Abstract

Princeton Architectural Press

37 East Seventh Street
New York. New York 10003
For a free catalog of books, call 1.800.722.6657.
Visit our Web site at www.papress.com.
First published in Norway by Abstrakt Forlag
in 2004
Copyright English edition .?'■ 2006 Princeton Architectural Press
10 09 08 07 06 5 4 3 2 1 First edition
No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner
without written permission from the publisher, except in the context of
reviews. Every reasonable attempt has been made to identify owners of
copyright. Errors or omissions will be corrected in subsequent editions.
For Princeton Architectural Press:
Project editing: Nicola Bednarek
Design: Christian Leborg
Translation: Diane Oatley
Special thanks to: Nettie Aljian, Dorothy Ball, Janet Behning, Becca
Casbon, Penny (Yuen Pik) Chu, Russell Fernandez. Jan Haux, Clare
Jacobson, John King, Mark Lamster. Nancy Eklund Later, Linda Lee,
Katharine Myers, Lauren Nelson, Scott Tennent. Jennifer Thompson.
Paul Wagner, Joseph Weston, and Deb Wood of Princeton Architectural
Press -Kevin C. Lippert, publisher
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Leborg, Christian.
(Visuell grammatikk. English)
Visual grammar / Christian Leborg.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN-13: 978-1-56898-581-7 <alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 1-56898-581-9 (alk. paper)
1. Visual perception. 2. Visual communication in art. I. Title.
N7430.5.L3913 2006
70 1\8-d c22
2005034807
Christian Leborg
Visual Grammar

Princeton Architectural Press

New York
To Marianne
 VISUAL GRAMMAR| PREFACE

Preface

Every day we are confronted with vast amounts of visual messages, but without a basic under­
standing of visual language many of these messages remain incomprehensible to us, and a
productive dialogue between producers and consumers of visual communication cannot take
place.

Knowledge of visual concepts is often acquired through physical experience and applied
without the use of written or spoken language: there are, however, a number of underlying
processes before and after the act of creation where verbal language has an important func­
tion. Refiection about what one is going to create or what one has created alters the creative
process: we think differently when we have a language to describe something. This book is a
contribution towards establishing such a language. It intends to be both a primer on visual 'an-
guage and a visual dictionary of the fundamental aspects of visual communication.

The -eason for writing a grammar of visual language is the same as for any language: to
define iis basic elements, describe its patterns and processes, and to understand the 'e a -
tions between the individual elements in the sys:en. Visual language has no normal syntax or
semantics, but the visual objects themselves can be classified. Accordingly, the book is divided
into four parts: abstract objects and structures, concrete objects and structures, activi­
ties, and relations. The first chapter deals with abstractions such as dimension, format, and
volume: the second concerns concrete objects and structures such as form, size, color, and
texture; the third pad describes the activities that can take place in a composition such as
repetition, mirroring, and movement, and the fourth chapter deals with the relations between
several objects in a composition.

Writing this book I have stood on the shoulders of a number of the greats woo have thought
and written about visual language. They are listed in the selected bibliography at the back of
the book. I would also like to thank Anette Wang, who gave me resistance when I needed it
and my Norwegian publisher Einar Piyhn, who gave me no resistance whatsoever. Yngve Lien
and Bjorn Kruse contributed constructive criticism. In addition, I received valuable "'eedback
from professionals and laymen, friends and family.

I hope thai this book will help you soeak and write about visual objects and their creative
potential and enabie you to better understand the graphics thai you encounter every day.

Oslo, November 2005

Cnnstian Leborg
VISUAL GRAMMAR| CONTENTS

Abstract Concrete
Abstract Objects Concrete Objects
10 Point 28 Form
11 Line 30 Size
12 Surface 32 Color
13 Volume
14 Dimensions Concrete Structures
16 Format 35 Visible Structures
35 Active Structures
Abstract Structures 36 Texture
19 Formal Structures
20 Gradation
21 Radiation
22 Informal Structures
23 Visual Distribution
24 Invisible/lnactive Structures
24 Structural Skeleton
 VISUAL GRAMMAR| CONTENTS

Activities Relations

40 R epe tition 55 A ttra c tio n

40 F re q u e n c y /R h y th m 55 S ta tic

42 M irrorin g 56 S y m m e try/A sym m e try

43 M irro rin g ag a in st a V olum e 57 B alance

44 R otation 58 G ro u p s

46 U p s c a lin g /D o w n s c a lin g 60 F in e /C o a rs e

48 M o vem ent 61 D iffu sio n

48 Path 62 D ire ctio n

49 D ire ctio n 63 P o sition

49 S u p e ro rd in a te /S u b o rd in a te 64 S pace
M ovem ent 65 W e ig h t
50 D is p la c e m e n t 66 A m o u n t/D o m in a n c e
50 D ire c tio n o f D is p la c e m e n t 68 N eutral

69 B a c k g ro u n d /F o re g ro u n d

70 C o o rd in a tio n

71 D ista n ce
72 Parallel

73 A n g le
74 N e g a tiv e /P o s itiv e
75 T ra n s p a re n t/O p a q u e
76 Tangent
78 O ve rla p p in g

79 C om pound
80 S u b tra ctio n

81 C o in c id e n c e
82 P ene tratio n

83 E xtrusion
84 Influ ence
85 M o d ific a tio n

86 V ariation

89 G lo ssa ry
96 B ib lio g ra p h y
VISUAL GRAMMAR| ABSTRACT

Abstract

8
VISUAL GRAMMAR) ABSTRACT OBJECTS

Abstract Objects. Abstract objects are

ideal shapes that cannot be physically
created. When you try to draw a point,
for example, you do not end up with a
point but with a surface.

The above illustra: on may look like a poin:, but it is only the reoresentation of a ooint. It s actual y a do: with a
surface. Its s ze is 0.1% of :nat o" the i ustration below.

"Tne abstract conveys the essertial meaning, cutting through the conscious to the urcorscious, from experience o
the substance in :ne sensory "leld d rectly to the nervous system,, from the event to perception.” Doris A. Ocndis.
A Primer of Visual' Literacy. (Cambridge: MIT P'ess. 1973), Si.
VISUAL GRAMMAR) ABSTRACT I OBJECTS] POINT

Point. You-oaonot see or feel a point; it is a place without

area. The point has a position that can be defined by
coordinates (numbers on one, tWo, or three axes).

