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Classification Scheme For Mathematical Problems

This document discusses different types of mathematical problems and their roles in instruction. It proposes a classification scheme that broadly categorizes problems as closed or open-ended. Closed problems have a single correct answer, while open-ended problems have multiple answers or approaches. The document provides examples of routine closed problems and how to create open-ended problems to develop student thinking and communication skills.

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Wendy Mae Lapuz
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90 views6 pages

Classification Scheme For Mathematical Problems

This document discusses different types of mathematical problems and their roles in instruction. It proposes a classification scheme that broadly categorizes problems as closed or open-ended. Closed problems have a single correct answer, while open-ended problems have multiple answers or approaches. The document provides examples of routine closed problems and how to create open-ended problems to develop student thinking and communication skills.

Uploaded by

Wendy Mae Lapuz
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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In order for teachers to realize the encompassing role of problem solving in the

curriculum, they should to be able to distinguish between and among the various types
of problems and their roles. Equip with the knowledge and understanding they can
judiciously select or even construct tasks for their students that will promote different
forms of thinking activities in a mathematics lesson. Based on a systematic search of
literature on problem solving and use of problems in research by Foong (1990), this paper
proposes a classification scheme for different types of problems that are being
encouraged for the 21st century mathematics classrooms, as shown in figure 1.

We shall adopt the commonly accepted definition of a “problem” as one where


thinking takes place when a person is confronted with a problem that has no immediate
solution and that the problem solver accepts the challenge to tackle it. This will exclude
those school textbook exercises that are

Figure 2: Classification Scheme for Mathematical “Problems”

used for practice of an algorithm or skill such as in computational sums or in simple one
to two-step translation word problems. In this scheme, basically, most problems can be
broadly classified as “closed” or “open-ended” in structure. Problems in this classification
scheme have their different roles in mathematics instruction as in teaching for problem
solving, teaching about problem solving, or teaching via problem solving. These roles will
be illustrated in the following discussion on the different categories of problems.
CLOSED PROBLEMS
Closed problems are “well-structured” in terms of clearly formulated tasks where
the one correct answer can always be determined in some fixed ways from the necessary
data given in the problem situation. These closed problems would include content-specific
routine multiple -step problems as well as non-routine heuristic -based problems. To
tackle these problems, the solver through productive thinking rather than simple recall
must generate some process skills or some crucial steps in the solution method. Figure
3a shows examples of the routine content-specific multiple-step problems, also known as
“challenge problems” to local teachers for the topic on Fraction. Teachers use such
challenge problems for its role in teaching for problem solving where the emphasis is on
learning mathematics for the main purpose of applying it to solve problems on a particular
topic. Such type of challenge problems in the Singapore syllabus are used to assess so
called higher–order analytical thinking skills of the pupils. Similar structured word
problems of this such kind are posed as challenge sums across related arithmetic topics
like whole numbers, fractions, ratio and percent.
Figure 2a: Routine challenge sums Figure 2b: Non-routine heuristic problem

In tandem with the current call for more emphasis on process skills, there are
recommendations in the syllabus for teachers to use non-routine problems to teach
thinking skills and problem solving heuristics. Non-routine closed problems of the type
shown in Figure 2b are beginning to appear in the mathematics classroom where teachers
use them in the role of teaching about problem solving. The emphasis is on using heuristic
strategies like use guess and check, working systematically, try simpler cases, tabulate
data, look for a pattern, generalize, etc., to solve an unfamiliar problem that is usually
not domain-specific to any topics in the syllabus.

OPEN-ENDED PROBLEMS
This category of problems is often considered as “ill-structured problems” for they
lack clear formulation as there are missing data or assumptions and there is no fixed
procedure that guarantees a correct solution. Much of the real-world problems, e.g.
Design a better time-table or How much water and money can a school save during the
“Save Water” campaign? would fall into this category. Mathematical investigation in the
form of major open-ended projects that explore and extend a piece of pure mathematics
for its own sake or those real-world problems that require mathematical modeling meant
for higher level mathematics will not be discussed in this paper. Such open-ended projects
usually require students to demonstrate their ability in the form of a detailed report on
how they carry out an extended piece of independent work in mathematics showing their
creative application of mathematical knowledge and skills.
FEATURES of open-ended problems:
 There is no fixed answer (many possible answers)
 Solved in different ways and on different levels (accessible to mixed abilities)
 Empower students to make their own mathematical decisions and make room for
own mathematical thinking
 Develop reasoning and communication skills

HOW do you create open-ended tasks?


Usually, in order to create open-ended questions or problems, the teacher has to
work backwards:
 In identify a mathematical topic or concept.
 Think of a closed question and write down the answer.
 Make up a new question that includes (or addresses) the answer.

STRATEGIES to convert closed problems/questions


1. Turning around a question
CLOSED: What is half of 20?
OPEN: 10 is the fraction of a number. What could the fraction and the number be?
Explain.
CLOSED: Find the difference between 23 and 7.
OPEN: The difference between two numbers is 16. What might the numbers be? Explain
your thinking.
CLOSED: Round this decimal to the decimal place 5.7347
OPEN: A number has been rounded to 5.8. What might the number be?
CLOSED: There are 12 apples on the table and some in a basket. In all there are 50
apples. How many apples are in the basket?
OPEN: There are some apples on the table and some in a basket. In all there are 50
apples. How many apples might be on the table? Explain your thinking.
2. Asking for similarities and differences.
Choose two numbers, shapes, graphs, probabilities, measurements etc. and ask
students how they are alike and how they are different.
Example: How are 95 and 100 alike? How are they different?
Possible answers:
o They are alike because you can skip count by 5s, both are less than 200, both are
greater than 90 etc.
o They are different because one is a three-digit number, only one ends in 5, only
one is greater than 99 etc.
Example: How are the numbers 6.001 and 1.006 alike? How are they different?

3. Asking for explanations.


Example: Compare two fractions with different denominators. Tell how you compare
them.
Example: 4 is a factor for two different numbers. What else might be true about both
numbers?

4. Creating a sentence
Students are asked to create a mathematical sentence that includes certain
numbers and words.
Example: Create a sentence that includes numbers 3 and 4 along with the words “more”
and “and”.
Possible answers:
o 3 and 4 are more than 2
o 3 and 4 together are more than 6
o 34 and 26 are more than 34 and 20 etc.
Example: Create a question involving multiplication or division of decimals where the
digits 4, 9, and 2 appear somewhere.
Example: Create a sentence involving ½ and 64 and the words “less” and “twice as
much”.
5. Using “soft” words.
Using the word “close” (or other equivalents) allows for a richer, more interesting
mathematical discussion.
Example: You multiply two numbers and the product is almost 600. What could the
numbers have been? Explain.
Example: Add two numbers whose sum is close to 750. What can the numbers be?
Explain.
Example: Create two triangles with different but close areas. (*instead of, “Create a
triangle with an area of 20 square inches.”)

A few important considerations are to be made when creating open-ended


problems or questions.
1. Know your mathematical focus.
2. Develop questions with the right degree of ambiguity (vague enough to be
interesting and to allow for different responses, but not too vague so as students
get frustrated).
3. Plan for two types of prompts:

 enabling prompts (for students who seem unable to start working)


 extension prompts (for students who finish quickly)

High quality responses from students have the following features:


 Are systematic (e.g. may record responses in a table or pattern).
 If the solutions are finite, all solutions are found.
 If patterns can be found, then they are evident in the response.
 Where a student has challenged themselves and shown complex examples which
satisfy the constraints.
 Make connections to other content areas.

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