READING MATERIAL

ON
COMPUTER APPLICATION
(FIRST YEAR)

Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT)

Faculty of Forestry
Thaha polytechnic Institute
Thaha-9, Chitlang
Makwanpur, Nepal
 Course: Computer Application

Topic Page No.

Unit 1: Introduction to computer…………………………………3
Unit 2: Word Processing………………………………………….32
Unit 3: Spreadsheet………………………………………………..41
Unit 4: Presentation and Graphics……………………………….51
Unit 5: Email, Internet, Virus protection………………………..81
Unit 6: Cloud computing………………………………………….91
Unit 7: Programming……………………………………………101

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 UNIT – 1: INTRODUCTION OF COMPUTER

INTRODUCTION:
A computer is a programmable machine designed to perform arithmetic and logical operations
automatically and sequentially on the input given by the user and gives the desired output after
processing. Computer components are divided into two major categories namely hardware and
software. Hardware is the machine itself and its connected devices such as monitor, keyboard,
mouse etc. Software are the set of programs that make use of hardware for performing various
functions.

The term "computer" is derived from the Latin word "computare" which means to calculate. It
is believed that the Analytical Engine was the first computer which was invented by Charles
Babbage in 1837. It used punch cards as read-only memory. Charles Babbage is also known as
the father of the computer.

Functions of Computers:
A computer performs the following functions −
Receiving Input
Data is fed into computer through various input devices like keyboard, mouse, digital pens,
etc. Input can also be fed through devices like CD-ROM, pen drive, scanner, etc.
Processing the information
Operations on the input data are carried out based on the instructions provided in the programs.
Storing the information
After processing, the information gets stored in the primary or secondary storage area.
Producing output
The processed information and other details are communicated to the outside world through
output devices like monitor, printer, etc.

Features of computer:
1. Accuracy and speed operation
2. Ability to calculate and compare
3. Easy to use
4. High storage capacity
5. Versatile of computer
6. Difficult job handling
7. Powerful Tools

Components of Computer System:

Computer systems consist of three components as shown in below image: Central
Processing Unit, Input devices and Output devices. Input devices provide data input to
processor, which processes data and generates useful information that’s displayed to the user
through output devices. This is stored in computer’s memory.

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Classification of Computers:
On the basis of data handling capabilities, the computer is of three types:
1) Analogue Computer:
Analogue computers are designed to process the analogue data. Analogue data is continuous
data that changes continuously and cannot have discrete values such as speed, temperature,
pressure and current.
The analogue computers measure the continuous changes in physical quantity and generally
render output as a reading on a dial or scale. Analogue computers directly accept the data from
the measuring device without first converting it into numbers and codes. Speedometer and
mercury thermometer are examples of analogue computers.

2) Digital Computer:
Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high speed. It
accepts the raw data as digits or numbers and processes it with programs stored in its memory
to produce output. All modern computers like laptops and desktops that we use at home or
office are digital computers.

3) Hybrid Computer:
Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer. It is fast like analogue
computer and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It can process both continuous
and discrete data. So, it is widely used in specialized applications where both analogue and
digital data is processed. For example, a processor is used in petrol pumps that converts the
measurements of fuel flow into quantity and price.

On the basis of size, the computer can be of five types:

1) Supercomputer:

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Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to process huge
amount of data. A supercomputer can process trillions of instructions in a second. It has
thousands of interconnected processors.
Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering applications such as weather
forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear energy research. First supercomputer was
developed by Roger Cray in 1976.

2) Mainframe computer:
Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.
They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different
processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big
organizations like banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and process high
volume of data.

3) Mini-frame computer:
It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors and can support
4 to 200 users at one time. Mini-frame computers are used in institutes and departments for the
tasks such as billing, accounting and inventory management.

4) Workstation:
Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or scientific applications.
It has faster microprocessor, large amount of RAM and high-speed graphic adapters. It
generally performs a specific job with great expertise; accordingly, they are of different types
such as graphics workstation, music workstation and engineering design workstation.

5) Microcomputer:
Microcomputer is also known as personal computer. It is a general-purpose computer that is
designed for individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central processing unit, memory,
storage area, input unit and output unit. Laptops and desktop computers are examples of
microcomputers.

On the basis of brand, the computer can be of two types:

1) IBM Computers:
The computers manufactured by IBM (International Business Machine) company are called
IBM computers. The microcomputers of IBM companies are called IBM PC. IBM is one of
the leading companies in computer industry. Computers developed on the principle of IBM
computers are called IBM Compatible. It can perform all the tasks that an IBM computer does.
They are less expensive than original (IBM) computers.

2) Apple/Macintosh Computer:
Introduced in 1984, the Macintosh features a graphical user interface (GUI) that utilizes
windows, icons, and a mouse to make it relatively easy for novices to use the computer
productively. Rather than learning a complex set of commands, you need only point to a
selection on a menu and click a mouse button.

On the basis of model, the computer can be of Three types:

1) XT Computer (Extra Technology):

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It cannot support GUI based operating system. Its processing speed is 4.77 MHz and Intel 8080,
8086 series of microprocessors is used.

2) AT Computer (Advance Technology):

It supports GUI based operating systems. Its speed is 2 GHz and word length 64 bits Its
processors are Intel series of 80286, 80386, Pentium Il etc.

3) PS/2 Computer:
It is a laptop computer which is rechargeable and battery-based system. It is operated with OS/2
operating system.

On the basis of purpose, the computer can be of Two types:

1) General Purpose Computers:

Most computers in use today are General-Purpose computers — those built for a great variety
of processing jobs. Simply by using a general-purpose computer and different software, various
tasks can be accomplished, including writing and editing (word processing), manipulating facts
in a data base, tracking manufacturing inventory, making scientific calculations, or even
controlling organization's security system, electricity consumption, and building temperature.

2) Specific Purpose Computers:

As the name states. a Special-Purpose Computer are designed to be task specific and most of
the times their job is to solve one particular problem. They are also known as dedicated
computers, because they are dedicated to perform a single task over and over again. Such a
computer system would be useful in playing graphic intensive Video Games, traffic lights
control system. navigational system in an aircraft. weather forecasting, satellite launch /
tracking, oil exploration and in automotive industries, keeping time in a digital watch, or Robot
helicopter.

Basic Applications of Computer:

Computers play a role in every field of life. They are used in homes, business, educational
institutions, research organizations, medical field, government offices, entertainment, etc.
Home:
Computers are used at homes for several purposes like online bill payment, watching movies
or shows at home, home tutoring, social media access, playing games, internet access, etc.
Medical Field:
Computers are used in hospitals to maintain a database of patients’ history, diagnosis, X-rays,
live monitoring of patients, etc.
Entertainment:
Computers help to watch movies online, play games online; act as a virtual entertainer in
playing games, listening to music, etc.
Industry:
Computers are used to perform several tasks in industries like managing inventory, designing
purpose, creating virtual sample products, interior designing, video conferencing, etc.
Education:

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Computers are used in education sector through online classes, online examinations, referring
e-books, online tutoring, etc. They help in increased use of audio-visual aids in the education
field.
Government:
In government sectors, computers are used in data processing, maintaining a database of
citizens and supporting a paperless environment. The country’s defense organizations have
greatly benefitted from computers in their use for missile development, satellites, rocket
launches, etc.
Banking:
In the banking sector, computers are used to store details of customers and conduct
transactions, such as withdrawal and deposit of money through ATMs. Banks have reduced
manual errors and expenses to a great extent through extensive use of computers.
Business:
Nowadays, computers are totally integrated into business. The main objective of business is
transaction processing, which involves transactions with suppliers, employees or customers.
Computers can make these transactions easy and accurate. People can analyze investments,
sales, expenses, markets and other aspects of business using computers.
Training:
Many organizations use computer-based training to train their employees, to save money and
improve performance. Video conferencing through computers allows saving of time and
travelling costs by being able to connect people in various locations.
Arts:
Computers are extensively used in dance, photography, arts and culture. The fluid movement
of dance can be shown live via animation. Photos can be digitized using computers.
Science and Engineering:
Computers with high performance are used to stimulate dynamic process in Science and
Engineering. Supercomputers have numerous applications in area of Research and
Development (R&D). Topographic images can be created through computers. Scientists use
computers to plot and analyze data to have a better understanding of earthquakes.
Forestry:
 video conferencing
 Data entry and analysis
 PowerPoint presentation
 Vegetation growth distribution investigation
 Forest resource investigation
 Forest fire monitoring
 Forest disease and pest monitoring
 Timber harvest planning
 Monitoring of logging and reforestation
 Forest recreation resource inventory and monitoring
 Wildlife habitat analysis
 Planning forest roads
 Monitoring power line right-of-way vegetation growth etc.

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HISTORY OF COMPUTERS:
The first counting device was used by the primitive people. They used sticks, stones and bones
as counting tools. As human mind and technology improved with time more computing devices
were developed. Some of the popular computing devices starting with the first to recent ones
are described below:

Abacus:
The history of computer begins with the birth of abacus which is believed to be the first
computer. It is said that Chinese invented Abacus around 4,000 years ago.
It was a wooden rack which has metal rods with beads mounted on them. The beads were
moved by the abacus operator according to some rules to perform arithmetic calculations.
Abacus is still used in some countries like China, Russia and Japan. An image of this tool is
shown below:

Napier's Bones:
It was a manually-operated calculating device which was invented by John Napier (1550-1617)
of Merchiston. In this calculating tool, he used 9 different ivory strips or bones marked with
numbers to multiply and divide. So, the tool became known as "Napier's Bones. It was also the
first machine to use the decimal point.

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Pascaline:
Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine. It was invented between
1642 and 1644 by a French mathematician-philosopher Biaise Pascal. It is believed that it was
the first mechanical and automatic calculator.
Pascal invented this machine to help his father, a tax accountant. It could only perform addition
and subtraction. It was a wooden box with a series of gears and wheels. When a wheel is rotated
one revolution, it rotates the neighboring wheel. A series of windows is given on the top of the
wheels to read the totals. An image of this tool is shown below:

Stepped Reckoner or Leibnitz wheel:

It was developed by a German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz in 1673.
He improved Pascal's invention to develop this machine. It was a digital mechanical calculator
which was called the stepped reckoner as instead of gears it was made of fluted drums. See the
following image:

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Difference Engine:
In the early 1820s, it was designed by Charles Babbage who is known as "Father of Modern
Computer". It was a mechanical computer which could perform simple calculations. It was a
steam driven calculating machine designed to solve tables of numbers like logarithm tables.

Analytical Engine:
This calculating machine was also developed by Charles Babbage in 1830. It was a mechanical
computer that used punch-cards as input. It was capable of solving any mathematical problem
and storing information as a permanent memory.

Tabulating Machine:
It was invented in 1890, by Herman Hollerith, an American statistician. It was a mechanical
tabulator based on punch cards. It could tabulate statistics and record or sort data or

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information. This machine was used in the 1890 U.S. Census. Hollerith also started the
Hollerith's Tabulating Machine Company which later became International Business Machine
(IBM) in 1924.

Differential Analyzer:
It was the first electronic computer introduced in the United States in 1930. It was an analog
device invented by Vannevar Bush. This machine has vacuum tubes to switch electrical signals
to perform calculations. It could do 25 calculations in few minutes.

Mark I:
The next major changes in the history of computer began in 1937 when Howard Aiken planned
to develop a machine that could perform calculations involving large numbers. In 1944, Mark
I computer was built as a partnership between IBM and Harvard. It was the first programmable
digital computer.

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GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS:
A generation of computers refers to the specific improvements in computer technology with
time. In 1946, electronic pathways called circuits were developed to perform the counting. It
replaced the gears and other mechanical parts used for counting in previous computing
machines.
In each new generation, the circuits became smaller and more advanced than the previous
generation circuits. The miniaturization helped increase the speed, memory and power of
computers. There are five generations of computers which are described below:

First Generation Computers:

The first generation (1946-1959) computers were slow, huge and expensive. In these
computers, vacuum tubes were used as the basic components of CPU and memory. These
computers were mainly depended on batch operating system and punch cards. Magnetic tape
and paper tape were used as output and input devices in this generation:
Some of the popular first-generation computers are:
 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)
 EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
 UNIVACI (Universal Automatic Computer)
 IBM-701
 IBM-650

Second Generation Computers:

The second generation (1959-1965) was the era of the transistor computers. These computers
used transistors which were cheap, compact and consuming less power; it made transistor
computers faster than the first-generation computers.
In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory and magnetic disc and
tapes were used as the secondary storage. Assembly language and programming languages like

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COBOL and FORTRAN, and Batch processing and multiprogramming operating systems were
used in these computers.
Some of the popular second-generation computers are:
 IBM 1620
 IBM 7094
 CDC 1604
 CDC 3600
 UNIVAC 1108

Third Generation Computers:

The third-generation computers used integrated circuits (ICs) instead of transistors. A single
IC can pack huge number of transistors which increased the power of a computer and reduced
the cost. The computers also became more reliable, efficient and smaller in size. These
generation computers used remote processing, time-sharing, multi programming as operating
system. Also, the high-level programming languages like FORTRON-II TO IV, COBOL,
PASCAL PL/1, ALGOL-68 were used in this generation.