The coordinates :or mis p o r t a'e x -o .539 echos,

uccer ertm ard comer of the ease.
A sciatica. coordinatesystem ; jseo when
w-iere on the earth a pc i t s ocatee. The co ja m r a
reo'esent me zero co nts at lorth/sou lh a rc east/west.

‘ Ticgeom etr c c o ir is an r.vis b'c lb eg. Thc-c'c.'e. il "H.st fcecelirec as an iicorpo-ea th rg . Considered ir ; e ~ :
sibsta ice , i: ecuals ser:.’ Wassly <ardnsky. Point and Line to Plane (New Yoik: Dover, 1970). 2J. F'S t peb s ' i :
:02C as Punk! und Linie 2 u Flache in a scries of BavTaus becks ccre d by W ater Gropius a rc L.M o’w ly A a c .

10
 VISUAL GRAMMAR| ABSTRACT | OBJECTS| LINE

Line. A line can be understood as a number of points that

are adjacent to one another. A line can be infinite or have two
endpoints. The shortest distance between two points is a
straight line.

Arc: Pari of the circumference of a circle. The shortest pan between two
points on the surface o; a g obe (sphe-e).
Diameter: Straight ire fhrcjgh n e certer of a ci-c e from perphe'y to
oerishery.
Chord: Straight lire betweer two poirts or the seriohery.
=e' phery: C rc u -'e re rc e ct a ci'cle.
Radius: Distance from the center of a circ e to the periphery.

“Line 'arely exists ir nature. 3ut ire does appear in the ervironmert: the crac-r in the sidewalk, telephone wires
against the sky, bare cranches in winter, a cable oridge. Tne visual e em ert o" I ne is used mostly to express thejux-
taposition of two tones. L ite is utilized most often to describe that juxtaposition, arc in this, t is an artificial device."
Dond s, A Primer o f Visual Literacy. 44.
VISUAL GRAMMAR! ABSTRACT! OBJECTS| SURFACE

Surface. A surface is defined by two lines that do not coincide

or by a minimum of three points that are not located on a line. If the
two lines have one coinciding point, the surface will be a plane.
h the sa~e way tha: a ire can be descriccd as a row of adjacent
po rts. a su"'acc car ce Ce; ned as a row of lines. Points are
stacked in cne direct on to form a I ne; a surface is created woen
a row of ires is stacked at a rignt arole to tnat e rect or. Tnese
directions can also ce seen as axes anc d mersions. Because a
sui face s a point Ihat is proliferated in two di'ections, a su^ace
has two cimer.siors.
The o jls id e of a volume is a surface. It car ce a core njous
s ir ’ ace will- dif-erert curves, or a collection of polygons, or a
multiangu ar su,;ace such as Ihe figu'O on the left.
"The path of a line in ~otion becomes a plane. A clanc has lengtn and breactn, b.il nc th ckness. It has pos bon and
drection. It s courc ay I ncs. It cef nes the exterra rmts of a vc u-.e." Wuc us Wcng. Principles of Form and Design
(New Yore Van Ncstrand Reinhold, iggg). 42.

12
 VISUAL GRAVIMARI ABSTRACT | OBJECTS| VOLUME

In the sane way that a s j--ace s a row of I res, a

volume s mace up o f a number o- surfaces. Here
the points are o'c iterated in three sirect ors,
the fig j-e ’s mree dimensichs. A cube has eight
vertices {the points where the lines rte 'sect).
On the ns co o* the surfaces stretching cetween
these vertices is empty space. This space does
not contain anything but is defined cy its edges.
Tne va-ous ceom et' c vc umes cannot be repro­
duced exactly in -eal ty because tne materia we
use tc 'eproduce them e the- does net or cannot
have such a pe-fecl cesigr. S co n e v e figures
are mathematical. abstract mode s.

C.ibe and tevahed-on

Scnere anc hem senere

Volume. A volume is an empty space defined by surfaces,

lines, and points.
“The path of a plane in motion (in a direction other than Its Intrinsic ciredon), oocomes a volume. It has a position ir
space and is bound by p anes. In two-dimensional design, vo ume is il jsory." Wong, Principles of Form and Design, 42.

13
VISUAL GRAMMAR| ABSTRACT|OBJECTSI DIMENSIONS

A line has ore edge, Iwo vertices, and one dimension. A s o la ce with four edges has f c jr vertices and two
dimensions. A cuce has twelve edges, eignt ve'tices, six surfaces, and three dimers ons. A hypercube nas thirty-two
edges, sixteen vertices, tw erty-four surfaces, and four cimensiors.
El

Dimensions. We, along with everything that surrounds

us, have height, width, and d e p th -o r three dimensions.
Objects can have four, five, and an infinite number of
dimensions, but we cannot perceive these. More or less
than three dimensions are abstractions for us; we can only
imagine them.
‘ Dimension exists in tne 'eal world. We cannot orly fool it, out w tn tne a d of our two-eyed, stereoopicon s ght. we
can see t." Dondis. A Primer o i Visual Literacy. *>9 - 80.

14
 VISUAL GRAMMAR| ABSTRACT | 03JECTS| DIMENSIONS

The sphere w ith its section The sphere rising The sphere on the
at ftill size p o in t o f vanishing

My eye

i>

Edwin Abbott Abbott's book Flatland tells the stofy ot a square that, lives in a two-d mensiora' world Together with i:s
family ot geometric figures. One cay a three-dimensional sphere comes to visit. When the scuare teils the clergy about
meeting someone from another dimens on. it s imprisored for blasphemy. Above we see the sphere's visit as viewed by
the square. Illustration based on Abbott's drawing. Edwin Abbott Abbott. Flatland (London Seeley & Co, '884).

15
 |
v'ISUAl. GRAMM/ Rl ABSTRACT O 5JECTS! FORMA

W*ieo acsign ng Bbco<. it can be

exced enl to sel ct a format or
;
tim size that s esod on the o-op Ortiors ot the let ers w tn which
1C ‘S
t>COk to ix typeset.

I |^ E E veryt ing w e ee is ex )eriencec j in re la t on to

ts exterr al lim its. If w e c o uld n o t r slate v is i al s ig n a l s to a
n o th e r v✓ ords, to
in t im e - Dur brain w o u ld n o t be ab e to inte p re t any o f th e s e
m p re s s i ons.
e, o r a li riita tio n

OOK.
Format ( at. tor ie t) size o ' a s c c e o t caperot 7. scope. Sr e.‘ R. 3.'Oby-Jon insen, Kunst ora bog. Mev. t.
'Ov sed and exa< i 3Cdfc2H3tr£VJ FotUsct S< sa-iviC o aLes.

