor = Unity
Initial Reading = 197.85 and
Final Reading = 198.55.

Solution:
Energy consumed at half load = V (I/2) t (cos ϕ) Wh
i.e., TREnergy = [ (220) (10) (20/60) (1.0) ] 10-3 KWh.
= 0.7333 KWh
Assuming the given reading of the energy meter to be in units of KWh, the
Energy registered by the meter = 198.55 –197.85
i.e., IREnergy = 0.7 KWh
Energy error = TREnergy – IREnergy
= 0.7333 – 0.7
Percentage error = (0.0333 / 0.7333) 100 %
= 4.5454 % (less)

6.
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For a 20 A, 230 V energy meter, the number of revolutions per KWh is 480. If
upon test at full load, the disc makes 40 revolutions in 66 seconds, determine
the error in the following as a percentage of metered values : (i)speed (ii)time
taken (iii)power consumed and (iv)energy consumed. Comment on the
results.

Solution:
The total power consumed = V I (cos ϕ) watts
= (230) (20) (1.0) 10-3 KW
= 4.6 KW
The total energy consumed = [ (power in KW) (time in hours) ]
= [ 4.6 x 66 /3600 ] KWh.
= 0.0843 KWh

(i) Error in Speed: Since the energy meter constant, kE is 480 rev./ KWh, the
total revolutions should have been, TRRev = (0.0843 KWh ) (480 rev./KWh )
= 40.48 revolutions.
But the indicated speed, IRRev is 40 revolutions.
Thus, speed error = TRRev – IR Rev
= 40.48 – 40
Percentage error = (0.48 / 40 ) 100 %
= 1.2 % (slow)

(ii) Error in time: TRTime is 66 seconds and to determine the indicated time,
IRTime, consider the expression for number of revolutions in terms of time:

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Number of revolutions = (energy in KWh) (kE in rev./KWh)

= V I t (cos ϕ) (kE)
i.e., 40 = [ (230) (20) ( t / 3600) (1.0) 10-3 ] (480)
solving for t, we get, IRTime = 65.2174 seconds.
Thus, time error = TRTime – IRTime
= 66 - 65.2174
Percentage error = (0.7826 / 65.2174 ) 100 %
= 1.2 % (slow)

(iii) Error in power consumed : TRPower is 4.6 KW and to determine the

indicated power reading, IRPower, consider the expression for number of
revolutions in terms of power:
Number of revolutions = (power in KW) (time in Hours) (kE in rev./KWh)
= P t (kE)
i.e., 40 = P (66 / 3600) [480]
solving for P, we get, IRPower = 4.5454 KW.
Thus, Power error = TRPower – IRPower
= 4.6 – 4.5454
Percentage error = ( 0.0545 / 4.5454 ) 100 %
= 1.2 % (less)

(iv) Error in energy consumed: TREnergy is 0.0843 KWh and to determine the
indicated energy reading, IREnergy, consider the expression for number of
revolutions in terms of energy:
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Number of revolutions = (Energy in KWh) (kE in rev./KWh)
= E (kE)
i.e., 40 = [ E][480]
solving for E, we get, IREnergy = 0.0833 KWh.
Thus, Energy error = TREnergy – IREnergy
= 0.0843 – 0.0833
Percentage error = ( 0.001 / 0.0833 ) 100 %
= 1.2 % (less)

Thus the percentage error in the speed of the disc, the time taken for given
revolutions of the disc, the power consumed by the load or the energy
consumption in respect of the given energy meter is always the same.

7. A single phase 230 V energy meter has a constant load current of 4.25 A
passing through it for 5 hours at unity power factor. If the disc makes 1173
revolutions during this period, determine the energy meter constant in
revolutions per KWh. If the power factor is reduced to 85 %, calculate the
number of revolutions of the disc observed in the above time.

Solution:

The total energy supplied = V I t (cos ϕ) Wh

= (230) (4.25) (5) (1.0) 10-3 KWh.
= 4.8875 KWh

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(i) Energy meter constant, kE = rev. made / energy consumed in KWh

= [ 1173 / 4.8875 ]
= 240 rev./ KWh

(ii) The energy at 85 % power factor = V I t (cos ϕ) Wh

= (230) (4.25) (5) (0.85) 10-3 KWh.
= 4.1544 KWh

Thus, the no. of rev. made = (Energy in KWh) (kE in rev./KWh)

= 4.1544 x 240
= 997 revolutions.