Some of the popular third generation computers are;

 IBM-360 series
 Honeywell-6000 series
 PDP (Personal Data Processor)
 IBM-370/168
 TDC-316

Fourth Generation Computers:

The fourth generation (1971-1980) computers used very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits;
a chip containing millions of transistors and other circuit elements. These chips made this
generation computers more compact, powerful, fast and affordable. These generation
computers used real time, time sharing and distributed operating system. The programming
languages like C, C++, DBASE was also used in this generation.
Some of the popular fourth generation computers are:
 DEC 10
 STAR 1000
 PDP 11
 CRAY-1 (Super Computer)
 CRAY-X-MP (Super Computer)

Fifth Generation Computers:

In fifth generation (1980-till date) computers, the VLSI technology was replaced with ULSI
(Ultra Large-Scale Integration). It made possible the production of microprocessor chips with
ten million electronic components. This generation computers used parallel processing
hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. The programming languages used in this
generation were C, C++, Java, .Net, etc.

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Some of the popular fifth generation computers are;
 Desktop
 Laptop
 Note Book
 Ultra-Book
 Chrome Book

HARDWARE:
The term hardware refers to the physical components of your computer such as the system unit,
mouse, keyboard, monitor etc.
Its components are:
Central Processing Unit:
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is called “the brain of computer” as it controls operation
of all parts of computer. It consists of two components: Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), and
Control Unit.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Data entered into computer is sent to RAM, from where it is then sent to ALU, where rest of
data processing takes place. All types of processing, such as comparisons, decision-making and
processing of non-numeric information takes place here and once again data is moved to RAM.
Control Unit
As name indicates, this part of CPU extracts instructions, performs execution, maintains and
directs operations of entire system.
Functions of Control Unit:
 Control unit performs following functions:
 It controls all activities of computer
 Supervises flow of data within CPU
 Directs flow of data within CPU
 Transfers data to Arithmetic and Logic Unit
 Transfers results to memory
 Fetches results from memory to output devices

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Memory Unit
This is unit in which data and instructions given to computer as well as results given by
computer are stored. Unit of memory is “Byte”.
Computer memory is measured as:
1 or 0 level of storage = Bit
4 Bits = 1 Nibble
8 Bits = 1 Bytes
1024 Bytes = 1 KB (Kilo Bytes)
1024 KB = 1 MB (Mega Bytes)
1024 MB = 1 GB (Giga Bytes)
1024 GB = 1 TB (Tera Bytes)
1024 TB = 1 PB (Peta Byte)
1024 PB = 1 XB (Exa Byte)
1024 XB = 1 ZB (Zeta Byte)
1024 ZB = 1 YB (Yota Byte)

Input Devices:
Input device enables the user to send data, information, or control signals to a computer. The
Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer receives the input and processes it to produce the
output. Some of the popular input devices are:
Keyboard:
The keyboard was first peripheral device to be used with computers. It helps to input text and
numbers into computer. It consists of 104 keys and 12 functional keys.

Mouse:
A mouse is an input device which is also called as pointing device because it helps to point
data on screen. It also helps to select, highlight content and drag-drop controls.

Trackballs:
A trackball is also a pointing device which will work like a mouse. It is mainly used for gaming
and entertainment purpose.

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Digital Pens:
A digital pen is another input device which is mostly used with tablets, PDAs, etc. A digital
pen is also called as a Stylus which helps to write or draw data over pad.

Scanners:
Scanners transform printed material and photographs into a digital representation. After
scanning of printed material, page is represented in memory as an array of pixels.

Barcode readers:
Barcode reader helps to read information which is printed as bars in back of goods or items.
Barcode readers are most widely used input devices which we can see in most of products in
our day to day life.

Voice Recognition System:

Voice recognition system interprets or receives dictation or spoken commands to authorize
user.

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Touch screen:
A touch screen is an input device which uses sensors to sense touch of users to get input data.

Output Devices:

The output device displays the result of the processing of raw data that is entered in the
computer through an input device. There are a number of output devices that display output in
different ways such as text, images, hard copies, and audio or video. Some of the popular output
devices are:

Monitor:
A monitor is most common type of output device. It is also called as “Visual Display Unit”.
The inputs given by keyboard or any other input devices will get displayed on monitor. Cathode
Ray Tube (CRT) and Flat panel display monitors are commonly used monitors.

The types of monitors are given below:

i) CRT Monitor:
CRT monitors are based on the cathode ray tubes. They are like vacuum tubes which produce
images in the form of video signals.

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ii) LCD Monitor:
The LCD monitor is a flat panel screen that is compact and light-weight as compared to CRT
monitors. It is based on liquid crystal display technology which is used in the screens of laptops,
tablets, smart phones, etc.

iii) LED monitor:

The LED monitor is an improved version of an LCD monitor. It also has a flat panel display
and uses liquid crystal display technology like the LCD monitors. The difference between them
lies in the source of light to backlight the display.

iv) Plasma Monitor:

The plasma monitor is also a flat panel display that is based on plasma display technology. It
has small tiny cells between two glass panels. These cells contain mixtures of noble gases and
a small amount of mercury. When voltage is applied, the gas in the cells turns into a plasma
and emits ultraviolet light that creates images on the screen, i.e., the screen is illuminated by a
tiny bit of plasma, a charged gas. Plasma displays are brighter than liquid crystal displays
(LCD) and also offer a wide viewing angle than an LCD. They offer a unique viewing
experience while watching action movies, sports games, and more.

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Printers:
Printers are most common type of output devices which are used to take a hard copy of any
digital document. The two types of printers are impact and non-impact printers. Non-impact
printers such as laser and inkjet printers are less noisy, more reliable and faster and also offer
high quality compared to impact printers.

Sound Systems:
Sound systems are output devices which are used to get multimedia content such as voice,
music, etc., as output. Some of examples of sound systems are speakers, headphones, and
microphones.

SOFTWARE:
The software is the instructions that makes the computer work. Software is held either on your
computer's hard disk, CD-ROM, DVD or on a diskette (floppy disk) and is loaded (i.e. copied)
from the disk into the computers RAM (Random Access Memory), as and when required.
There are two general categories of software: system software and application software.
1) System Software:
The programs that control and manage the basic operations of a computer are generally referred
to as system software. System software typically includes the following types of programs:
Operating Systems:
An operating system is the most fundamental set of programs on a computer. The operating
system controls the internal operations of the computer’s hardware, manages all of the devices
connected to the computer, allows data to be saved to and retrieved from storage devices, and
allows other programs to run on the computer. Figure shows screens from three popular
operating systems: Windows Vista, Mac OS X, and Linux.

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Utility Software:
A utility software performs a specialized task that enhances the computer’s operation or
safeguards data. Examples of utility programs are virus scanners, file compression programs,
and data backup programs.

Programming Software:
It is a set or collection of tools that help developers in writing other software or programs. It
assists them in creating, debugging, and maintaining software or programs or applications. We
can say that these are facilitator software that helps translate programming language such as
Java, C++, Python, etc., into machine language code. So, it is not used by end-users. For
example, compilers, linkers, debuggers, interpreters, text editors, etc. This software is also
called a programming tool or software development tool.
Some examples of programming software include:
 Eclipse: It is a java language editor.
 Coda: It is a programming language editor for Mac.
 Notepad++: It is an open-source editor for windows.
 Sublime text: It is a cross-platform code editor for Linux, Mac, and Windows.

2) Application Software:
Application software is a set of programs designed to perform a specific task. It does not control
the working of a computer as it is designed for end-users. A computer can run without
application software. Application software can be easily installed or uninstalled as required. It
can be a single program or a collection of small programs. Microsoft Office Suite, Adobe
Photoshop, and any other software like payroll software or income tax software are application
software. As we know, they are designed to perform specific tasks. Accordingly, they can be
of different types such as:
 Word Processing Software: This software allows users to create, edit, format, and
manipulate the text and more. It offers lots of options for writing documents, creating
images, and more. For example, MS Word, WordPad, Notepad, etc.
 Spreadsheet Software: It is designed to perform calculations, store data, create charts, etc.
It has rows and columns, and the data is entered in the cell, which is an intersection of a
row and column, e.g., Microsoft Excel.
 Multimedia Software: These software are developed to perform editing of video, audio,
and text. It allows you to combine texts, videos, audio, and images. Thus, you can improve
a text document by adding photos, animations, graphics, and charts through multimedia
software. For example, VLC player, Window Media Player, etc.
 Enterprise Software: These software are developed for business operational functions. It
is used in large organizations where the quantum of business is too large. It can be used for
accounting, billing, order processing and more. For example, CRM (Customer Relationship
Management), BI (Business Intelligence), ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning), SCM
(Supply Chain Management), customer support system, and more.

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Differences between Software and Hardware are sorted out below:
S.N. Software Hardware
1 It is a collection of programs to bring It includes physical components of
computer hardware system into computer system.
operation.
2 It includes numbers, alphabets, It consists of electronic components like
alphanumeric symbols, identifiers, ICs, diodes, registers, crystals, boards,
keywords, etc. insulators, etc.
3 Software products evolve by adding Hardware design is based on architectural
new features to existing programs to decisions to make it work over a range of
support hardware. environmental conditions and time.
4 It will vary as per computer and its It is mostly constructed for all types of
built-in functions and programming computer systems.
language.
5 It is designed and developed by The hardware can understand only low-
experienced programmers in high- level language or machine language.
level language.
6 It is represented in any high-level The hardware works only on binary
language such as BASIC, COBOL, C, codes 1’s and 0’s.
C++, JAVA, etc.
7 The software is categorized as The hardware consists of input devices,
operating system, utilities, language output devices, memory, etc.
processor, application software, etc.

COMPUTER MEMORY:
Memory refers to the computer chips that store information for quick retrieval by the CPU. The
computer memory is divided into large number of small parts known as cells. Each cell has a
unique address which varies from 0 to memory size minus one.
It is of two types:
 Primary Memory
 Secondary Memory

Primary Memory
Primary memory is the main memory of computer present in motherboard. Primary memory is
of two types as shown in the image below.

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Random Access Memory (RAM):
RAM is referred as temporary memory, in which, information stored is lost once computer is
turned off. It is a volatile memory. Instructions written in this memory can be modified; hence
it is also known as programmable memory. The two types of RAM are Static RAM (faster and
costlier) and Dynamic RAM.

Functions of RAM are as follows:

 It stores data till it gets processed.
 It stores instructions for data processing.
 It acts as a working space where data processing takes place and intermediate results are
stored.
 It stores processed data/results before it is sent to output devices.

Read Only Memory (ROM):

ROM is referred as permanent memory, in which information stored is available even if
computer is turned off. Instructions stored in this memory can only be read and cannot be
modified. Mostly ROM has a start-up instruction which is executed every time when computer
is switched on. Types of ROM are MROM (Masked Read Only Memory), PROM
(Programmable Read Only Memory), EPROM (Erasable PROM), EEPROM (Electrically
Erasable PROM) and flash ROM.

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The major differences between RAM and ROM are given below:

S.N. RAM ROM

1 It is volatile memory. It is non-volatile memory.
2 The contents are temporary; data is lost The contents are permanent; data is not
when electricity supply is lost. lost even when power is switched off.
3 Available in small storage capacity. Available in high storage capacity.
4 Processing speed is high. Processing speed is low.
5 User-defined programs can be stored. Generally, operating system supporting
programs can be stored.
6 Cost is very high. Cost effective.
7 It is of two types, SRAM and DRAM. It comes in different types such as
PROM, EPROM, EEPROM and flash
memory.

Secondary Memory:
The secondary storage devices which are built into the computer or connected to the computer
are known as a secondary memory of the computer. It is also known as external memory or
auxiliary storage.
It is non-volatile, so permanently stores the data even when the computer is turned off or until
this data is overwritten or deleted. The CPU can't directly access the secondary memory. First,
the secondary memory data is transferred to primary memory then the CPU can access it.

Examples of secondary storage memory are compact disk, floppy disk, pen drive, external hard
drive, etc.

STORAGE DEVICES:
Storage devices provide permanent storage of information and programs for retrieval by the
computer. The two main types of storage devices are disk drives and memory. There are several
types of disk drives: hard disk drive, floppy disk, magneto-optical, and compact disk.

Hard disk drives store information in magnetic particles embedded in a disk. Usually a
permanent part of the computer, hard disk drives can store large amounts of information and
retrieve that information very quickly. The disks are of different sizes such as 1G, 10G, 40G,
etc.

Floppy disk drives also store information in magnetic particles embedded in removable disks.
Floppy disks store less information than a hard disk drive and retrieve the information at a
much slower rate. It is of 2 type 51/4 floppy disk and 31/2 floppy disk.

Magneto-optical disc drives store information on removable discs that are sensitive to both
laser light and magnetic fields. They can typically store as much information as hard disks, but
they have slightly slower retrieval speeds.

Compact Disc Drives store information on pits burned into the surface of a disc of reflective
material such as CD-ROM. CD-ROMs can store about as much information as a hard drive but
have a slower rate of information retrieval.

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Digital Video Disc (DVD): This is similar and works like a CD-ROM but can store more than
15times as much information.

Flash drives work as floppy disks but more sensitive as a hard disk that must be ejected logical
before final removal from the computer system. It has more memory than floppy disks.

Memory Cards work as flash drive but with an additional device called the card reader. This
is very effective and more durable than the flash drives.

Some devices serve more than one purpose. For example, floppy disks may also be used as
input devices if they contain information to be used and processed by the computer user. In
addition, they can be used as output devices if the user wants to store the results of computations
on them.