16
 VISUAL GRAMMARI ABSTRACT I OBJECTS! FORMAT

The term format can Do used to icier

to dimensions, moportiors, arc scales Ao equa.s one square " e ’er, or S4t x 1:89 mm.
cf measurement.
Tne weight of paper is calculated in grams
Examples arc tycog'apkic measure­ based on one souare meter. It the paper
ments. metric rneasu'ements (meter, weighs too g, this means that one square
cent mete-, mill meter). Arglo-Amen- mete* 0' this caper, or tne o-format, weighs
can measurements (reel ara inches), 100 g.
map formats, architeeton c formats,
paper 'ormats, book formats, news­
paper formats, poster 'ormats. ft'm
fc '-'a ls , screen fesmats, etc.
At. p95 x 841
Screen tomiats are usually measured
in cx e s; a pixel (picture element)
s the smai'est u rit o ' .nformat.on in
digital images. They are quadratic and
aoooi 0.0139 inches in size.

Typographic points (abbreviates as

st.) are tnc smallest lypograshic A 2 . 420 x 505
urits, -easunng approximately 0.0148
inches. The c cere is the central un t
of mcasu'cmeot n the tyocgraphic
system, composing twe vo typographic
cc nts. A 3 . 29 7 x 420

The formats for maps ano architectural

c ans ate expressed as tne -atio bet­
ween the drawing a rc the phys:cal s 10 .
'or example 1 : 50 OOOCOO.: : 50. 210 X 297
In Eurose pace' torrrals follow the DIN
system, which is based on the root 2
rectangle, and arc called A. 8 . and C.

Most boo* 'ormats ate oased on the

goiden section or golden ■'•ean. a
matnemalic fo'm ulathat cxc'esses
the rat e between two sues, n !h s
case between tnc height and width of
a page. Tne golden section is achieved
when one divides a line segment such
tnat ‘.he ratio of the shorter ‘ine to the
'onger I ne is the same as the ta to ol
the longer line to tne who’s segment.
See the form jia below a rc the mooc’
on the right.

c_o
b a

This ra'Jo. or :.6i 8. also appears

n the so ca'led Pioonacci seqjencc,
where each number ir the sepuence is
the sum o! the two prcceonc numbers:
1. 2 , 3 .5 . 8. :3, Pi, 34. 55. 89... The
iat.o o ' adjacent numbeis n the
sequence progressively approaches
i:r.6:8.
VISUAL GRAMMARi ABSTRACT | STRUCTURES

Abstract Structures. Placing objects

in relation to one another will
establish a structure. We can only
describe a structure if we are able
to recognize its pattern. A structure
that does not have visible structure
lines is called abstract.
 VISUAL GRAMMARI ABSTRACT | STRUCTURES FORMAL

Formal Structures. When objects are evenly distributed in

a composition, the structure is formal. The axes according to
which the objects are organized are called structure lines.
Svucture r e s can pass th’ough the e je c ts ' certer o- optica cenlei. They can also ' j n between tne ob eels and
Seine larger structural elements with n -.vniclt Ihe objects ax- places.

i i i

A structure n which all sections O' objects are al kc and equa ly dislriouled is called a basic s t'jc tu re or a grid. This
<ics ol 'epftt t ve structure is based o r struettre lines tnat are pe’ scndicjlar lo one anclhe-. usual y horizortaliy and
vertically.
VISUAL GRAMMAR ABSTRACT | STRUCTURES! FORMAL! GRADATION

Gradation. A gradated structure works in the same way as

a repetitive structure, but here the structure units change in
size or form (or both) at an even rate.

3rada: on can apply to c stance, change in ang e.

d sc ace.-ent, and curve.
O r Ihs eft so~e c f tne mo$: cc~ m o r cradatec struc­
tures a'e shown: cara lei grada: cn (lines running in *.ne
$a~e d.'ecticn) and raciaticn (expand ng from a cev.c*).

20
 VISUAL GRAMMAR ABSTRACT STRUCTUR ES| FORMAL RADIATION

We spea< of concenric 'aciaticn when the struc!u*e lines are circles with an unequa distance *'om the same center.

Radiation. A radiation is a formal repetitive structure with

structure units that are situated around a common center.

The spi'al is concentric n that its structure incs

have an unequa distance *'om the ce.ntec l: is
also c e n rif jg a l because the helical; re emerges
f'om a center. The spiral is thus a nybric oetween
a concentric anc centrifugal structure.

We spea-< of cent' *’ugal radiation when the structure lines diverge frc~ a common center.
VISUAL GRAMMARI ABSTRACT |STRUCTURES| INFORMAL

Informal Structures. When no regularities in the

arrangement of objects in a composition can be discerned,
the structure is informal. A structure is informal even if one
recognizes a pattern as long as the objects do not follow
straight structure lines.
It is ikely "ta t p a ts o’ the structu'e aoove a’C "om ul ever though » e carnet -ecognize :ne pattern. The-e a-e some
mathema: £ equations that when represented visually dc r ot appear to have a ;ormal s t'jc : jre . The cef i Pens he'e
c o rc e "i o rly the vista aspects ct structures.

22
 VISUAL GRAMMAR| ABSTRACT|STRUCTURES!INFORMAL VISUAL DISTRIBUTION

Visual Distribution. If objects are positioned in a

structure judging by the eye, the structure is based on
visual distribution. It can also be called a similarity structure.

“ViSjal c is t' button should allow each un'c form to occupy a similar a rro .n l of space as judges oy tl*e eye.'
Wcng. Principles of Form and Design. 42.

23
V SUAL GRAMMAR! * 3 5 : r a c T | STRLCTLR ES| N: OR VAL| INVISIBLE/INACTIVE

Invisible/lnactive Structures. Although the structure

lines in an abstract structure are invisible, our brain has a
tendency to fill in what is missing, so we see where they are.
Inactive structures indicate the position of the objects but do
not affect their form.
Inactve structures can be v sible and invisible. (See also Active Slruclures. p. 35.)

Structural Skeleton. In all compositions or objects

there are forces that are bound by the limits of the surface.
These varying degrees of energy follow certain axes with
regard to form and proportions. These axes, or paths, can
be called the format’s or object’s structural skeleton.
(See figure on p. 25).
'So ti e nature of a visua experience earner be dese bed in -.erms cr nenes cr size and d stance, deg-oes o- ancle,
or wave encths of l"ue. These static "easurem erts de* re only the 'stimulus,' that is, tne message sent tc the eye
by tne physical world. But the lite c l a percest-ils exb’ession and mean ng-denves ent re y from the activity ct the
percestual forces.” Rudolt Arnheim. Art and Visual Perception {Berxeley: University cf Ca iio-nia Press, 1964), i5.