8. A correctly adjusted, single phase, 230 V, energy meter has a constant of 600
revolutions per KWh. (a) Determine the disc speed in RPM for a current of
4.85 amperes at 0.9 lagging power factor. (b) If the lag adjustment is changed
so that the voltage flux is leading the applied voltage at 840, determine the
error thus introduced at a power factor of 0.6 and unity. Comment on the
results.

Solution:
(a) The total energy supplied = V I t (cos ϕ) Wh
= [ (230) (4.85) (1/60) (0.9) ] Wh.
= 16.7325 Wh

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Thus, the no. of revolutions per minute = energy in KWh x kE in rev./ KWh
= 16.7325 (10-3) x 600
i.e., Speed of the disc = 10 RPM

(b) Steady speed, N = KVI sin (∆ - ϕ)

If lag adjustment is correct, then ∆ = 900

so that, N1 = KVI cos ϕ

If lag adjustment is changed in such a way that, ∆ = 840, then the speed is
given by N2 = KVI sin (∆ - ϕ)

Thus, the % error due to change in lag adjustment at a given PF is given by

Percentage error = [ (N2 – N1 ) / N1 ] 100 %
= [{ sin (∆ - ϕ) - cos ϕ } / cos ϕ ] 100 %

(i) Error at 0.6 PF lag. (ϕ=53.130) = [ {sin (84 – 53.13) – 0.6}/ 0.6 ]100 %
= - 14.4847 %

(ii) Error at unity PF ( ϕ = 00 ) = [{sin (84) – 1.0}/ 1.0]100 %

= - 0.5478 %

The variation of percentage error with the decreasing values of power factor is
shown in the table below. It can be observed from the table that the error

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introduced by altering the lag adjustment increases with decrease in power

factor and a serious error occurs at low power factor values.

Power Angle (∆-ϕ) Percentage

Factor ϕ (deg.) (deg.) error (%)
Cos ϕ
1.0 0.00 84.00 - 0.55
0.9 25.84 58.16 - 5.61
0.8 36.87 47.13 - 8.39
0.7 45.57 38.43 -11.21
0.6 53.13 30.87 -14.48
0.5 60.00 24.00 -18.65
0.4 66.42 17.58 -24.50
0.3 72.54 11.46 -33.79
0.2 78.46 5.54 -51.76

9. A three phase, two element, integrating type, energy meter connected on to a

circuit of line voltage- 230 volts, Current- 10 amperes at unity power factor
has a constant of 5.5555 KWh per revolution. The time required by the meter
disc for 150 revolutions is 38.5 seconds. The meter is normally used with a
potential transformer of ratio 22,000 / 220 V and a current transformer of ratio
1000/5 A. Determine the error expressed as a percentage of true energy.
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Solution:
Energy as recorded by the meter = (rev. made) (kE in KWh / rev.)
i.e., IREnergy = 150 ( 5.5555 ) = 833.3333 KWh

With the CT and PT ratio effects also taken into consideration, we have
Actual energy = [√3 VL (ratioPT) IL (ratioCT) cos ϕ ] (time in Hrs)
i.e., TREnergy = (√3 ) [230 (22000/220)] [10 (1000/5)] (1.0) (38.5/3600) x 10-3
= 852.0728 KWh

Hence, Energy error = TREnergy – IREnergy = 852.0728 – 8333.3333

Percentage error = ( 18.7395 / 852.0728 ) 100 % = 2.2 % (less)

10. Calculate the monthly bill for a month of 30 days in case of a consumer whose
maximum demand is 150 KW and average monthly load factor is 30 %. The
tariff in use is Rs. 10.0 per KW of maximum demand and 7.0 Paise per KWh
of energy consumption.