OPERATING SYSTEM (OS):

Operating system is a software that controls system’s hardware and interacts with user and
application software. In other words, An operating system (OS) is the software that controls a
computer's hardware and peripheral devices and allows other programs to function. In short,
an operating system is computer’s chief control program.
Functions of Operating System:
 It offers a user interface.
 Loads program into computer’s memory.
 Coordinates how program works with hardware and other software.
 Manages how information is stored and retrieved from the disk.
 Saves contents of file on to disk.
 Reads contents of file from disk to memory.
 Sends document to the printer and activates the printer.
 Provides resources that copy or move data from one document to another, or from one
program to another.
 Allocates RAM among the running programs
There are four types of operating systems:
Real-time operating system:
Real-time operating system is designed to run real-time applications. It can be both singleand
multi-tasking. Examples include Abbasi, AMX RTOS, etc.
Single-User/Single-Tasking OS:
An operating system that allows a single user to perform only one task at a time is called a
Single-User Single-Tasking Operating System. Functions like printing a document,
downloading images, etc., can be performed only one at a time. Examples include MSDOS,
Palm OS, etc.

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Single-User/Multitasking OS:
An operating system that allows a single user to perform more than one task at a time is called
Single-User Multitasking Operating System. Examples include Microsoft Windows and
Macintosh OS.
Multiuser/Multitasking OS:
It is an operating system that permits several users to utilize the programs that are concurrently
running on a single network server. The single network server is termed as “Terminal server”.
“Terminal client” is a software that supports user sessions. Examples include UNIX, MVS, etc.

Basics of Popular Operating Systems:

Windows Operating System (Microsoft Windows):
Windows is a series of operating systems developed by Microsoft. The Windows operating
system (Windows OS) for desktop PCs are more formally called Microsoft Windows and is
actually a family of operating systems for personal computers. Windows dominates the
personal computer world, running, by some estimates, more than 90 percent of all
personal computers – the remainder running Linux and Mac operating systems.
Windows provides a graphical user interface (GUI), virtual memory management,
multitasking, and support for many peripheral devices. In addition to Windows operating
systems for personal computers, Microsoft also offers operating systems for servers and mobile
devices.
List of Microsoft Windows versions:
 Windows 1.0 (1985)
 Windows XP (2001)
 Windows Vista (2006)
 Windows 7 (2009)
 Windows 8 (2012)
 Windows 8.1 (2013)
 Windows 10 (2015)

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Linux Operating System:
Linux is a multitasking operating system that supports various users and numerous tasks. It is
open source, i.e., code for Linux is available for free of cost. Linux can run on any computer
and support almost any type of application. Linux uses command-line interface. It also supports
windows-based GUI environment, called “shells”. The most popular Linux vendors are Red
Hat and Novell. Some of the Linux versions include Ubuntu, Fedora, Linux Mint, etc.

Nepalinux:
Nepalinux – a Debian based Linux distribution localized into the Nepali language.
It features the complete Nepali language, fonts, input method, spell and grammar checker and
dictionary.
The Live CD iso image offers the KDE desktop, set of KDE applications and Nepali locale
only. KDE, one of the most popular graphic user interfaces or desktop interface for open source
Linux, is available in more than 50 languages and 50 more are in the pipeline. Localised Nepali
GNOME graphic user interface is also being developed.

The Live DVD iso image can be run with Nepali or English locale, and uses GNOME desktop
environment. There are pre-installed applications from GNOME and KDE desktops which can
be run that GNOME desktop environment and vice versa.
The project was supported by the International Development and Research Center (IDRC),
Canada and administered through the Center for Research in Urdu Language Processing
(CRULP), National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences (NUCES), Pakistan.
The distribution was under development between 2005 and 2008 by Madan Puraskar
Pustakalaya. The last version of Nepalinux 3.0 was released on May 25, 2008.

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Disk Operating System (DOS):
A disk operating system (abbreviated DOS) is a computer operating system that can use a disk
storage device, such as a floppy disk, hard disk drive, or optical disc. A disk operating system
must provide a file system for organizing, reading, and writing files on the storage disk. Strictly
speaking, this definition does not apply to current generations of operating systems, such as
versions of Microsoft Windows in use, and is more appropriately used only for older
generations of operating systems.
Disk operating systems were available for mainframes, microprocessors and home
computers and were usually loaded from the disks themselves as part of the boot process.

Disk operating system is also used to describe several very similar command line disk operating
systems. PC-DOS (Personal Computer Disk Operating System) was the first widely-installed
disk operating system used in personal computers running on Intel 8086 16-bit processors. It
was developed for IBM by Microsoft Corporation, which also produced its own almost
identical version called MS-DOS. Other computers at the time, such as the Commodore 64,
Atari 800, and Apple II, all featured a disk operating system, CBM DOS, Atari DOS, and Apple
DOS, respectively. (DOS/360 was an operating system for IBM mainframes which first
appeared in 1966, but is unrelated to the 8086-based DOS of the 1980s.

These early operating systems did not multitask, as they were only able to run one program at
a time. The command line interface, in which a user has to type in commands, required the user
to remember commands to run programs or do other operating system tasks, making it difficult
for novices to use. For example, typing the command "cd \directory_name" changed the current
working directory to the named directory and typing the command "dir" listed the files in the
current directory.

When Microsoft first introduced Windows as a graphical user interface (GUI) for MS-DOS,
early users had to type "WIN" at the DOS prompt to launch the Windows program. Windows
has since evolved from being a GUI program running under DOS to a full operating system
taking over as the default OS, though it was not until Windows XP that consumer versions of
Windows stopped relying on the DOS program win.com to bootstrap the Windows kernel.

The last retail version of MS-DOS was MS-DOS 6.22. After this release, MS-DOS was still
bundled as part of Windows, but no longer required a separate license. It can still be run under
Windows using the Command Prompt program. There is an open source version of DOS called
FreeDOS which is based on and compatible with MS-DOS.

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Basic Computer Terms

Application – A computer program that does specific tasks such as word processing or
spreadsheets.
Bit – Represents a binary digit which is the amount of information obtained by asking a ‘yes’
or ‘no’ question. This is also the smallest unit of information stored on a computer as a 0 or 1.
Blinking Cursor – This is a vertical blinking bar that locates the position on the screen where
text can be inserted or deleted. This appears most frequently in text or dialog boxes.
Byte – Data is stored on a computer in Bytes. A byte is one character, which may be a number
or letter. A byte is composed of 8 consecutive bits.
Binary System - In binary system, only 0 and 1 is used (switch on (1) and off (0)) but in
decimal system 1,2,3,4….9 is used.
In decimal system, 1 + 1 = 2
In binary system, 0001 + 0001 = 0010
CD-ROM – A removable disk that stores data. A CD-ROM can only be read. You cannot
record (save) data onto one. You may however record (save) onto a CD-Rewritable disk. This
is most often called a CD. A CD looks like a music CD, but contains data instead of music.
Cursor – A synonym for the pointer, which is controlled by the mouse. The cursor may take
different shapes.

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DVD (Digital Versatile Disc) – Technology that store more information than a CD-ROM and
can be written upon. The disk resembles a CD-ROM but has approximately seven times the
storage capacity.
File – A collection of data with a name.
Flash Drive – This is a small portable hard drive that plugs into a USB port and allows you to
transport files between different computers. Also called a thumb drive.

Graphical User Interface (GUI) - A program that helps you more easily work with you
operating system and application programs by providing pictures and visual clues to help you
work. Windows is the GUI on PCs.
Hand Pointer - The cursor changes into a pointing hand when it passes over a hypertext link.
This allows connecting directly to the link.

Disk Drive - A peripheral device that reads and/or writes information on a disk

Hard Drive – The place where programs and files are stored in a computer. Also called the
Hard Disc. On PCs this is often the c:// drive.
Hard Disc Space – The amount of permanent storage of data measured in bytes. This storage
exists whether the computer is on or off.
Hourglass – This is the symbol that indicates the computer is working to retrieve or send data
or locate a webpage.

Hypertext Link – These links are clicked on as text, images or files that open another web
page.

Modem – This is a way to transfer data through a telephone or cable line generally by the
Internet. It may be internal or external. Some modems are used to fax or act as answering
machines.

Motherboard – The circuit board that functioning parts of the computer connect to is the
motherboard. The CPU, RAM and cache all plug into the motherboard.

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Network – A group of two or more computers linked together.

NIC (Network Interface Card) – A card is put in the computer allowing connection to a
network.

Peripheral – This describes anything that can be attached to the computer input ports, such as;
the keyboard, printer, mouse, external modem, scanner or external hard drive.
Port – Connection on the computer that allows input devices like monitors, disk drives, the
mouse, or keyboards. Common ports are serial for connecting a modem or a mouse, USB for
connecting a scanner, digital camera, Ethernet ports for connecting to a network, and audio
in/out ports for connecting to headphones or a microphone.

USB Port – The Universal Serial Bus is accessed through small rectangular port on the front
or back of computer that allows peripheral devices such as digital cameras and external hard
drives to connect to the computer. See Ports for other types of connections.

Boot - The process of loading or initializing an operating system on a computer; usually occurs
as soon as a computer is turned on.

Database - A large structured set of data; a file that contains numerous records that contain
numerous fields

Folder - A graphical representation used to organize a collection of computer files; as in the

concept of a filing cabinet (computer's hard drive) with files (folders).

Icon - A small picture used to represent a file or program in a GUI interface.

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Menu - A list of operations available to the user of a program.

Tool Bar - A graphical representation of program activities; a row of icons used to perform
tasks in a program.

Bookmarks- A feature of web browsers to save a web pages location for future retrieval.
Browser - A program used to navigate the World Wide Web. Examples include: Internet
Explorer and Netscape Navigator.
E-mail - Electronic Mail. A way of sending other people messages from your computer.
Widely used facility on the Internet that basically sends addressed messages over a Network.
The message normally gets there in a couple of minutes.
HTTP - HyperText Transmission Protocol. A protocol that computers on the internet use to
communicate with each other.
Home page - The page by which a user normally enters a web site.
Hyperlink - A highlighted, underlined phrase or word on a web page that can be clicked to go
to another part of the page or even to another web page.
Internet - The Internet is a worldwide computer network through which you can send a letter,
chat with people electronically or search for information. It originated in the 1960's when the
US defense department was worried about having its computer network destroyed by blowing
up the central computer. A network was designed around the principle of "unreliable
computers" - if one was destroyed or failed the remaining computers could still function.
URL - Uniform Resource Locator - How documents on the WWW are referenced. The URL
contains the protocol to be used (HTTP) and then an internet address. Addresses are suffixed
with a certain code to distinguish what type of organization it represents. Examples of codes
used include:
com - Commercial organization
edu - Educational institution
gov - Non military government organizations
int - International Organizations
mil - Military government organizations
net - Networks
org - non profit organization
HTML - HyperText Markup Language. The text based language used to construct Web pages.
This text it then interpreted by Web Browsers and displayed by computers.
WWW - World Wide Web. The Internet facility that allows you to browse linked web pages.
Web Page - An HTML document which contains information which can be seen on the
internet.

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 UNIT 2: WORD PROCESSING

INTRODUCTION:
Microsoft Word is a popular word processing software used to create, edit, format and print
any document using computer.
It helps in arranging written text in a proper format and giving it a systematic look. This
formatted look facilitates easier reading. It provides spell-check options, formatting functions
like cut-copy-paste, and spots grammatical errors on a real-time basis. It also helps in saving
and storing documents. It’s also used to add images, preview the complete text before printing
it; organize the data into lists and then summarize, compare and present the data graphically. It
allows the header and footer to display descriptive information, and to produce personalized
letters through mail.
Menu Bar: A menu bar is located below the title bar. A menu bar is an application window to
furnish application or window-specific menus. Menu bar has File Menu along with Home,
Insert, Design, Page Layout, References, Mailings, Review, And View.
File - It has options such as, Save, Save As, Open a New Document, Print, etc.
Home - It has icons to change Font Size, Style, Alignment, Borders, etc.
Insert - It has icons to insert Table, Shapes, Chart, Pictures, Screenshot, Header, Footer, etc.
Design - It has icons to change Themes, Colors, Fonts, Effects, Page Borders, etc.
Page Layout - It has icons to set Margins, Orientation, Size, Breaks, Indent etc.
References - It has icons to Add Text, Update A Table, Insert Footnote, Index.
Mailings - It has icons to start Mail Merge, Add Labels, Envelopes, etc.
Review - It has icons for Spelling and Grammar Check, Thesaurus, Word Count, Comments,
Tracking, etc.
View - It has icons like: Zoom, Print Layout, Switch Windows, Split, etc.
Using Icons below Menu Bar The bar located below menu bar is the toolbar. Toolbar provides
shortcuts to menu commands. It has icons which represent commonly used functions.

to save a file.

to print current file.

to check for page orientation before the document gets printed.

to check spelling, grammar and writing style.

to remove selected word or sentence from the document.

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 to copy selected word or sentence from the document.

to paste content from the clipboard.

to reverse the last command. Shortcut key for undo is “Ctrl + Z” Computer

to redo last command. Shortcut key for Redo is “Ctrl + Y”

to set borders to content.

to insert a single table or more tables as required into the document.

to change number of columns in the document.

to change font color.

to change font style.

Basics of Word Processing:

Document Creation:
 Click start All program Microsoft Office Click Microsoft Office 2013
Word 2013. Word will open a blank document.

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 Another way to create a document is to choose File New from the menu bar and select
the document type. Press Ctrl + N on the keyboard. This menu allows you to open a blank
document, a template or an existing document.
 In Microsoft Office 2016, Right click on mouse choose Microsoft Office Word
Open Word 2016.
 To enter text in blank document, just start typing. The blinking I-Beam (Cursor), positioned
at the top of window, will show exactly where your text begins. As you type, word will
automatically wrap text to the next line. If you have finished typing on a line and would
like to move to the next blank line, press enter.