2&
/
visual sramvasi concrete

Concrete

96
 VISUAL GRAMVIAR|CONCf?ETE| OBJECTS

Concrete Objects. Objects are per­

ceived within defined limits. These limits
are called contour lines. The contour is
what defines the shape, or form.
A surface can have many forms. Forms arc defined by their contours, which can be straight or curved. If the visual
transition is gradated or has small nuances in shade or hue. 't is difficult to define the form.

‘ Form (:,o ir Lai. ‘c-ma) i. >n common use, the exterior c f a t.niog. s. concrete: a round, square-shaped, etc. f..
3 . F lastc, havng vc u ~ e . 4. Figuratively sceakiro.cf an a-tw ork's overal apoearance as a v s fc eobject w snout
consideration fc- content. 5. Cas- ng -o u s ’ B-oby-Joharseo. Kunstordbog, SB.

27
VISUAL SRAM VAK| CCNCRE": | OBJECTS| FORM

Form

Geometric forms Geometric terms are sascc on matnema: cal Tacts abeji cents, ines,
su"aces. and solids.

Organic forms C'ganic forms a'c created by living organisms or based cn living organ sms.

Rancom tc -~ s are c-eatcd through re c o d tc tio r, joccoscicus h j- a n

Random forms act co. or oocentai ir- ueocc from ra tjre .

Circle. Equal-armed Cress. A "ow .

Astrology: Eternal. I "C. Astro­ Astrology: Matte', the ear-.oly. Direction, ogical ccnsecjence.
nomy: Fu I moor. Meteorology: Astronomy: N orth Alchemy: Masculine gender.
C ear weal he-. Cartography: City, Tnc four e ements Cartography: Meteorology: '-o s t n tog.
jncture Electricity: Mete*. Cbu'ch. chaoe. Duahstic Physics: Gravcatiora center.
Chemistry: Ac c. Mechanics: terminology system: Positive Cartography: Ocearic c jnents.
P on: ot 'otatior. Biology: $oc. pole, c us sign, positive eoarge, Runes: B j i .
ir crease.

28
 visu al g r a m m a r c o n c r e ~e | o b je c t s i fo r m

~e -orms oresentec here arc seme of the basic gestalts in Western ideograph/ according tc Carl G. Liungmar (see his
cook Symboler. Mai t o : Aldebaran Fodac, 1990}. They are the basic signs man has treated as complete legible entities.

Square. Heart. Water.

Materialization, the Earth. Icon for the physical heart. Love,
M eteorology: The ground. to love. Ideogram for lavatory.
C artography: Farm. B iolo g y: He.
M ilita ry: Soldier. Alchem y: Salt.
H ou se h old a rticle : Stop.

29
VISUAL GRAMMAR! CONCRETE | OBJECTS SIZE

Size. The size of an object is relative to

the person perceiving it and his or her
perspective. The size of an object must be
evaluated in relation to its placement and
the format in which it will function.
31
VISUAL GRAMMAR CONCRETEI OBJECTSI COLOR

Color. Colors are different wavelengths of light. Concrete

objects and the materials of which they are made reflect
only part of the light spectrum and therefore appear as if
they have color.

Hue refers to the wavelength of the color and is separate hom its intensity or saturation. Saturated hues are those
we are accustomed to seeing in the chromatic circlo. This book is printed in two colors, but only one hue, namely,
red. Black, gray, and white are colors without hue.

Tore describes a color's lightness/darkness. The tore, also called the shade, is the color's content of back.

Saturation describes the relative ratio of the color's hue and white content. A color with little saturation contains a arge
amount ol white.

'The sever -rinds o f color contrasts are toe ‘c owing: i. Contrast 0‘ hue 2. L>cht-c'a'< cortras: 3 . Cc s-warm c cnrast
4. Come ementary cortras* 5. Simu tancous corv.-ast €. C ortrast of saturation 7. C ortras-. o*' extension.'
Johannes liien. The A rt o f Color (New York: Rcirholc Pub'ishira CO'ooraticn. 15S7).

32
 VISUAL GRAMMAR! CONCRETE OBJECTS! COLOR

Wh te

’ o understand tag lu e , shade. arc saturation of colors, imagine them as the content arc surface of a sohere whore
the North Pole ;s completely white ana the South Pc'e c cro ictely black. The completely saturated and pure hues are
coatee along the equator. If one meves in towards the center of tne soherc. the cc o*s w l| become loss satu'atcd and
gradua'ly oe rec aced by gtuy shades. O r the surface of the soi.tnorr hc~isohere mere are cc.r.s etely saturated colors
to varying black content. (See also >tten, The A rt o f Color.)

33
VISUAL GRAMMAR|CONCRETE| STRUCTURES

Concrete Structures. A structure is

concrete when its structure lines
are visible or actively influence the
form of the objects in the structure.
In contrast to abstract structures,
which only indirectly indicate how
objects are positioned, concrete
structures are visual compositions
in themselves.

34
 VISUAL GRAMMAR! CONCRETE! STRUCTURES! VISIBLE

Visible Structures. A visible structure is a structure

th visible structure lines. A visible structure can consist
structure lines and objects or of structure lines only.

Active Structures. A structure is active when the

structure lines influence the form of the objects in the
structure. A structure need not be visible to be active.

35
VISUAL GRAMMAR! CONCRETE! STRUCTURES! TEXTURE

Texture. A texture is a structure than can be seen and/

or felt. The texture can consist of structure lines and/or
objects. Texture exists in materials and can be created
through inscription and application.

• f - f -

t iH - i..+ .
Formal

• v r - v

* — w1

Informal

Gradation

S)
Radiation
•

• -•
•

(e)
Spiral

36
 V/SUAl GRAMMAR!CONCRETE! STRUCTURES!TEXTURE

Textures can have an ornamental, random, or mechanical

design. The system of textures is the same as for abstract
structures: formal, informal, gradation, radiation, and spiral.