Solution:
Average Load factor = Average load / Maximum Demand
and Average load = Energy in KWh / Time in hours
Thus, Load Factor = [E / time ] ( 1/MD )
i.e., 0.3 = [ E / (30 x 24) ] (1/ 150)
solving for E, we get, Energy = 32,400 KWh

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Thus, monthly bill = Rs. [10.0 (MD in KW )+ (7.00 /100) (Energy in KWh )]
= Rs. 10 ( 150 ) + 0.07 ( 32,400 )
= Rs. 3,768 /-

11. It was found by three phase energy meter tests conducted during the month of
December that the meter resulted in an error owing to the reversal of polarity
of one of the potential transformers. The readings obtained for a period of the
previous two months are as shown below. (a) Suggest a suitable method of
obtaining the true bill. (b) Determine the loss suffered by the utility when the
tariff followed is: Rs. 10.0 per KW of maximum demand per month and 8
Paise per KWh of energy consumption. (c) Calculate the loss suffered if the
power factor is increased to 75 % for the month of October.

Month Power MDI Energy meter

Factor (%) Reading (KW) reading (MWh)
October 65 500 20
November 65 300 15

Solution:
(a) Consider the torque equation in respect of the two elements of the energy
meter (in a similar way to those in watt-meters) :
Torque on element 1, Td1 = VI cos ( 30 + ϕ )
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Torque on element 2, Td2 = VI cos ( 30 - ϕ )

Thus, the net torque, T1 = Td1 + Td2

= √ 3 V I cos ϕ

If errors are introduced owing to the reversal of polarity of one of the potential
transformers, then Td2 gets reversed, so that
Resultant torque, T2 = Td1 - Td2
= V I sin ϕ
Thus, T1 / T2 = √ 3 cot ϕ

i.e., True reading = [ √ 3 cot ϕ ] ( Indicated reading )

Or, Correct bill = [ √ 3 cot ϕ ] ( Present bill )

(b) Since power factor is 0.65, during the period of two months ϕ is 49.460 ,
[cot ϕ] is 0.8553 and √ 3 cot ϕ is 1.4815, so that the monthly bill is given by :
Bill for two months = 10.0 [500 + 300 ] + (8 /100) [20 + 15 ] ( 103 )
= Rs. 10,800 /=
and the Correct bill = (1.4815) (10,800)
= Rs. 16,000 /=
Thus, the loss suffered by the utility = Rs. 5,200 /=
(c) Since the PF values are not equal, to find the total loss suffered by the
utility over the period of the previous two months, they are separately billed as
follows:

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(i) For the month of October: power factor is 0.75 , ϕ is 41.410,

[cot ϕ] is 1.1339 and [√ 3 cot ϕ] is 1.96396. Thus,
Bill for October = 10.0 [500 ] + (8 /100) [ 20 ] ( 103 )
= Rs. 6,600/=

Correct bill for October = (1.96396) (6,600)

= Rs. 12,962.143 /=
Thus, the loss suffered during October = Rs. 6,362.1427 /=

(ii) For the month of November : power factor is 0.65 , ϕ is 49.460,

[cot ϕ] is 0.8553 and [√ 3 cot ϕ] is 1.4815. Thus,
Bill for November = 10.0 [300 ] + (8/100) [ 15 ] ( 103 )
= Rs. 4,200/=

Correct bill for November = (1.4815) (4,200)

= Rs. 6,222.2475 /=
Thus, the loss suffered during November = Rs. 2,022.2475 /=

Hence, the total loss suffered over the period of two months by the utility is
equal to Rs. 8,384.39 /=

12. Calculate the average monthly power factor and cost per unit of energy
consumption for a month of 30 days given that: KWh meter reading- 200,000;
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KVArh meter reading- 150,000; KW MD meter reading- 120 and KVAr MD
meter reading- 90. The tariff in use is: Rs. 12 per KVA of demand per month
and 5 Paise per KVAh per month.