Formatting Text
 A font refers to set of characteristics that characters of Word support.
 The process of formatting a document includes controlling the appearance of text and
layout of text on page.
 Character formatting includes settings that control attributes of individual text character
such as Fonts, Font Size and Type Style.

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Proofreading
Checking for spelling, grammar, and general readability issues is often called proofreading. It
is important to proofread professional documents, letters, articles to catch errors before they're
published.
Many word processing applications, like Microsoft Word, have a built-in spelling and grammar
check to alert the user to errors in their documents. However, these applications are not
foolproof and may fail to detect certain errors. Therefore, it is still important to read over your
work when it is finished.
How to Proof Document All at Once in Word 2016
 Click the Review tab.
 In the Proofing group, click the Spelling & Grammar button. Errors are shown one at a time
as they occur in your document.
 Deal with the offense.
 Continue checking your document.
 Click the OK button once the checking is done.

Editing Text
 Modifying existing text in an old document or entering new text in an existing document is
known as editing of the text.
 Editing text can be done by three options: “Find”, “Replace”, “Select”.
1. Find To find a word in a document.
2. Replace To replace existing word with a new word.
3. Select To select a word or sentence.

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Printing:
This option is used to view the page or make adjustments before any document gets printed.
 By using print preview, you can discover any errors that may exist in the document or fix
the layout before printing, which can save ink/toner and paper.
 For printing, you may specify the number of copies you want and the pages you want.
 To print a document, choose File print.
 Here all the pages of a document will be selected by default.
 To print specific pages that are not in sequence, use comma (,) to separate page numbers.
 To print a selected text inside the document, highlight the area in document that you want
to print and choose File Print from menu bar.
 When print window opens, click on radio button to select printer and click ok.
 To print multiple pages on a page, choose the number of pages to print on one page from
the ‘Settings’ of print window. Then click ok.
 Shortcut key is “Alt + F Press W and then P”.

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Opening and Closing Documents:
Word automatically starts with a blank page. For opening a new file, click on “New”.
To open an already existing document, follow the below steps:
 Click on the “File Open”.
 From the window opened, select a file you want to open and double click on it or just right-
click and select “open”.
 Shortcut key is Ctrl + O.

 To close a document, click “X” in the upper right corner of window.

Save and Save As:

After finishing our work, we must save the document permanently, as it is useful for future
reference.
 As RAM is a temporary storage memory, we must save our file on the hard disk.
 To save a document, go to “File” menu and select “Save” option

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 Shortcut key is “Ctrl + S”.
 Then the file gets saved under a default name.

Save As option is used to rename a file.

 If you want to save your document in another location with same or different name, you
can use “Save As” option.
 The shortcut key for Save As is “F12”.
 To use Save As option in a document, follow the below steps:
 Go to File menu
 Click Save As
 Select the drive where you want to save the document.
 Then type any Name in the File Name box at the bottom of dialog box.
 Then click Save option.

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Cut, Copy and Paste:
Cut:
 Deleting unnecessary data from a document is called cutting.
 In Microsoft Word, you can cut text from one area of a document and paste that text
anywhere in the document.
 After you cut the text, it gets stored in the clipboard.
 If you want to cut any text or word from a document, it is advisable to highlight the word
first.
 To cut, Right Click Cut.
 The shortcut key is “Ctrl + X”.

Copy:
 Copy option can be used when we need to retype the same text as it reduces time and effort.
 By using copy option, you can copy the text from one location to another.
 Information stored on the clipboard stays there until new information is either cut or copied.
 Each time you use cut or copy, you replace the old information on the clipboard with the
information you just cut or copied.
 To copy, Right Click Copy.
 The shortcut key is “Ctrl + C”.

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Paste:
 Select your text and then copy it.
 Use mouse to move the cursor to desired position to paste the copied text.
 Click paste to insert the copied text in its new place.
 You can paste clipboard information as often as you like.
 To paste, Right Click Paste.
 The shortcut key is “Ctrl + V”.

Typing Tutor:
Typing is the ability to use muscle memory to find keys fast, without using the sense of sight,
and with all the available fingers, just like piano players do. It significantly improves typing
speed and eliminates errors. Typing simply makes you more productive and it is a skill worth
learning. However, many people engage in the bad habit of ‘hunt-and-peck’ typing, even those
seasoned professionals with years and decades of computer experience. It is easy
to understand, though, as typing requires dedicated practice to learn it well.
Placement of fingers on Keyboard:
The 'F' and 'J' keys have a raised bar or a dot allowing your finger to identify them. Once you
have placed your two indexes on those keys, the other fingers are placed on the keys next to
them. 'A' 'S' 'D' 'F' and 'J' 'K' 'L' ';' are the base positions for your fingers. Your fingers go from
the base position to the key that you want to press and after pressing the key it backs at base
position.

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 UNIT 3: SPREADSHEET

INTRODUCTION:
Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet application which is used to create and manage lists of
information. Excel allows to enter, edit, manage and analyze large amount of data in a
worksheet and create colorful charts and graphs. It uses formulae to calculate and analyze data.
It helps to combine a series of commands using “Macros”, thus saving time. At higher levels,
you can use it as a complete development tool catering to many complex requirements.
Organization of worksheet:
Spreadsheet is made up of number of books. Each book contains number of columns and rows.
Rows and columns are made of many cells. The cell pointer in cell A1 is as shown the below:
Cell Address:
Cell is a small unit in the worksheet which is used to store data. A cell is referred by its column
and row number.
Example:
Cell B followed by row 6 is called as B6. Each cell in worksheet has a unique address. Using
arrow keys in the keyboard, we can move from one cell to another cell.

Title bar:
Title bar displays the name of excel worksheet. It appears at the top of all window programs.
By default, excel opens with the name Book 1.

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Menu bar:
Menu bar is located directly below the title bar. It displays a list of menus that can be used to
give commands to excel. Clicking on a menu bar displays a drop-down menu of icons. You
can move across the menu bar and scroll down menus with your mouse by highlighting one of
the menu items and using arrow keys on your keyboard.
 File - It has options such as: save, save as, open a new document, print, etc.
 Home - It has icons to change font size, style, alignment, borders, etc.
 Insert - It has icons to insert table, chart, pictures, screenshot, header, footer, etc.
 Page Layout - It has icons to set margins, orientation, size, breaks, indent, etc.
 Formulas - It has insert function, auto sum, date and time, lookup and reference, etc.
 Data - It has icons to import data from web, from access, refresh all, from other sources,
etc.
 Review - It has icons for spelling and grammar check, thesaurus, word count, etc.
 View - It has icons to zoom, print layout, switch windows, split, etc.

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Formula bar:
Cell content can be edited directly in the cells or in formula bar. If cell contains a formula, it
will be displayed here. If there is no formula, then content of the cell is displayed. Formula bar
allows you to view, enter and delete data in a selected cell.

Opening a Spread Sheet:

To open a spreadsheet, we have to click on “Start” button and go to “All Programs” and click
on “Excel”. In Microsoft Office 2016, we have to click right click on Mouse Choose
Microsoft Excel Worksheets.

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Saving Workbooks:
After typing our content in excel worksheet, we must save the worksheet for future use.
Shortcut key to save is “Ctrl + S”. The process of saving consists of following steps:
1. Click File menu.
2. Click Save option from sub menu.

Printing a Spread Sheet:

Printing is creating a hard copy of any content. A spreadsheet can be printed by selecting
File Print option. Shortcut to print is “Ctrl + P”.

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Entering Text, Numbers and Dates:
In this topic, we are going to learn how to enter text.
1. Place cursor in the cell where you want to enter text.
2. Type the contents or texts in that cell.

Numbers:
Num Lock (to “on” or “off” Number keypad) can be used to make data entry easy. To enter
numeric values in the spreadsheet, follow the below steps:
1. Open a new worksheet.
2. Enter the number you would like to add.
3. Fill the complete numeric data in different cells.
4. Press Esc when you have completed entering your data.

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Dates:
Returns the sequential serial number that represents a particular date. Cell format remains
normal before function gets entered in the cell. Result is formatted as a date, once the function
gets executed.

Editing Worksheet Data:

Modifying or adding text or using cut, copy, paste operations to an existing document is known
as editing.
 To edit data in a worksheet, first open the worksheet by clicking on File Open.
 Next, move cursor to the cell, which you want to edit.
 Note that content of the cell is displayed in formula bar as well.
 As you perform any operation, it is visible in the formula bar.
Cut:
 Deleting unnecessary data from the cell is called cutting.
 In Microsoft Excel, you can cut text from one area of a worksheet and save or paste that
text anywhere.
 When you cut the text, it is stored on clipboard.
 If you want to cut any text or content from worksheet, first select the text or content which
you want to cut.
 To cut, Right Click Cut.
 The shortcut key is “Ctrl + X”.

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Copy:
Instead of retyping the same text, Copy function is used which reduces time and effort. By
using copy option, you can copy the text from one location to another. Information stored on
clipboard stays there until new information is either cut or copied. When you execute cut or
copy, you replace old information on the clipboard with whatever you have just cut or copied.
 To copy the content, Right Click Copy.
 Shortcut key is “Ctrl + C”.

Paste:
 Select your text to highlight it.
 First copy the text.
 Use mouse to move the cursor to desired position to paste the copied text.
 Click paste to insert the copied text in its new place.
 You can paste clipboard information as often as you like.
 To paste, Right Click Paste.
 Shortcut key is “Ctrl + V”.

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Function and Charts:
Function:
 Microsoft Excel has a set of prewritten functions to perform a specific task.
When using a function, remember the following steps:
1. Use an equal (=) sign to begin a function.
2. Specify the function name.
3. Enclose arguments within parenthesis.
4. Use a comma to separate arguments.
5. Here is an example of a function, =POWER (number, power) or =POWER (cell1, cell2)
You can use formulas to perform basic mathematical calculations, such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division of numbers. The following examples demonstrate how to use
formulas to carry out mathematical calculations.
Addition:
Addition helps to add two or more values. By using “=SUM (cell1+cell2)” formula, we can
calculate the sum of values.
Examples
 Open a new worksheet.
 Move the cursor to cell A1.
 Write one value in cell A1 and another value in cell B1.
 Write “=SUM(A1+B1)” in cell C1 which will automatically get displayed in formula bar.
 Press Enter.
 Note that cell A1 has been added to cell B1 and the result is shown in cell C1.
Subtraction:
Subtraction helps to subtract two or more values. By using “=SUM (cell1-cell2)” formula, we
can calculate the difference between the values of cell 1 and cell 2.
Example
 Open a new worksheet.
 Move the cursor to cell A1.
 Write one value in cell A1 and another value in cell B1.
 Write “=SUM(A1-B1)” in cell C1 which will automatically get displayed in the formula
bar.
 Press Enter.
 Note that cell B1 has been subtracted from cell A1 and the result is shown in cell C1.

Multiplication:
Multiplication helps to multiply two or more values. By using “=SUM (cell1*cell2)” formula,
we can calculate multiplication.
Examples
 Open a new worksheet.
 Move the cursor to cell A1.
 Write one value in cell A1 and another value in cell B1.

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 Write “=SUM(A1*B1)” in cell C1 which will automatically get displayed in the formula
bar.
 Press Enter.
 Note that cell A1 has been multiplied to cell B1 and the result is shown in cell C1.
Division:
 Division helps to divide one value by another value.
 By using “=SUM (cell1/cell2)”, formula we can perform division.
Examples:
 Open a new worksheet.
 Move the cursor to cell A1.
 Write one value in A1 and another value in B1.
 Write “=SUM(A1/B1)” in cell C1 which will automatically get displayed in the formula
bar.
 Press Enter.
 Note that cell A1 is divided by cell B1 and the result is shown in cell C1.

Charts:
A chart is a graphical representation of worksheet data. Charts can make data interesting,
attractive and easy to read and evaluate. They can also help you to analyze and compare data.
Creating a Chart:
The easiest way to create charts in excel is by using the chart wizard. Chart wizard icon appears
on the insert menu. Chart wizard is a program which consists of different types of charts; it
helps user through the process of creation of charts. Icons or symbols present at the side of
chart help to add or remove elements to the chart, change chart style and add a filter to the
chart. After completing a chart, you can still make changes to it or just start from the beginning.
Getting Started with Chart Wizard:
 The first stage in using chart wizard is to have a table of data.
 In excel, open a new worksheet, and enter data.
 Then you must select range of cells that you need in the chart.
 For example, with cursor in the top-left cell of the table (A1), select table by clicking and
dragging cursor to the bottom right-hand cell (B7).

 Click Insert menu and select chart option.

 From chart types, select the type of chart that you would like to use.
 Excel has different types of Charts such as line charts, pie chart, area chart, pivot chart, etc.
 The selection of chart type is usually driven by the data, although there are no strict rules
for determining the chart type you should use.
 But you should use the one which displays your data and conveys your message in the
simplest way possible.

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Example:
To prepare a bar chart.
Procedure
 Click Start All programs MS-Office MS-Excel.
 Insert a table in the worksheet.
 Select Insert Chart icon.
 Select column option from chart type.
 In the title bar, Click on chart title box and type, population of metropolitan cities.

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 UNIT 4: PRESENTATION AND GRAPHICS

INTRODUCTION:

PowerPoint:
Microsoft PowerPoint is one of the powerful tools of MS-Office, which helps in creating and
designing presentations. PowerPoint Presentation is an array of slides that convey information
to people in an attractive manner.
Preparation of slides:
The below topics explain the preparation of slides:
Inserting a word table or an excel worksheet:
 We can insert a word table in PowerPoint using “Insert” menu.
 To insert the table, first create a new slide.
 Then click on “Insert” menu and select the “Table” icon. Select the number of rows and
columns.
 Press Enter.