• • V

#
r T w w v
* • • •

i • • •

• • #
• • V ✓ • • v
• • • • • • • •
1 • • •

f t ' 'll*

• • • •

•** . +

37
VISUAL GRAMMAR! ACTIVITIES

Activities
4C Repetition 4c Frequency 40 Rytrrr 40 Fo'm

40 Color 40 Direction 40 TeTfcjr”

© ...
• • • O •
/ v j '
42 Mi'rorhg 43 Mirroring 44 Rotation / 45 Rotat on around
against a Volume Own Axis

KiliS # ©
48 Movemen: 48 Pair 49 Direction

49 Suoerordinate/ 50 Displacement
Sjbord rate
50 Angle of
Disp acement
x -
9
50 D ree ion 01
Displa cement
Movement _________________

38
 VISUAL GRAMMAR ACTIVITIES

Activities. Visual reproductions are

static*. What can be perceived as an
activity, is a static representation or a
sequence that creates an illusion of
activity.

'Kinetic art-art that uses analog movement as an instrument-is the only genre within pictorial and
visual art where the illusion of movement is not created with sequences of pictures or static represen­
tations. Film consists of still images shown in a series at a high frequency.

'Scmewhere between toe futurists' dynam c movement and Duchamp's diagrammatic concept of movement lies
cs Wohon I ne." Scott IvlcCloLd. U nderstanding C om ics (New York: Paradox Press. 1993), 110.

39
VISUAL GRAMMAR! ACTIVITIES REPETITION

Repetition. When several objects with a single

shared characteristic are arranged in a com posi­
tion, the object has been repeated, even if other Form
characteristics of the objects are different. When
a multitude of objects has one particular feature
in common, such as form or size, this repetition is
called form repetition or size repetition, respec­
tively. When the repeated objects have more
Size
than one feature in common, the most dominant
common feature is selected to describe the
repetition.

Frequency/Rhythm. When the distance

between the repeated objects is identical, the Color
repetition has an even frequency. When the dis­
tance between the objects varies between several
given frequencies, the repetition has a rhythm.

Direction

Texture

Rhythm

40
VISUALGRAMMARIACTIVITIES REPETITION

41
 I

VISUAL GRAMMARI ACTIVITIES MIRRORING

Mirroring. When light waves emanating from an object are

reflected on a surface, the object has been mirrored. The
light waves are reflected off the surface at the same angle
they fall onto it. The physical object is symmetrically
rendered on an axis.
"A mirror doesn't reflect t*i ngs the w rorc way *otrd. it reflects what is mrreo a te y n front c f ft* Alar* Fletcher. The
A rt of Looking Sideways (London: Pnaidor °re$s. 20Ci). 229.

42
 VISUAL GRAMMAR! ACTIVITIES! MIRRORING

Mirroring against a Volume. When the surface on

which something is reflected has several different
angles, it can be defined as a volume or as part of a
volume. A volume that mirrors another object distorts the
mirror image because the light that meets the surface is
reflected at different angles.

43
VISUAL GRAMMAR ACTIVITIES; ROTATION

When an object moves around a point or an

axis, it rotates. The shape of the path along which a rotating
object moves can be either circular or elliptic.

moi'eman 01 tnc s jn ano ine

clock (clockwise). Th s is also the
direction for sc'ewing in a screw
or turning on a switch.
The rotating object

Ro atior san
 VISUAL GRAMMAR ACTIVITIES ROTATION

If the rotating object faces the rotation

point with the same side at all times,
the object will have rotated around itself
after one revolution.

The distance from the center to the

object’s rotation path is called the pendu­
lum. This distance is the radius of a circle.

The rotation point is the

center of a circle. In case
of an elliptical movement
the length of the pendulum
will vary.

The rotation point can also be

inside the object, if the object
rotates around its own axis. This
is also referred to as a revolving
object.
VISUAL GRAMMAR ACTIVITIES! UPSCALING/DOWNSCALING

Upscaling/Downscaling.
O bjects are enlarged or scaled
down along the x-axis and the
y-axis. These directions are called
horizontal and vertical, or level and
perpendicular. When an object is
enlarged or scaled down propor­
tionately, the width-to-height
ratio will remain constant.
VISUAL GRAMMAR! ACTIVITIES: UPSCAUNG/DOW NSCALING

47
VISUAL GRAMMAR ACTIVITIES MOVEMENT

Movement. True movement (without sequences or

steps) is only found in the real world. Movement within a
visual composition is only a representation of movement.
The positioning of an object can suggest forces that have
influenced or will influence it and move it.

Movement path

Path. An object in constant movement will travel along an

imagined line. This line is called a path. The path can be
straight or have the form of an arc.
 VISUAL GRAMMAR AC7IVIT ES DIRECTION

D rec. on of movement

Direction. The direction of a movement can be defined by

the line that leads from the starting point of the movement
med endpoint.
oc ect

Superordinate and Subordinate Movement. An

object can rotate, swing, or move forward and backward, while
still experiencing a superordinate movement along one path.

4S
VISUAL GRAMMAR ACTIVITIES! DISPLACEMENT

Displacement. When only parts of an object move, a

displacement of the form takes place. Displacement is
defined by an angle.

Di'cclion a id a ig 'e ol
displaceie rt

Direction of DisplacemenJ^- The points or lines of an

object that is displaced move in a specific direction.

50
VISUAL GRAMMARS ACTIVITIES DISPLACEMENT
 V S'JAL 6 RAVMAR | RELATIONS

Relations
• • • • • • • • •
55 Attraction/ 56 Symmetry/ 57 Balance 58 Groups
State Asyrrrretry

61 D ;fi
.V .
2 C.-e=t A 63 Pos t or 6 4 ^ ^ ffc c e /
We got D c® iance

69 Background/ 70 /71 Coo-dmat o r / 72 Parallel

✓
73 Angle
■3s? ■ss> "orecrojoc Distance

74 N c c S flp / 75 Transparent/ 76 Tangent

G
7 8 /7 9 Overleaping/ 80/81 Suot-ac’.ion/
Positive Opaque Compojnc Ccircdence

•
/ ~ \1
Q ) •
8 2/8 3 Penetration/ 84 In fljcrce 85 Modif cation ,,, Van.tion
Ext-usior

92
 VI5 JAL GRAVMAR | RELATIONS

Relations. Visual objects in a

composition relate to the viewer,
the format, and other elements
within the composition.

Although this red disc sits ccrrsletely "motionless cn a sheet o: pape'. forces are work ng on it. The
cojec* is cra-.vn toward the margins o* the page. The marg ns locates c oscst *o *.ne ob eel nave
the g'eatest mpact o r t. Tn s is also the case f c ' Other c c ~ e rts in the cornoositior. E sments
that arc c osest :c each otner have the greatest attraction (attractive force) toward each other.

53
VISUAL GRAMMAR j RELATIONS ATTRACTION

54
 VISUAL GRAMMAR RELATIONS ATTRACTION

Attraction. O bjects that are grouped together in a

composition will either attract or repel one another.