Solution :
Total KVAh = √ ( KWh2 + KVArh2 )
= √ ( 200,0002 + 150,0002 )
= 250,000 KVAh KVArh KVAh
2 2
Total KVA MD = √ ( KW MD + KVAr MD ) ϕ
= √ ( 1202 + 902 ) KWh
= 150 KVA
Thus, Average PF, cos ϕ = KW MD / KVA MD
= 120 / 150 KVAr KVA MD
= 0.8 MD
ϕ
Monthly bill = 12.00 (150) + (5/100) (250,000) KW MD
= Rs. 14,300 /-

Cost per unit = Paise (14,300 / 200,000 )100 = 7.15 Paise per unit.

8.8 EXERCISES

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1. An energy meter is designed to make 100 revolutions of the disc for one unit
of energy consumed. Calculate the number of revolutions made by it when
connected to a load carrying 20 A at 230 V, 0.8 power factor for one hour. If it
actually makes 360 revolutions, find the percentage error as a percentage of
meter speed. (Ans. : 2.22 % - slow)

2. A single phase energy meter rated for 230 V, 50 Hz., has a constant of 200
revolutions per KWh. While applying a non-inductive load of 4.4 Amperes at
normal voltage, the meter takes 3 minutes to complete 10 revolutions. Find the
percentage error of the instrument. (Ans.: 1.1858 % - less)

3. A single phase, 220 V energy meter is adjusted to read correctly at unity power
factor. It is observed that at one quarter full load current and 0.6 power factor,
the effective shunt magnet flux lags behind the series magnet flux by 30.870.
Determine the percentage error introduced in measurements.
(Ans. : 14.485% )

4. The meter constant of a single phase energy meter is 900 revolutions per KWh.
The current and voltage ratings of the meter are 10 A and 230 V. The time
taken to complete 20 revolutions during a test at half load is 69 seconds. Find
the error at this load. (Ans.: - 0.82 % - more)

5. A single phase, 220 V watt-hour meter has a constant load of 5 amperes

passing through it for 6 hours at unity power factor. If the disc makes 2640
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revolutions during this period, determine the energy meter constant in
revolutions per kilo watt - hour. Calculate the power factor of the load if
736 revolutions are made by the disc at 230 V, 5 A for 5 hours.
(Ans.: kE = 400 Rev. / KWh, PF = 0.8 lag)

6. The constant of a single phase, 5 A, 220 V, watt-hour meter is 7200

revolutions per KWh. Calculate the speed of the disc at full load. If the meter
takes 44.87 seconds to complete 50 revolutions in a test run at half the full
load, calculate the error in the speed of the instrument.
(Ans.: 132 rpm, -1.3 % - fast)

7. A single phase, 230 V, watt-hour meter has a constant load current of 4

amperes passing through it for 5 hours at 0.8 power factor. If the disc makes
883 revolutions during this period, determine the energy meter constant in
revolutions per KWh. If the power factor is unity, calculate the number of
revolutions made by the disc in the above time.
(Ans.: kE = 240 rev. / KWh, 1104 revolutions)

8. A three phase, 2 element energy meter connected on to a circuit of line

voltage- 120 volts, current- 5 amperes, at unity power factor has a constant of
8.3333 KWh per revolution of the disc. The time required by the disc for 40
revolutions is 60 seconds. The meter is normally used with a potential
transformer of ratio 22000/ 110 V and a current transformer of ratio 500/5 A.
determine the error expressed as a percentage of true reading in energy and
speed. (Ans.: Error = 3.775 % - less / slow)

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9. It was found by three phase energy meter tests that the meter resulted in an
error owing to the reversal of polarity of one of the potential transformers. The
readings obtained for a period of the previous two months are as shown below.
Suggest a suitable method of obtaining the correct bill for the consumer.
Determine the loss suffered by the supply authorities when the tariff in use is:
Rs. 6.5 per KW of MD per month and 9 Paise per KWh of energy
consumption.

Month Power MDI Reading Energy meter

Factor (KW) reading (MWh)
1 0.8 350 25
2 0.8 250 20

(Ans.: True bill = 2.31(Present bill), Loss = Rs.10,410/-)

10. Calculate the average monthly load factor and power factor given that the data
recorded during a month of 30 days are: KVArh meter reading- 135,000; KWh
meter reading- 290, 000; and MDI reading- 1600 MW.
(Ans.: 25.1736 %, 90.66 % )

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