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Inserting an excel worksheet:
 We can insert an excel worksheet in PowerPoint using “Insert” menu.
 First, create a new slide.
 To insert a new, excel file inside the presentation, click on insert menu and select Object
icon → Create New → Choose the object type as Microsoft Excel sheet → click Ok.
 To insert an existing excel file, select Create from file → Browse.
 Finally, select the excel document you wish to insert and press enter.

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Adding clip art pictures:
 Clip art is a cartoon-like icon or representation.
 Select Insert → Online pictures.
 In the dialog box, enter category and select the picture you want to insert.
 Click on Insert button.

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Inserting other objects:
 You can insert existing objects in a presentation by clicking Object icon in the insert menu.
 Select Create from file option and then select Browse button.
 Select the file you want to insert and click Ok button.
 If you want to link the file, select the link check box.
 To display the file as an icon, checkmark ‘Display as icon’ check box and click Ok button

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Resizing and scaling an object:
First, we will learn how to resize an object below:
 To resize an object in presentation mode, select the object, then click and drag on resize
handle around the outline.
 You can rotate the selected object by clicking and moving rotate handle which is usually
present at top of the object.

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Next, we shall learn how to scale an object:
 To scale an object in the presentation mode, select the object.
 You can change the height and width of the selected object by right clicking on the Size
and Position option, and change values accordingly.

Creation of Presentation:
A presentation is made up of number of slides that are displayed in a sequence. Each slide has
sub-topics and different content related to the given topic.
Creating a presentation using a template:
A template is a presentation that has a pre-defined theme and format. Templates are readily
available design structures. There are two types of templates: design and content templates. A
design template automatically gives final look of your presentation. The content template is
used to include text and graphics.
To create a presentation using template, select File → New → and select desired template.

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Creating a Blank Presentation:
 A blank presentation has no pre-formatted designs or colors. Every required element in the
presentation has to be created or inserted specifically by the user.
 To create a blank presentation, select File → New → Blank presentation.

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Entering and editing text:
 To enter text in a slide, insert a new slide.
 A slide has two sections:
1. Click to add the title.
2. Click to add the subtitle.
 In ‘Click to add title’ box, delete the text and include desired heading.
 In ‘Click to add subtitle’ box, delete the text and add sub heading.

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Editing:
 Editing text refers to the changing of text size, style, color, indentation, etc.
Font Color:
 It can be done using “font color” from “Home” menu.
 The text will be displayed in the color you have selected.

Font Style:
 Enhancing text can be done using “Font Style” from “Home” menu.
 You can change font styles of the text by selecting from the list of options in the drop-down
menu.

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Font Size:
 To increase or decrease the font size, use “font size” option from “Home” menu.

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Highlight Text:
 To enhance the text style, you may select either bold or italic.
 You can also highlight your text using the underline option or text shadow.
 Shortcut key for underline is “Ctrl + U”.
 Shortcut key for bold is “Ctrl + B”.
 Shortcut key for italic is “Ctrl + I”.

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Font Case:
You can highlight the text by changing it to upper, lower or mixed case.

Working with color and line-style:

Draw shapes and fill color, follow the below steps:
 To draw a shape, right click and select Fill option.
 Fill with the desired color.

Background color:
Giving background color to PowerPoint image makes the presentation more appealing and
beautiful. To apply background, go to Design menu and select Color option.

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Line Style:
 A line is termed as a connector between two points.
 In order to insert a line in your presentation, go to Home
 Shapes and select the desired line style.
 Now you can draw line on the slide pane.

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Adding headers and footers:
 You can add headers and footers to the presentation.
 To insert headers and footers to the presentation, go to Insert menu select Header and Footer
icon.
 You can include or exclude the time and date, slide number and footer information in the
slide.
 Make changes and click the option “Apply to all” to save the changes.

Multimedia:
Adding movie and sound:
 To insert a movie or audio in a slide, go to Insert video or audio options and select audio
or video file you want.
 The inserted audio or video file will be displayed in your slide.

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 To play a video or audio file in the presentation, follow the steps below:
1. Open the slide that contains the video or audio file.

2. Click play from playback menu.

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 You can also use playback menu to explore options such as: Play Full Screen, Hide While
Not Playing, Loop, etc., as well as adjust volume or mute playback of the file.

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 Current playback position in the file is indicated on horizontal slider.

 Use the vertical slider to adjust the playback volume.

 Video files provide zoom-in feature which can be selected from “View” menu.

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 PowerPoint enables to see the preview of audio or video files.
 To preview the file, go to Animations Preview.

Inserting and deleting slides in a presentation:

To create a new slide, follow the below steps:
 Go to Home New Slide or
 Insert New Slide or
 Right Click over the slide select New Slide.
Shortcut key to create a new slide is Ctrl + M.

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To delete a slide, go to the corresponding slide and right click on it to select Delete slide option.

Customizing a Presentation:
 Customizing a presentation can be done using Custom Slide Show options.
 PowerPoint allows you to start Slide Show from the current slide and also provides option
to hide some slides.
 To customize a Slide Show, Choose Slide Show Custom Slide Show New.
 Under existing slides, select slides you want to add to your Slide Show.
 Hold down shift to select a range of slides, or Ctrl to select non continuous slides.
 Here you can change the order of the slides in your Custom Slide Show by dragging and
dropping the slides under selected slides.
 Click ok button.

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Program Example:
To create a simple presentation with at least 5 slides to introduce a friend and include audio
in slides.
Procedure:
 Boot the system under Microsoft Windows 2013.
 Click Start Program MS-Office MS-PowerPoint.
 Once you open PowerPoint, choose the type of presentation you want.
 Select the desired presentation style in creating a new presentation window and click ok
button.
 Enter information about your friend.
 Right click on the empty space on the slide, select background color and click “Apply”.
 Select Slide Transition.
 Select an effect and click Ok button.
 Click Insert Audio, select a file to insert and press ‘ok’.
 Click the first slide and drag the mouse to select all the slides.
 Run your presentation by clicking on the Slide Show or by hitting F5 key.

Saving and Opening:

Saving a presentation:
 To save a presentation, click on “File” menu and choose “Save” option.
 Every presentation will be saved by default as presentation1, presentation2, presentation3
and so on.
 To change the default, save location, select Save As Computer Browse.
 Click on the browse option to see a window where you can select desired location to save
the file.
 To rename the presentation, simply add desired name in the ‘File Name’ tag. Click on
‘Save’.
 MS PowerPoint saves files with the extension (.ppt).

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Opening of presentation:
In MS-2016, Right click on mouse Click Microsoft PowerPoint Presentation open
PowerPoint Presentation
After opening of PowerPoint, how to create new presentation slide:
We can create a new presentation by choosing Home New Presentation.

Presentation and printing:

Presentation of Slides:
Viewing a presentation
 Viewing pane is very similar to other application windows.

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 It has a menu bar at top of the window which displays toolbar with shortcut icons for the
most frequently used options.
 Status bar at bottom of the screen displays the status information, such as number of slides,
current slide, word count, etc.
 Middle pane displays slides in the presentation, as you can see this section contains three
panes.
 The panel on the left displays a thumbnail image of the slide and allows you to rename,
delete or rearrange them.
 The panel in the center allows you to view the slide presentation.
 The panel on the right displays formatting options for the selected object.

Choosing a set up for presentation

 In order to select set up for presentation, go to Slide Show and select set up Slide Show
option.
 In the window displayed, make the changes accordingly and save the changes by clicking
“ok” button.

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Printing slides and handouts:
 To print the slide, click File Print.
 Print preview option helps to preview the page before you print it.

Creating and Printing Handouts:

 Handouts are the printed form of presentation.
 If you want to provide handouts, go to File Print.
 Handouts contain both individual slides and space for notes. These are very helpful
presentation aids.
 Click handout master in view menu to preview the handout.
 Choose a layout to specify how many slides are to be printed on a single sheet of paper.

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Slide Show:
 Slide Show view of the presentation is used to display content of presentation to the
audience.
 Editing is not possible in the Slide Show view.
 Running a Slide Show
 To start the Slide Show from the first slide, click on “From Beginning” icon from Slide
Show menu.
 To start the Slide Show from the current slide, click on “From Current Slide” icon from
Slide Show menu.

Transition and slide timings:

First, we will learn the Transition feature:
 Click on “Transition” menu and select “Transition style” from the listed options.
 You can click on the arrow key to expand the gallery and check all the options available.
 To apply transition on the slide, double click on desired option.
 Press “shift + F5” from keyboard to switch to full-screen mode.
 To exit full-screen, press Esc key.
 You can edit selected transitions by using “Effect Option” from “Transition” menu and
select option from the list.
 You can preview all the changes by clicking on preview icon in the top left side of screen.

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Automating a Slide Show:
Automation of Slide Show can be done in two ways:
1. Using transition settings:
 Select each slide and go to transition menu and select transition type for each slide and run
the presentation by pressing “F5” key.

2. Using Rehearse Timing:

 Open the presentation in which the timing has to be set.
 Go to Slide Show menu Rehearse Timing.
 Press F5 to run the slide. When the Slide Show starts, you can find the rehearsal toolbar at
the top left corner of window.
 Move to the next slide manually to record timing and press ‘yes’ button to record the time.
 Now, if you run your Slide Show, you can notice that it runs automatically with the time
intervals you have saved.

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Changing Slide Order:
 To change order of the slides, click on “Slide Sorter” in the “View” menu.
 In this mode, all slides in the presentation are displayed as thumbnails.
 Click on the slide you want to move and drag it with the mouse to the desired position

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Proofreading:
PowerPoint checks the spelling of titles, body text, notes, and text objects added to slides. It
doesn’t check the spelling in embedded objects, however, such as charts or graphs.
Proofreading is checking copy for:
– Accuracy: - Spelling, grammar, punctuation, etc.
– Impression: - Tense, tone, intent
– Professionalism: - Overall appearance, clarity, conciseness
Steps for Proofreading in PowerPoint:
1. Open the Review tab on the Ribbon and then click the Spelling button found in the
Proofing group.

2. Tap your fingers on your desk.

3. Don’t be startled if PowerPoint finds a spelling error.
4. Choose the correct spelling and click the Change button.
5. Repeat Steps 4 and 5 until PowerPoint gives up.
Example Program:
To create a simple presentation with at least 5 slides on the essay, “An astrologer’s day”.
Procedure:
 Boot the system under Microsoft Windows 2013.
 Click start program MS-Office MS-PowerPoint.
 Once you open PowerPoint, choose the type of presentation you want and click Ok.
 Select Insert Text box.
 Draw the text box in the slide and enter information about the essay, “An astrologer’s day”.
Right click on the text box and select custom animation in it.
 Select an effect and click ok.
 Right click in the empty space of the slide.
 Select background color and click apply button.
 Click Transition → select an effect and press ok.
 Click the first slide and drag the mouse to select all the slides.
 Run your presentation by clicking on “From Beginning” option from Slide Show or by
pressing F5 key.

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 UNIT – 5
E-MAIL, INTERNET, VIRUS PROTECTION

System of E-Mail:
Electronic mail is an application that supports interchange of information between two or more
persons. Usually text messages are transmitted through email. Audio and video transfer through
email depends on the browser in use. This provides a faster way of communication in an
affordable cost.
The email address is of this format [email protected]. The username is the identity
of the user whose account it is. The symbol @ separates the Username and the domain name.
The domain name is the unique name given to the email server e.g. pacific.com. Domain name
have two components. Thus, pacific is the name of the Organization while com is the type of
organization (e.g. net, org, etc.). this is also referred to as the Uniform Resource Location
(URL)
Advantages of E-mail:
Functionalities like attachment of documents, data files, program files, etc., can be enabled.
This is a faster way of communication at an affordable cost.
Disadvantages of E-mail:
If the connection to the ISP is lost, then you can’t access email. Once you send a mail to a
recipient, you have to wait until she/he reads and replies to your mail.

Email Addressing:
Email address is a unique address given to the user that helps to identify the user while sending
and receiving messages or mails.
Username - Name that identifies any user’s mailbox
Domain name - Represents the Internet Service Provider (ISP).
@ Symbol - Helps to concatenate username and domain name.
For example: user_name@domain_name
Username - user, Domain name - gmail.com
A Domain Name is the name by which an individual or organization chooses to be known on
the Internet.

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Opening Email Client:
In order to interchange messages between people, the first step is to open or create an email
account. Follow steps below to create an email account.
Step 1: Go to Gmail homepage and select “More options Create account” option.

Step 2: In the window displayed, fill mandatory details and press “Next”.

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Step 3: Then mobile verification code will be sent to the mobile number you have entered,
upon verification, your email account will be created.

Step 4: Enter details to setup the account.

Creating and sending a new E-mail:

In order to send a new text message to the user, first create or compose the message which
includes the following steps.
Step 1: Open your mail account by providing correct User name and Password.

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Step 2: Compose or create your message by selecting “compose” option shown in the window.

Step 3: In the window displayed, enter recipient’s address in “To” textbox and add “Subject”
of message, then add a “Body” of the message and press “Send” button. Remember, the subject
of the mail should be explicit and short.