Static. The object on page 54 is balanced and not in

movement. The influential forces are equally strong and
offset each other.

In a stationary representation an activity is only suggested. Energetic or I vely compositions seem as if they have come
to a halt or are about to initiate movement, cresting an Huston cf the activity before or alter that moment. The composi­
tion on page 54 , on the other hand, is passive or static. It is not the representation of a stooped movement. At the same
time, even in a static composition there are forces at work. Note that tie object must be positioned slightly above the
middle 0“' the pace for the entire composition to be absolutely balanced. This is ca led the ootical center.

55
V SJAL GRAMMAR I RELATIONS i SYMMETRY/ASYMMETRY

This fic j'e is arranged

symmetrically along an axis.

Symmetry/Asymmetry. When objects are identically

arranged on both sides of an axis, they are symmetrical. An
object can be monosymmetric or multisymmetric. This page
is symmetric while the layout of the spread is asymmetric.

his ;igure has five symmetry axes.

55
 VISUAL GRAMMAR | RELATIONS | BALANCE

Balance. A composition is balanced when all elements

have optical equilibrium. Balance can be created between
objects that have the same form but different positions, or
between objects that have contrasting forms. W ithout this
interaction between elements, a composition is static and
not dynamic.
Thirk o*’ this two-page layout as a comcosition to be balanced. Toe left ard right pages car oe compared to the
a'ms of a scale on each side of the gutter, which acts as the tipp nc cont. The black disc on tois page offsets all tie
objects on the oppos te page due to its large' si2e and the fact that i: is located furthe' out on the arm and thus has
greater optica; weight. In add tion. there s more text on this page than or the opposite pace, wh ch further helps
create balance.

57
VISUA. GRAMMAR |R fLA TIO \S | GROUPS

When objects are repeated in a composition, they

form a group, or a unit. When several units are put together,
super-units are created. Groups can be named after the
form of their underlying structures.

Linear group. Ob eels that are repeated along a Ine form a linear unit.

Ttie objects in a structure composed of polygons as in the model

to the left, which is formed Of triangles, are made up of triangular
units. The objects and the visible structure lines in this croup
create a texture.
 VISUAL GRAMMAR | RELATIONS i GROUPS

Triangular group. Onjecis that are repeated in Rhombic group. Objects that are
a -.' angular structure form a tr angular unit. repeated in a rhombic structure form a
rhombic unit.

Circular group. The point at which a unit is seen as an equilatera oolygon instead of a circle is a question of cef n:: on.
A polygon must have more than four sides in order to be confused with a circle. A unit can also be based on parts cf a
circle; curved lines are a par: of a circular form. Is the above group a seven-sided unit or a circle-based group?

59
VISUAL GRAMMAR | RELATIONS | FINE/COARSE

Fine/Coarse. The fineness or coarseness of a structure is

determined by the distance between the structure lines. It is
also relative to the distance of the viewer to the structure.

...this s rjc tu re . These

two structires a'e
equally saiuratec out they
have d if'e re rt cecrees o~
fheness/coarseness.

60
 V'SUAu GRAMMAR 1RPLATICXSI ATTRACTION

The degree c l a st'JCturo's satu'ar on as we I as ils coa'scress can vary.

Tne coarseness o" a dispersed lie d of objects is ceterm ned by tne size c l the e je c ts .0 relation to toe viewer. Its
cecree o‘ saturation cesends on the distance between the objects.

Diffusion. An irregular dispersion of objects in a composi­

tion is called diffusion. The structure can gradually shift from
being fine to coarse, and from sparsely to highly saturated.

61
 V SUAL 3 f AM WAR RELATIONS I POS ITION

Position. A group of objects can define a position in thb

layout, such as a corner, an edge, a center, or an optical center.

63
i'ISUA. GRAMMAR|RELATIONS|SPACE

Space. A composition can have dense and open areas and in

this manner create white space in the layout. The placement of
objects in the structure can reinforce this impression.
 VISUiSj.. 6RAVMAR RELATIONS j WEIGHT

Weight.! Through conscious use of the upper and lower

areas of la format, the designer can play with associations of
how we experience the world, alluding to the earth and the
sky. The composition can create the illusion of something
being light or heavy, of something that flies, or something
that flows.
V SUAL SRAM VAR ! RE LA' ONS AMOUNT/DOMINANCE

Amount/Dominance. A composition can have areas

with many objects and areas with few objects, ^reas with a
large number of objects are not necessarily the most visually
dominant.
VISUAL GRAMMAR R E LATIC \S| AMOUNT/DOMINANCE
VISUAL GRAMMAR RELATIONS! NEUTRAL

Neutral. When objects in a composition do not

stand out in relation to others, they are neutral in
relation to one another, and the composition as a
whole can be called neutral.

The backcrcjnd on 1h s pace is neutral. The gray tone of '.no d scs I ght that it does not create
a g'eat cortrast With toe white background. The form does not stand s a general form a rc oecause
the ciscs a'e iderbcal ’n size and evenly arranged.

68
 VISUAL GRAMMAR! RELATIONS! BACKGROUND/ FOREGROUND

Background/Foreground. Which parts of a picture

are perceived as the background or foreground is
determined by the position of the objects and their
proportions in relation to one another.
Nine ways tp-create an impression of depth: 1. Overlapp ng. 2. Diagonal movement. 3. Gradually smaller/larger.
4. Abbreviation 5. Aer a cerspective (the lines of perspective converge in a vanishing point). 6. Mathematic perspec­
tive (parallel lines of perspective). 7. Colors (colors of cojects far away are colder and less saturated). 8. Convergence
perspective (several spaces that are paralte' with the surface of the picture inwards on tne cepth axis), g. Moulding
(use of shade to c-eate p astic vo umes). From G unrar Danoolt. B fik k for b ifd e r i Oslo: Abstrakt forlag, 2002), 35.
Summary by the author.

69
VISUAL GRAMMAR| RELATIONS! COORDINATION

Coordination. Objects are coordinated, if their coordinates

have the same value, the same focus, and are perceived
from the same perspective.
The lig jre s above are perceived as coordinated while VIC figures below are rot. The bottom cube o- the two il ustra-
tions Pe ow s perceived as being c cser in space than the upper W her cb|ec:s are seer n perspective, the e'ement
closest :c the v ewer is usually placed low in tne composition.

These two oojects are

experierceo as be rc close
to each olher.