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Internet, URL, WWW, http:
Internet:
It is believed that the internet was developed by "Defense Advanced Projects Agency"
(DARPA) department of United States. And, it was first connected in 1969.
Internet is called the network of networks. It is a global communication system that links
together thousands of individual networks. In other words, internet is a collection of interlinked
computer networks, connected by copper wires, fiber-optic cables, wireless connections, etc.
As a result, a computer can virtually connect to other computers in any network. These
connections allow users to interchange messages, to communicate in real time (getting instant
messages and responses), to share data and programs and to access limitless information.
Web Site/Web Page:
A web page is an area of text and other fancy visual effects that you see when you get on the
internet (actually it is a file but we haven't learned yet what a file is). A web site is a group of
web pages that belong to one section of the internet, such as one person, one company, one
school, or one government agency, etc. (a web site is similar to a folder or directory but we
haven't learned what a folder or directory are).
Website is a collection of related web pages that may contain text, images, audio and video.
The first page of a website is called home page. Each website has specific internet address
(URL) that you need to enter in your browser to access a website.
Website is hosted on one or more servers and can be accessed by visiting its homepage using
a computer network. A website is managed by its owner that can be an individual, company or
an organization.

URL:
URL refers to “Uniform Resource Locator”. Each and every website can be recognized using
a unique address called “Uniform Resource Locator” or simply a URL. This is the link that
connects the user to the remote locator on the world wide web. It is basically a link to a website,
which opens when you click on the URL.

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World Wide Web (WWW):
WWW is a collection of billions of web pages or documents that can be viewed with a web
browser.
World Wide Web is being used on internet right now. WWW is the name given to all resources
of the internet, which you can access with a web browser. It was created as a method for
incorporating footnotes, figures and cross-references into online documents in the European
Particle Physics Laboratory in Geneva, Switzerland in 1989. The web makers wanted to make
a simple method to access documents that are stored on a network, without searching through
indexes or directories of files, and without physically copying documents from one computer
to another before viewing them. To do this, they made a way to “connect” documents that were
stored in different locations on a single computer, or different computers on a network.
Terminologies related to WWW:
Web documents can be linked together, and are called “Hypertext”. Hypertext systems offer
an easy approach to manage huge collections of data, which includes text files, pictures,
sounds, movies and more. In a hypertext system, when you view a document or your computer
screen, you can also access all the data that is linked to it.
To support hypertext documents, web uses a protocol called “Hypertext Transfer Protocol”
(HTTP). A hypertext document is a specially encoded file that uses “Hypertext Markup
Language” (HTML). HTTP and Links are foundation for WWW. Web page is displayed in the
web browser. It is a kind of word processing document which contains pictures, sounds and
even movies along with text.
Hyperlinks:
Using Hyperlinks “Hyperlink” is a part of web page that is linked to URL. Hyperlink can be
text, image, button, arrow, etc. By clicking on a hyperlink, you can move to different URL
specified in the link from the current URL. Hyperlinked text is an underlined blue color text
which is represented using hand symbol.

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Virus and virus protection mechanism: Norton, ESET and Kaspersky
Computer viruses are unwanted software programs or pieces of code that interfere with the
functioning of the computer. They spread through contaminated files, data, and insecure
networks. Once it enters your system, it can replicate to produce copies of itself to spread from
one program to another program and from one infected computer to another computer.
There are many antiviruses, which are programs that can help you protect your machine from
viruses. It scans your system and cleans the viruses detected during the scan. Some of the
popular antiviruses include Avast, Quickheal, McAfee, Kaspersky, etc.

Types of Viruses:
a. A boot sector virus stores itself at the start of a disk and becomes activated by reading,
starting or restarting the computer when that disk is in the boot drive.
b. A file infector virus attaches itself to program files i.e. files that give instructions to a
computer. These files usually have extensions like exe, com, or bat. When the program is run,
the virus executes.
c. A macro virus affects data files, especially Word documents and Excel workbooks. This
virus type accounts for the vast majority of infected files. When the infected document is
opened and the macro are run, the virus is triggered and can perform system operations such
as creating or deleting files or writing into already existing files and thus have the potential to
cause a great deal of damage.
d. Worm or an email virus (for the purpose of this guide) is not really a virus at all (in that it
is not self-replicating) but a chain letter phenomenon sent through email. The message will, for
some reason or other, tell you to pass this message on to as many people as possible. Hoax
virus alerts are typical examples of chain emails. These are distinct from viruses in that they
do not have host file like most other viruses but are carried on the internet and can spread from
one computer to another by themselves without the need for a user to assist the process by
giving someone an infected file or disk. They are usually spread through the internet as an
attachment.
e. Trojan horses are programs that have some hidden, generally malicious functionality that
the computer does not expect. They claim to be a thing (e.g. an audio for example), when they
are actually another (e.g. code that will overwrite a portion of your hard disk). They do not run
their own like a virus does but rely on tricking the user to run them. They don't also replicate
themselves which is a major distinction between a virus and a Trojan.

How Viruses are Spread:

Viruses are spread by running infected programs or opening infected files. This can occur by
using any of the following methods:
 Passing floppy disks from PC to PC
 Downloading (copying) infected files from the Internet
 Opening an email attachment
 Booting a PC with an infected bootable disk.

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Prevention of Computer Virus:
Antivirus is protection software designed to defend the computer against malicious software.
The best prevention may be the installation of current and well-designed antiviral software.
Such software can prevent a viral infection and thereby help stop its spread.
In Word, turn on the Macro Virus Protection Option in Tools, then Options, then Security Tab
and finally Macro Security button, by setting the level of security you desire for the macros.
This will warn you if files contain macros. You or a colleague may have created the macros for
some legitimate purpose but they could also be viruses. If a warning appears, open the file only
it comes from a trusted source. Note that this procedure will warn you about macros (whether
malicious or benign) but will not disinfect existing infected files.

Norton:
Norton Antivirus is an anti-virus or anti-malware software product, developed and distributed
by Symantec Corporation since 1991 as part of its Norton family of computer
security products. It uses signatures and heuristics to identify viruses. Other features included
in it are e-mail spam filtering and phishing protection.
Symantec’s Norton Antivirus software is a program that protects your computer and stops
viruses, spyware, worms and Trojan horses from entering and causing harm. Norton Antivirus
performs constant scans to your computer to protect it as you surf websites, download files and
open email. Norton Antivirus is updated regularly and automatically so that your computer
remains safe. The improved Norton Protection System features multi-layered protection
technologies that work together to proactively block attacks and detect and remove threats
before they can harm your PC.
How to download and install a Symantec Norton Antivirus Definition update:
1. Check whether your version of Windows is 32-bit or 64-bit.
2. In the table left, click on the link that will work for your version of Windows.
3. Save the file to your Desktop.
4. When the file has finished downloading, go to your Desktop and double-click the file.
5. Follow the prompts to install the update.

The following versions of Symantec antivirus software:

 Norton AntiVirus 2000 for Windows 9x/NT/2000
 Norton AntiVirus 2001 for Windows 95b/98/NT/2000/Me
 Norton AntiVirus 2002 Professional Edition
 Norton AntiVirus 2002 for Windows 98/Me/NT/2000/XP Home/XP Pro
 Norton AntiVirus 2003 Professional Edition
 Norton AntiVirus 2003 for Windows 98/Me/2000/XP Home/XP Pro
 Norton AntiVirus 2004 Professional Edition
 Norton AntiVirus 2004 for Windows 98/Me/2000/XP Home/XP Pro
 Norton AntiVirus 2005 for Windows 98/Me/2000/XP Home/XP Pro
 Norton AntiVirus 7.x Corporate Edition Client

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 Norton AntiVirus for Microsoft Exchange (Intel)
 Norton System Works (all versions)
 Norton UtiliEnter your state here ties for Windows 95/98 (all versions)
 Symantec AntiVirus 3.0 for CacheFlow Security Gateway
 Symantec AntiVirus 3.0 for Inktomi Traffic Edge
 Symantec AntiVirus 3.0 for NetApp Filer/Net Cache
 Symantec AntiVirus 3.1 for SMTP Gateways for Windows
 Symantec AntiVirus 8.0 Corporate Edition Client
 Symantec AntiVirus 8.1 Corporate Edition Client
 Symantec AntiVirus 9.0 Corporate Edition Client
 Symantec AntiVirus/Filtering 3.02 for Microsoft Exchange 2000
 Symantec AntiVirus/Filtering 3.1 for Domino

ESET:
ESET NOD32 Antivirus, commonly known as NOD32, is an antivirus software package
made by the Slovak company ESET. ESET NOD32 Antivirus is sold in two editions, Home
Edition and Business Edition. The Business Edition packages add ESET Remote
Administrator allowing for server deployment and management, mirroring of threat signature
database updates and the ability to install on Microsoft Windows Server operating systems.
The acronym NOD stands for Nemocnica na Okraji Disku ("Hospital at the end of the disk"),
a pun related to the Czechoslovak medical drama series Nemocnice na kraji mesta (Hospital at
the End of the City). The first version of NOD32 - called NOD-ICE - was a DOS-based
program. It was created in 1987 by Miroslav Trnka and Peter Pasko at the time when computer
viruses started to become increasingly prevalent on PCs running DOS. Due to the limitations
of the OS (lack of multitasking among others) it didn't feature any on-demand/on-access
protection nor most of the other features of the current versions. Besides the virus scanning and
cleaning functionality it only featured heuristic analysis. With the increasing popularity of the
Windows environment, advent of 32-bit CPUs, a shift on the PC market and increasing
popularity of the Internet came the need for a completely different antivirus approach as well.
Timeline:
 1987 - The first version of antivirus NOD is created by Peter Pasko and Miroslav Trnka
 1992 - Founding of ESET spol. s.r.o. in Czechoslovakia (now in Slovakia)
 1998 - ESET NOD32 Antivirus received the first Virus Bulletin Test award
 1999 - Forming of ESET, LLC in San Diego, United States
 2001 - Founding of ESET Software Company in Prague, Czech Republic
 2008 - Founding of ESET Research and Development Center in Poland
 2012 - Founding of ESET Research and Development Center in Montreal, Canada.
 2013 - ESET launches ESET Secure Authentication, its first authentication product.
 2013 - ESET launches Managed Service Provider (MSP) Program

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Kaspersky:
Kaspersky Anti-Virus (known as Antiviral Toolkit Pro; often referred to as KAV) is
an antivirus program developed by Kaspersky Lab. It is designed to protect users
from malware and is primarily designed for computers running Microsoft
Windows and macOS, although a version for Linux is available for business consumers.
Kaspersky Anti-Virus features include real-time protection, detection and removal
of viruses, trojans, worms, spyware, adware, keyloggers, malicious tools and auto-dialers, as
well as detection and removal of rootkits. It also includes instantaneous automatic updates via
the "Kaspersky Security Network" service.
Kaspersky Anti-Virus offers basic security for your PC. Its feature set includes anti-virus
scan for your software and files, activity monitoring, search for vulnerabilities and Internet
traffic control.
Function of Kaspersky:
 Easy to use, automatically detects and removes viruses, Trojans, malware
 Keeps your device safe, secure, protects against malicious virus attacks
 Real-time protection against computer viruses, spyware, trojans, rootkits and more
 Fast and efficient PC performance
 Instant safety checks on files, applications and websites
 Rollback of harmful malware activity
 Link to download the setup file is provided in the product package in case CD reader is
not present. Please download, install and enter the key to start using

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 UNIT 6: CLOUD COMPUTING

Introduction:
Why the Name Cloud?
The cloud is simply a network of computers. It refers to a network of computers owned by one
person or company, where other people or companies can store their data.
The cloud concept that has recently become the technological hot topic, is actually very old. It
has roots dating back to the 1950’s and 1960’s. Computer scientist John McCarthy has been
credited as one of the founding fathers of the cloud computing concept.
The term “Cloud” came from a network design that was used by network engineers to represent
the location of various network devices and their inter-connection. The shape of this network
design was like a cloud.

Cloud computing is a model for enabling convenient, on-demand network access to a shared
pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and
services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or
service provider interaction.
In other words, Cloud Computing can be defined as delivering computing power (CPU, RAM,
Network Speeds, Storage OS software) a service over a network (usually on the internet) rather
than physically having the computing resources at the customer location.
Cloud computing has emerged as a popular solution to provide cheap and easy access to
externalized IT (Information Technology) resources. An increasing number of organizations
(e.g., research centres, enterprises) benefit from Cloud computing to host their applications.
Through virtualization, Cloud computing is able to address with the same physical
infrastructure a large client base with different computational needs.

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Cloud Computing Core Concepts:
In the cloud computing model, computing power, software, storage services, and platforms are
delivered on demand to external customers over the internet. The access that this technology
provides to resources and services can be scaled up or down to meet demand. Cloud computing
providers typically charge customers on a pay-per-use model.
Cloud computing with an example:
Whenever you travel through a bus or train, you take a ticket for your destination and hold back
to your seat till you reach your destination. Likewise, other passengers also take ticket and
travel in the same bus with you and it hardly bothers you where they go. When your stop comes
you get off the bus thanking the driver. Cloud computing is just like that bus, carrying data and
information for different users and allows to use its service with minimal cost.

What is new in cloud computing today?

 Faster data communication
 Faster and more reliable computing
 Denser and cheaper storage
 Newer Programming paradigms

Cloud Characteristics:
 On Demand Self-services
 Broad Network Access
 Resource Pooling
 Rapid Elasticity
 Measured Service
 Dynamic Computing Infrastructure
 IT Service-centric Approach
 Minimally or Self-managed Platform
 Consumption-based Billing
 Multi Tenancy
 Managed Metering

Advantages/benefits of cloud computing:

1. Lower IT infrastructure and computer costs for users
2. Improved performance
3. Fewer Maintenance issues
4. Instant software updates
5. Improved compatibility between Operating systems
6. Backup and recovery
7. Performance and Scalability
8. Increased storage capacity
9. Increase data safety

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Cloud Deployment Models (Type of Cloud computing):
1. Public Cloud - A public cloud can be accessed by any subscriber with an internet connection
and access to the cloud space.
2. Private Cloud - A private cloud is established for a specific group or organization and limits
access to just that group.
3. Community Cloud - A community cloud is shared among two or more organizations that
have similar cloud requirements.
4. Hybrid Cloud - A hybrid cloud is essentially a combination of at least two clouds, where
the clouds included are a mixture of public, private, or community. The models are described
in more detail in the following graphic.

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Cloud Delivery/service model:
A. Software-as-a-Service (SaaS):
In a cloud-computing environment. SaaS is software that is owned, delivered and managed
remotely by one or more providers and that is offered in a pay-per-use manner. SaaS in simple
terms can be defined as “Software deployed as a hosted service and accessed over the
Internet.”. SaaS clouds provide scalability and also shifts significant burdens from subscribers
to providers, resulting in a number of opportunities for greater efficiency and, in some cases,
performance. The typical user of a SaaS offering usually has neither knowledge nor control
about the underlying infrastructure.

B. Platform-as-a-Service (PAAS):
This kind of cloud computing provides development environment as a service. The consumer
can use the middleman’s equipment to develop his own program and deliver it to the users
through Internet and servers. The consumer controls the applications that run in the
environment, but does not control the operating system, hardware or network infrastructure on
which they are running. The platform is typically an application framework.
PaaS services are constantly updated & new features added. Software developers, web
developers and business can benefit from PaaS. It provides platform to support application
development. It includes software support and management services, storage, networking,
deploying, testing, collaborating, hosting and maintaining applications.

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Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS):
Infrastructure as a service delivers a platform virtualization outsourced service. The consumer
can control the environment as a service. Rather than purchasing servers, software, data center
space or network equipment, consumers instead buy those resources as a fully operating
system, storage, deployed applications and possibly networking components such as firewalls
and load balancers, but not the cloud infrastructure beneath them.
IaaS (Infrastructure as a service) is a complete package for computing. For small scale
businesses who are looking for cutting cost on IT infrastructure, IaaS is one of the solutions.
Annually a lot of money is spent in maintenance and buying new components like hard-drives,
network connections, external storage device etc. which a business owner could have saved for
other expenses by using IaaS.

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Cloud Computing Architecture:
The term cloud architecture or cloud computing architecture indicates the components and sub
components which are required to implement a well-defined and efficient cloud computing set
up. The architecture 10 consists of a front-end platform, back end platform, a cloud-based
delivery and a network. These components also consist of sub components that together make
up cloud computing architecture. The front-end platform consists of fat client, thin client and
mobile devices. It comprises of interfaces and applications that are required to access the cloud
computing platform. The back end platforms include servers and storage. The architecture
component network consists of an Internet or intranet.
• Front End Platforms
• Back End Platforms
• Cloud Based Delivery
• Cloud Networking

Figure: Cloud Computing Architecture.

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Cloud storage:
Cloud storage is a cloud computing model that stores data on the Internet through a cloud
computing provider who manages and operates data storage as a service. It’s delivered on
demand with just-in-time capacity and costs, and eliminates buying and managing your own
data storage infrastructure.

Figure: Simple cloud storage model

Dropbox:
Dropbox introduced the online storage business in 2007. One of the largest and earliest
implementations of cloud storage disk drives. Dropbox company has been set up 9 years, the
number of users are more than 80 million, the cumulative preservation of more than 100 billion
files. Although a considerable number of users are free users, the operating income is still
considerable. Dropbox products’ device is under the Amazon storage device, easy to operate,
with high service reliability and fast transmission speed. These advantages make Dropbox
company gain more users. Dropbox's user covered business executives, retired people and
students. (Liu 2016.)
First function is synchronous backup. It supports the user to set up a synchronous backup folder
on the terminal to achieve synchronization with the backup on the network disk. Through a
simple installation plug-in, people can put mail and other business generated documents
automatically synchronized to the network disk. When the user opens and logs on to the
computer, the synchronization folder in the new or modified files will automatically sync to
the Dropbox. When the user logs in to Dropbox, the file is automatically synchronized from

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Dropbox to the computer. When the file in the folder changes, Dropbox only uploading changes
to the file part, which has high efficiency. Second function is batch upload. Dropbox supports
batch upload of files. Web page upload as single file limit of 350MB. The client upload is
unlimited, different packages have different upper limit traffic for upload and download. (Liu
2016.)
Third function is multi-version support. Dropbox supports multi-version save even if the file
is deleted. It can also be restored to any historical version. So that even if the number of people
involved in editing the file. Different users can find the historical version that he needs which
will not be confused (Liu 2016.)
Operational characteristics include internet marketing model which is viral marketing and open
interface. Dropbox uses viral marketing mechanism. The new registered users have only 2GB
of space, If the user wants to increase the free space, they can invite friends to register. Each
successful registration of a friend will increase the storage space by 250MB. The current
increase of up to 16GB of space. Inviting friends can be achieved through three ways like
sending invitations to social networking sites. Sending an invitation link to the email contact
by email and the dropbox provides an online mass invitation of link interface. (Liu 2016.)
Through opening interface to let third-party software vendors develop the applications for
Dropbox, and get Dropbox profit sharing. More applications can increase the user's needing.
Dropbox application bundle the account to maintain the relationship with the user. There are
two types of third-party applications for Dropbox, bundle the account to achieve the contents
of the Internet application and synchronization of Dropbox folder. Another is according to links
jump after bundling to use the functionality of the application to handle Dropbox files. (Liu
2016.)
Dropbox's profit model is mainly using free trial and advanced service charges model. The first
2GB space is free, and then need to pay the monthly storage cost of the space size. 50GB space
is $ 99 per year, 100GB of space is $ 199 per year. People can also get free space by inviting
friends which is the account has bundled Facebook, Twitter account. It will slowly increase its
package capacity, and let users still use Dropbox. At the same time, Dropbox charges a fee that
is developing from the third-party software vendors, and divide profit to third-party vendors,
improve the enthusiasm of developing applications. (Liu 2016.)

Amazon:
This is another best free cloud storage available that helps the users in saving photos and files
securely. This cloud storage has many features that have made handling of files easier.
Maintaining a perfect workflow i.e. sharing of photos, videos, and documents, has now become
easier with the powerful features of Amazon Drive. It provides 24*7 support and 5GB of free
storage after signing up.

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At present, Amazon has five storage locations in the world. Users can choose from the United
States, the western United States, the European Union, Asia and Asia Pacific. For unlimited
storage and tiered storage, Amazon provides two storage tiers the standard layer and the
reduced redundant storage tier. The standard layer is used to store critical data. Redundant
storage layer is used to store less important data, such as pictures, caching. And the price is
relatively cheap. Requiring of the Redundant storage layer is high, it up to 99.99% durability
and 99.99% availability. The standard layer can also restore an old version of the storage object,
with the SLA protocol. It can keep running when the devices occur some problem sometime.
The purpose of this design is to prevent data loss when the data center is in a disaster or
accident. Foe disaster recovery, people can use S3 to disaster recovery data on a single or
multiple site in enterprise. S3 provides a DR final solution that combines durability, scalability,
availability and security. It has functions of unlimited storage version control and Amazon
AWS import and export functions. (Liu 2016.)
Amazon S3 charges fees for tenants which is including data space rental fees and requests.
Charge according to the user selected storage mode, the use of storage space size. Larger
storage space has the smaller average cost. Amazon S3 space rental fee table below.
Amazon S3 network services introduce a new business model, known as the "requestor to pay."
Service providers using S3 services can choose their data to join this new model. The cost of
data transfer borne by the data requester (end user), not the owner of the data. In the past, the
owner of the S3 folder paid for the storage and transmission of the data. It inhibits the opening
of the data, and the new model changes the rules of the past. (Liu 2016.)
Facebook is a public service site, which uses the device under the Amazon S3 storage device.
The Web service interface with store photos, multimedia files through REST, SOAP, and store
it on the Amazon server. Amazon S3 is scalable, reliable, secure, fast and inexpensive
infrastructure to achieve the storage needs of the business generated by the large user data. At
present, Facebook has the largest number of college students on all major business sites, 34
million active users. Facebook also is the largest photo sharing application in the United States,
the number of photos is 8.5 million per day. Obviously, Amazon S3 contributed lots of values.
(Liu 2016.)

Box:
Box was originally developed as a college project of Aaron Levie while he was a student of
the University of Southern California in 2004. Box was founded in 2005. Official clients and
apps are available for Windows, macOS, and several mobile platforms.
Box is a cloud computing business which provides file sharing, collaborating, and other tools
for working with files that are uploaded to its servers. Users can determine how their content
can be shared with other users. Users may invite others to view and/or edit an account's shared
files, upload documents and photos to a shared files folder (and thus share those documents
outside Box), and give other users rights to view shared files.
Box offers three account types: Enterprise, Business and Personal. There are official clients
offered for Windows and macOS, but not for Linux.

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In December 2007 the company announced Open Box 2, which allows developers to create
services that interact with files on both Box.com and competing web-based applications and
services. The application programming interface is implemented over conventional XML.

SkyDrive (OneDrive):
SkyDrive was first launched in August 2007. Microsoft officially rebrands SkyDrive to
OneDrive in January, 2014. SkyDrive is dead, long live OneDrive.
Microsoft OneDrive is a file hosting service and synchronization service operated by
Microsoft as part of its web version of Office. OneDrive allows users to store files and personal
data like Windows settings or BitLocker recovery keys in the cloud, share files, and sync files
across Android, Windows Phone, and iOS mobile devices, Windows and macOS computers,
and the Xbox 360 and Xbox One consoles. OneDrive offers 5 GB of storage space free of
charge, with 50 GB, 1 TB, and 5 TB storage options available either separately or with Office
365 subscriptions.
SkyDrive is a cloud service. With SkyDrive, you can upload your favorite files and folders on
the cloud; you can create a backup and restore points, and edit MS documents on the go,
without having to open the Office Suite.
Once you’ve created your SkyDrive account, you can start uploading your first documents or
create new ones. Moreover, because Microsoft has done a marvelous job at creating a cross-
platformer, your account will automatically sync any information uploaded from all signed-in
devices like tablets and smartphones.
Being a business-oriented cloud service, SkyDrive even allows multiple computers to access
and submit changes to the same documents if they have the necessary credentials.
Advantages:
 By creating a Microsoft account, SkyDrive offers you 5 GB of free storage;
 Easy to use and to access;
 You can edit, save or delete documents without having to open the Office Suite;
 Highly versatile cloud storage service;
 Cross-platform sharing functions;
 Can be accessed either using the SkyDrive or the Microsoft account;
 Available on multiple platforms, including the Mac OSX.

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 UNIT 7: PROGRAMMING

Introduction:
A computer program is a sequence of instructions written using a Computer Programming
Language to perform a specified task by the computer.
Programming is the art of developing computer programs with the aid of selected
programming language by a computer programmer.
Programming languages: A vocabulary and set of grammatical rules (syntax) for instructing
a computer to perform specific tasks.

Uses of Computer Programs:

Today computer programs are being used in almost every field, household, agriculture,
medical, entertainment, defense, communication, etc. Listed below are a few applications of
computer programs:
 MS Word, MS Excel, Adobe Photoshop, Internet Explorer, Chrome, etc., are examples of
computer programs.
 Computer programs are being used to develop graphics and special effects in movie
making.
 Computer programs are being used to perform Ultrasounds, X-Rays, and other medical
examinations.
 Computer programs are being used in our mobile phones for SMS, Chat, and voice
communication.
Computer Programming Languages are also made of several elements:
 Programming Environment
 Basic Syntax
 Data Types
 Variables
 Keywords
 Basic Operators
 Decision Making
 Loops
 Numbers
 Characters
 Arrays
 Strings
 Functions
 File I/O

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Table: Programming languages

The Top Programming Languages?

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Generations of Programming Language:
1.The first-generation languages, or 1GL, are low-level languages that are machine language.
2.The second-generation languages, or 2GL, are also low-level languages that generally
consist of assembly languages.
3.The third-generation languages, or 3GL, are high-level languages such as C.
4.The fourth-generation languages, or 4GL, are languages that consist of statements similar
to statements in a human language. Fourth generation languages are commonly used in
database programming and scripts.
5.The fifth-generation languages, or 5GL, are programming languages that contain visual
tools to help develop a program. A good example of a fifth-generation language is Visual
Basic.

Computer language:
 Machine language: the most basic language of a computer
 A sequence of 0s and 1s
 Every computer directly understands its own machine language
 A bit is a binary digit, 0 or 1
 A byte is a sequence of eight bits
A Computer language includes various languages that are used to communicate with a
Computer machine. Some of the languages like programming language which is a set of codes
or instructions used for communicating the machine. Machine code is also considered as a
computer language that can be used for programming. There are different types of languages
developed for different types of work to be performed by communicating with the machine.
But all the languages that are now available are categorized into two basic types of languages
including Low-level language and High-level language.

Computer language (Programming language) are classified into three type:

1. Machine level language
2. Assembly level language

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3. High-level language
1. Machine Level Language:
Machine language is lowest level of programming language. It handles binary data i.e. 0’s and
1’s. It directly interacts with system. Machine language is difficult for human beings to
understand as it comprises combination of 0’s and 1’s. There is software which translate
programs into machine level language. Examples include operating systems like Linux, UNIX,
Windows, etc. In this language, there is no need of compilers and interpreters for conversion
and hence the time consumption is less. However, it is not portable and nonreadable to humans.