70
Distance. The distance perceived between two objects can
vary according to the viewer’s perspective. Two figures that
are perceived as being close to each other can, when seen in
another format, be experienced as being remote. Closeness
and remoteness are relative.
VISUAL GRAMMAR) RELATIONS; PARALLEL

72
VISUAL GRAMMAR| RELTIONS| NEGATIV E / POSITIVE

Negative/Positive. The terms and p o s itiv e n e g a tiv e

relate to opposite values such as opaque and transparent,
light and dark, convex and concave, solid and hollow.

A forrr s ca'lec sositive or negative ** its tone contracts with the s jrroundin^s. Text that is lighterman the bacxgrojnc
i: is set on is negative. A positive to'"*- is extrcve'ted (turned outward) ansr'convex. A lorm th ^ t a n be Tiled with a liquid
is negative. H something i$ extruded from a forrr, the orig nal lorm is positive, whi e the new ^orrr is negative.

74
 VISUAL GRAMMARj RELATIONS! TRANSPARENT / OPAQUE

Transparent/Opaque. A transparent o b je c t is
see-through. Light shines through it so that other elements
behind it become visible. An opaque object is visually
impermeable and prevents light from shining through.

75
VISUAL GRAMMAR RELATIONS! TANGENT

/
/

Tangent. When two objects are located next to each other

and share one common point, they are called tangents.

75 I

i
VISUAL GRAMMAR| RELATIONS TANGENT

77
VISUAL GRAMMAR RELATIONSI OVERLAPPING

O v e rla p p in g . When parts of an object lie above parts of

another object, the first object overlaps the second one.

78
 VISUAL GRAMMAR RELATIONS! COMPOUND

Compound. When two objects overlap each other

and visually appear to be one object, the form is called
a compound form.

79
VISUAL GRAMMAR RELATIONS! SUBTRACTION

Subtraction, When the part of an object that overlaps

another one is deducted from the underlying object, a
subtraction has taken place.

90
 VISUAL GRAMMAR RELATIONS COINCIDENCE

Coincidence. When two objects have the same form and

size and are situated directly above one another, so that
from above they appear to be one form, they coincide.

81
VISUAL GRAMMAR! RELATIONS! PENETRATION

Penetration. When one object is pushed through another,

larger object, a penetration has occurred.

T‘te cylinder nes created a hole ir the quadratic disc by penetrating it. Whether or no1: lhe-e was a note in the c sc
previously "cakes iiltle dif-ererce.

82
Extrusion. The process of forcing a material through
an opening in an object so that the form of the opening
influences the form of the material is called extruding a profile.

If v;e press a material through the hole that we cenef-atcd on the previous cage, the -esi.lt will oe a c sc o- a cy irce-.
depend eg on tne amount c f material p-essed tnrough. Tnc c-ofile acqui'.ng the lorm of the ocenmg is ca'led tne
extrudate.

83
VISUAL GRAMMAR) RELATIONS INFLUENCE

Influence. When an object has changed its form because

of another object, it has been influenced. O bjects can also
mutually influence each other.

Influence from the upper form Mutual influence

34
 VISUAL GRAMMAR! RELATIONSI MODIFICATION

Modification. When an object has been slightly altered,

it has been modified. A modification does not change the
basic characteristics of an object.

Modification can a*'fect fo"*'. $*»ace. hue. ard texture.

86
VISUAL GRAMMAR| RELATIONS VARIATION

Variation. Repetitions with varying and minor alterations

(modifications) can be called a variation.

11 0 %

V aratior cf width

Va* a*. on of nei§M

Variation displacement

86
VISUAL GRAMMAR! RELATIONS VARIATION
USUAL
GRA»»ARiREL
ATIONs I v a r IATio n
 VISUAL GRAMMAR| GLOSSARY
Glossary

Hie cefin>t cns r this c cssa-y corce r only the aes.hetic anc visua aspoc*$ ot the terns sted here.

Abfcrcviit on Dec+:ti:<i of c b .e c : see- in oe*spect vc. Pads of lire ebjee: I e outside o? the compos tc - .
Abstraction Net •'rd no: rsp'cscntrg sonev r g ir th s word. Universal Imagined Undery ng structures that determine the design of
everything sronrd us.
Accentuate To svess. Eriohasize. Atach ng mpcdance to one part of a whole.
Advomatic (O ' a set of cc cs> ccmpnsed of gray tones.
Action 3rocess of co no th rigs.
Activ 7 In a static representation, activity is suggested. Energe: c or I vely pcses and styles have s-.opced or will ritia te a move­
ment ar d are a re oresenta lion of the activ 7 before 0' aftei inis moment.
Acute anglo An acute angle is less than go degrees.
Adcress Ind cation of locality. Tne acd'ess be excressec as coo'dihfltC3 O' cegrees of ong :ude a~d atituce.
Aesthetics Teachings about the perceptible realm
Amoigu 7 Equivocal, Unclear. Ooscjre.
Amount Scrnef ling measurable; .size. weig"?. number.
A-sloc transition Smooth fans tier.
A-g>» Goon ng oetwee- twe st-aig-t intersect nc re s
Ang..lar (O1a state} determined by stra ig r lines and ano es: with cc**e.*s
Animated _ vey. in movement.
Applicate O w are-tation appiee to 3 base
Appty Af*x aiiacn
Arc Pad o f a c rcte
AsymmefiC No: symmetric. U-even >• cisirfcuted airing ar axis.
Attract o'* Objects positioned i" re alive p'ox«m 7 to each 0’ "e ' w il always e :*© ' attract or reoe cne anc-t-er
Axs lir»agrec line. L ne in a system of coord nates.
Axononev c Reproduction ir a richt-argee ccord nate system. A perspective without a vanishing pcint.
Bsckgicwd Elements in a compos ten. whose fm c t Oh it s to enhance r e most nportani cejects.
Balance Equilibrium, between eierre-ts. A stability and *.ia"qu lity achieved by v s..?.lly pos tic rirg objects with different weights n
such a way that they osla-ce each other. Balance >s e visua tens 0- that works ayans: anc with activity.
Basic structure O'iyma structure.
Body Physical entity or structure.
Bole Foa'less. w :h conficence, di'ect. With f '6 intent of c*eat ng optimal vis bility.
Bowed CLrved. bent, sphencsl.
3 'gh:r.os$ The color’s posiiicn n a scale c’ white to h ack, ’ he '.one cr a cclcr.
Cente* iVrude pc nt. Mathcmatc sne cptica center. Pb nt oca tec at the center of a frvrna-
Cenlrifuga Tha; wnicfi .e rrs away f'cm a center.
Centripetal T-a: wnich tends toward a confe*
Coord Straight ire between two points on a oenphefy.
C h 'onatc (Of a sei c f coinrs) w .n <j -ued structure.
Circe Cu".-ed ir e w-e-e all 00 nts have Uie sane distance -Von a erven pci": (center).
C i'ce terms Arc: :*art of the dreum fe'erec of a ci'de.
Dametor: Straight line through the ccnte* t'Ctn one side o f :he ci'do to the o r e '.
Chcrc: Straight i-e betwee- two points on t"e pe' phery.
Periohery: Length around the cute- edge of tho dre e.
Pi: Ralu betwee- the periphery and the diameter (aop'cximale y 3.^159).
RacLs: Distance from the confer of the cite e to r e per p"C'y
Segment: Pad of tne circle between a chore' and the oe*iphery.
Sector: Pad cf tne circle between two rack