2. Assembly Level Language:

Assembly language is a middle-level language. It consists of a set of instructions in a specific
format called commands. It uses symbols to represent field of instructions. It is very close to
machine level language. The computer should have assembler to translate assembly level
program to machine level program. Examples include ADA, PASCAL, etc. It is in human-
readable format and takes lesser time to write a program and debug it. However, it is a machine
dependent language.

High-level Language:
In the 1950s, a new generation of programming languages known as high-level languages
began to appear. A high-level language allows you to create powerful and complex programs
without knowing how the CPU works, and without writing large numbers of low-level
instructions

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High-level language uses format or language that is most familiar to users. The instructions in
this language are called codes or scripts. The computer needs a compiler and interpreter to
convert high-level language program to machine level language. Examples include C++,
Python, Java, etc. It is easy to write a program using high level language and is less time-
consuming. Debugging is also easy and is a human-readable language. Main disadvantages of
this are that it takes lot of time for execution and occupies more space when compared to
Assembly or Machine-level languages. Following is a simple example for a high-level
language:
variable = variable + 1;
This example shows the simple mathematical operation of addition. This instruction can be
easily understood by anyone without programming experience and with basic mathematical
knowledge.

Comparison:

The term programming language usually refers to high-level languages, such as BASIC ,
C, C++, COBOL, Java, FORTRAN, Ada, and Pascal.

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FORTRAN:
The first important algorithmic language was FORTRAN (formula translation), designed in
1957 by an IBM team led by John Backus. It was intended for scientific computations with real
numbers and collections of them organized as one- or multidimensional arrays. Its control
structures included conditional IF statements, repetitive loops (so-called DO loops), and a
GOTO statement that allowed nonsequential execution of program code. FORTRAN made it
convenient to have subprograms for common mathematical operations, and built libraries of
them.
BASIC:
 Short for Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code.
 Developed in the 1950s for teaching University students to program and provided with
every self-respecting personal computer in the 1980s,
 BASIC has been the first programming language for many programmers.
 It is also the foundation for Visual Basic.
 Example: PRINT "Hello world!"
VISUAL BASIC:
 A programming language and environment developed by Microsoft.
 Based on the BASIC language, Visual Basic was one of the first products to provide a
graphical programming environment and a paint metaphor for developing user interfaces.
 Example: MsgBox "Hello, World!“
C:
 Developed by Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs in the mid-1970s.
 C is much closer to assembly language than are most other high-level languages.
 The first major program written in C was the UNIX operating system.
 The low-level nature of C, however, can make the language difficult to use for some types
of applications.
Example:

C++:
 A high-level programming language developed by Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell Labs.
 C++ adds object-oriented features to its predecessor, C.
 C++ is one of the most popular programming languages for graphical applications, such as
those that run in Windows and Macintosh environments.
Example:

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PASCAL:
 A high-level programming language developed by Niklaus Wirth in the late 1960s.
 The language is named after Blaise Pascal, a seventeenth-century French mathematician
who constructed one of the first mechanical adding machines.
 It is a popular teaching language.
Example:

JAVA:
 A high-level programming language developed by Sun Microsystems.
 Java was originally called OAK, and was designed for handheld devices and set-top boxes.
 Oak was unsuccessful so in 1995 Sun changed the name to Java and modified the language
to take advantage of the burgeoning World Wide Web.
 Java is a general-purpose programming language with a number of features that make the
language well suited for use on the World Wide Web.
Example:

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PYTHON:
It is a high-level programming language that supports imperative, object-oriented, and
functional programming paradigms. In its features like the dynamic type system and automatic
memory management, it is similar to Perl. Originally released in 1991 by Guido van Rossum,
a Dutch computer programmer, Python is an open community-based language whose
development is managed by the Python Software Foundation.

C#:
C Sharp is a multi-paradigm programming language that supports imperative, generic and
object-oriented programming. It is a part of the Microsoft .NET Framework. It is similar to
C++ in its object-oriented syntax and is also influenced by Java and Delphi.

Methods of programming:
A method in object-oriented programming (OOP) is a procedure associated with a message
and an object. An object consists of data and behavior. The data and behavior comprise an
interface, which specifies how the object may be utilized by any of various consumers of the
object.
Data is represented as properties of the object and behaviors are represented as methods of the
object. For example, a Window object could have methods such as open and close , while its
state (whether it is opened or closed at any given point in time) would be a property.

1. Overriding and overloading Method:

Method overriding, in object-oriented programming, is a language feature that allows a
subclass or child class to provide a specific implementation of a method that is already
provided by one of its super classes or parent classes.

Method overriding and overloading are two of the most significant ways that a method differs
from a conventional procedure or function call. Overriding refers to a subclass redefining the
implementation of a method of its superclass. For example, find Area may be a method
defined on a shape class. The various subclasses: rectangle , circle , triangle , etc. would each

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define the appropriate formula to calculate their area. The idea is to look at objects as "black
boxes" so that changes to the internals of the object can be made with minimal impact on the
other objects that use it. This is known as encapsulation and is meant to make code easier to
maintain and re-use.
The following simple Java example illustrates the difference:

2. Accessor, mutator and manager methods:

Accessor methods are used to read data values of an object. Mutator methods are used to
modify the data of an object. Manager methods are used to initialize and destroy objects of a
class, e.g. constructors and destructors.
These methods provide an abstraction layer that facilitates encapsulation and modularity. For
example, if a bank-account class provides a get Balance () accessor method to retrieve the
current balance (rather than directly accessing the balance data fields), then later revisions of
the same code can implement a more complex mechanism for balance retrieval (e.g.,
a database fetch), without the dependent code needing to be changed. The concepts of
encapsulation and modularity are not unique to object-oriented programming. Indeed, in many
ways the object-oriented approach is simply the logical extension of previous paradigms such
as abstract data types and structured programming.
2.1 Constructors:
A constructor is a method that is called at the beginning of an object's lifetime to create and
initialize the object, a process called construction (or instantiation). Initialization may include
an acquisition of resources. Constructors may have parameters but usually do not return values
in most languages. See the following example in Java:

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2.2 Destructors:
A destructor is a method that is called automatically at the end of an object's lifetime, a process
called destruction. Destruction in most languages does not allow destructor method arguments
nor return values. Destruction can be implemented so as to perform cleanup chores and other
tasks at object destruction.
2.2.1 Finalizers:
In garbage-collected languages, such as Java, C#, and Python, destructors are known
as finalizers. They have a similar purpose and function to destructors, but because of the
differences between languages that utilize garbage-collection and languages with manual
memory management, the sequence in which they are called is different.

3. Abstract methods:
An abstract method is one with only a signature and no implementation body. It is often used
to specify that a subclass must provide an implementation of the method. Abstract methods are
used to specify interfaces in some programming languages.
Example:
The following Java code shows an abstract class that needs to be extended:

The following subclass extends the main class:

4. Class methods:
Class methods are methods that are called on a class rather than an instance. They are typically
used as part of an object meta-model. i.e., for each class, defined an instance of the class object
in the meta-model is created. Meta-model protocols allow classes to be created and deleted. In
this sense, they provide the same functionality as constructors and destructors described above.
But in some languages such as the Common Lisp Object System (CLOS) the meta-model
allows the developer to dynamically alter the object model at run time: e.g., to create new
classes, redefine the class hierarchy, modify properties, etc.

5. Special methods:
Special methods are very language-specific and a language may support none, some, or all of
the special methods defined here. A language's compiler may automatically generate default
special methods or a programmer may be allowed to optionally define special methods. Most
special methods cannot be directly called, but rather the compiler generates code to call them
at appropriate times.
5.1 Static methods:
Static methods are meant to be relevant to all the instances of a class rather than to any specific
instance. They are similar to static variables in that sense. An example would be a static method

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to sum the values of all the variables of every instance of a class. For example, if there were
a Product class it might have a static method to compute the average price of all products.
In Java, a commonly used static method is:

5.2 Copy-assignment operators:

Copy-assignment operators define actions to be performed by the compiler when a class object
is assigned to a class object of the same type.
5.3 Operator methods:
Operator methods define or redefine operator symbols and define the operations to be
performed with the symbol and the associated method parameters. C++ Example:

INTRODUCTION TO PROBLEM SOLVING:

Problem solving is a process of transforming the description of a problem into the solution of
that problem by using our knowledge of the problem domain and by relying on our ability to
select and use appropriate problem-solving Strategies, Techniques and Tools.
Problem solving (within the context of developing programs) refers to analyzing a problem
with the intention of deriving a solution for the problem.

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Consists of the following steps:
1. Requirements specifications (Specification of needs).
2. Problem analysis
3. Design the algorithm to solve the problem.
4. Implementation
5. Testing and verification.
6. Documentation

1. Requirements Specifications:
State the problem clearly and unambiguously (Doubtless) to understand exactly:
 What the problem is?
 What is needed to solve it?
 What the solution should provide
 If there are constraints and special conditions.

2. Problem Analysis:
In the analysis phase, we should identity the following:
Inputs: To the problem, their form and the input media to be used
Outputs: Expected from the problem, their form and the output media to be used.
Special constraints or (necessity) conditions (if any)
Formulas or equations to be used.
Example:
Problem: Compute and display the total cost of apples given the number of kilograms (kg) of
apples purchased and the cost per kg of apples.
Input: Quantity of Apples purchased (in kg).
Cost per kg of Apples (in Rs_ per kg).
Output: Total cost of Apples (in Rs_)
Constraint: N/A
Formula: Total cost — Cost per kg x Quantity

3. Design the algorithm to solve the problem:

Purpose: To develop and verify algorithm
An algorithm is a list of steps to be executed with the right order in which these steps should
be executed.
An algorithm must satisfy these requirements
 It must have an Input
 It must have an Output
 It must not be ambiguous (there should not be different interpretations to it).
 It must be general (it can be used for different Inputs).
 Writing the algorithm is a difficult task use top-down design (Divide and Conquer
approach)

Top-Down design:
1. List the major steps (most algorithm consists of at least the following)
 Get the data
 Perform the computations.
 Display the result.
2. Perform algorithm refinement the step(s) may need to be broken down into a more detailed
list of steps.

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3.Verify that the algorithm works as intended — perform desk check.

It must be correct and it must solve the problem for which it is designed.
It must execute and terminate in a finite amount of time.
It must be efficient enough so that it can solve the intended problem using the resource currently
available on the computer.

 An algorithm can be represented using Pseudo codes (or) Flow charts.

 Specifying the order in which the steps are to be executed is important.

Example:
Algorithm for getting out of bed and prepare to go to work
Get out of Bed.
Take Shower
Get Dressed.

 If a same step is performed in a slightly different order

Get out of Bed.
Get Dressed.
Take Shower.
What would be the result?

PSEUDO CODE:
Pseudo code is semiformal English - like language with limited vocabulary that can be used to
design and describe algorithms.
Criteria of a good pseudo code:
 Easy to user stand, precise and clear
 Gives the correct solution in all cases
 Eventually ends

FLOWCHART:
 Flowchart is a graph used to depict or show a step by step solution using symbols which
represent a task
 The symbols used consist of geometrical shapes that are connected by flow lines.
 It is an alternative to pseudo coding, where as a pseudo code description is verbal. A
flowchart is graphical in nature.

The Symbols:

Terminal: the beginning and end points of an algorithm.

Process: shows an instruction other than i/p, o/p or selection.

Input-output: shows an input or an output operation.

Disk storage i/o: indicates i/p from or o/p to disk storage.

Printer output: shows hard copy printer output.

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 Selection: shows a selection process for two-way selection.

Off- page connector: it provides continuation of a logical path on another page.

On-page connector: it provides continuation of a logical path on another point in the

same page

Flow lines: indicate the logical sequence of execution steps in the algorithm.

Problem-Analysis-Coding- Execution Cycle:

 Any algorithm can be described using only control program structures:

1. Sequence.
2. Selection.
3. Repetition.

1.Sequence control structure:

A series of steps or statements that are executed in a specific order.
The beginning and end of a block of statements can be optionally marked with the keywords
begin & end.
The structure:
 Statement 1
 Statement 2
 Statement 3

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Example:
Begin
Read birthdate
Age=today's date - birth date
Print age
End

2. Selection control structure:

Defines two courses of action depending on the outcome of a condition
A condition is an expression that is either true (or) false.
The keyword used are if and else.
Example:
If age>55
Print "-------"
Else
Print "-------"
Endif
If (marks>=60)
Printf("passed\n");
Else
Printf("failed\n");

3. Repetition control structure:

Specifies a block of one or more statements that are repeatedly executed until a condition is
satisfied.
While structure:
While<termination condition>
Statements

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4. Implementation:
The process of implementing an algorithm by writing a computer program using a
programming language (example: using 'C' language) the output of the program must be the
solution of the intended problem.

5. Testing and Verification:

 Program testing is the process of executing a program to demonstrate its correctness.
 Program verification is the process of ensuring that a program meets user requirement.
 After the program is compiled, we must run the program and test/verify it with different
inputs before the program can be released to the public or other users (or to the instructor
of this class).

Examples:

6. Documentation:
It contains details produced at all stages of the program development cycle.
Can be done in 2 ways:
 writing comments between your line of codes.
 Creating a separate text file to explain the program.
Important not only for other people to use or modify your program, but also for you to
understand your own program after a long time.

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