89
VISUAL GRAMMAR! GLOSSARY

C rcinferenec Length o* :i'o contour o: wn oeject.

Coae Located r. r.lv>r distance away iri lima or apace
CORfSUI Urelred with a go toxtu'o. granorJ. Oppestvef ;me.
Cohsidenco Wien :wy oL acts seer f o r a socciV. arglo aoj located oi-ect y above one a*other.
Cole At ftv; tompyial jib. Cold colors car oo assoc atfid w ** r.<wlemp^alunw. Clean ater lo.
Colo? contras: Hue eonf'Aj:. Iighl/da’k contrast, colc/wanr contrast, ocs,plcirci*:aiy contrast, eiru tareour. contrast, saturation contras:,
extonsicr. contrast.
CW Hue. C Cerent lirpr waves perception to humans, eitnor or. a rosu • of a reflect on Irow *n oojec: -Ain co c* pigments
y otcojse the I ght has boen • Itemed Uuough « colored gar. or suostnnr.e and bgcone oo e'ed lignt. De: ned by **ree
neusurub e qua*titles: nuance, ^dturation, and tone.
Coni: nfl? o* Connection. wntdgaTQttcn, ar.vgomonl e* several trjris n a set Older.
Gcnrnunicatktn Exchange d oetAeen a sc-ckr me a rceeve*.
Ce»np v r w iw y Sjpc ererary in rdo'croo to psi-* d colors r a t gwt m Irp'ossinn of v.h'c v»h#r uexe veo oy the eye s n Jtivrwnsh.
Ccnp*w Composed of several e ere'*?.*. a*d *gice* VWjuI •/ intricate A tattc" that s erf ei*r to <1sewn or urderstanc.
Conjwcitoor. M x*.„ie.cgtnbinu:o-.cfga*i7rg different visual elerienl? into a whole.
C e ir fW 'd •At»$n bay ob eels have a cor men c rcnmv.rmcc.
Ccrccvc Cn'ved or bowed i-waio. ccvds'cpsd. Oopos to e; convex A co«x;av* <r y e«t less ran ifio*.
Curantic Wtn a eenvron *>r :«r.
Ccr» A corpcs: c* dom»:a*cd by identical or ai’r i v elwwrrts.
C ersta- b n c iiijjr ji lastrg u*brken corneous.
Ccr::<j- 0 ..*i*c. the r e In*: enc'oses the ferr.
Ccr:a«st Thocppos re o! hnnrgry Fgt yome!hr$ to oc *’J cscontras* it r n v have diai-icl** ales mat sta>: cut ir 'elation 'o
serve-rig Hse t *o centres:ng efenents we rrutjaly cetence** fyr.es e* contrast*Cin be crake* oo.vn nte **rr\: main
types M«ft. ee ft*, a-d ‘orm.
C c ^ r;
P&J&NZW Impression of Cft.r* ereatoc oy >gvw*i spaces ocst ontd pa akf w * th*: r...race, WxJ i-waio on lt*c depth £>«.
C c 'w vtrvod c< to.vnd o-twwd ArrhM I *e opoo«ite ol ccrceve. A convex anck is gv.avr 'ran i3o‘.
Cosor-ato N-r*«i val quantity l-no^ o* o*ft. r-.vo, or tfe.^ i - ^ dtlw rinno Ur: i-x'atke o: a cc nt.
Cw<:trate{ E>prft^;os ‘i t i-.m c.o " be:we«n r.vo olenentr. ft* sre/e a*o theocecsiahe ‘eUbon b*r.-.^4n d m
Cuoe F-ysroa crM yceirilo: oy s* wjaaly Li’ge sc.fes. Dice eucxjv.
Orve Do'.ve'J I r»». avK bft*d
Oy< Aaswioe d fg*:
D ona tion rtv>*r|o e* *c«rr» Onu«oe ol Urr rr:rna lerr. Vaforvit on
Delreated D»sti*ft. Of fo«n' that h*» *;ie<it oc".aest a*d a doe/ d v s ft* r.orwccn cc-r a,-'. no vlci imtv
D-’ sly Vass ever veluroe AJ« acpi«s to 'yrrix: conpcs-t on cn: tone cxte*sft*s in a piclire g* ixste*.
Dsp'- Deor s a vs..d lL.s«r that ca* ce a;- rr*v; wtlr Ur: neloc^ p«r.:<s*.trrfr. Depth can also Uye^esioo by color depth .v
Ic e ceot*. Trarspav.r.! eenrn—a Unit pWlMly vc'cee ethers cm cJsc create the lu^on ol ceof.
Dow* axis D rrn f y m a corpus :«r that *e*'ers to **c *x i leid no rr*vd on a lermat
Dc> 3* Ae.tion. ncu^'/y; wd p ccu:L De-.'Ckp'oent of a* ftr<|eet/pioowo so : VuUonsacccrdro to the nsent ons.
Diagcna St a ght I rve fror gr-j ccanw Ip U»- cip.^ le ccrnc* of a reetarpk.
Oijr vtv» $1*«ght I r>ft ^xft..fjr the eer ter lrc*r g-e v drr e a c *c e X the other,
DW.i&oo rreguar dtper&'on of t/ncJ ekrrgrts or ieht.
Dit c * s ft* ?xtc-$ o* ii *pxce a* d tns. Sue scope.
Direction Ob ftr.ls in & comyy»[ y i wl a ways, excer worn **ey r.re r r-nlcedL npn ate a Tcvement n a crftr.ih'xi Orijee* >ca* a^ ts
hftsr.rl on *na i p «gen e1". i” re atcr lo other arrests, he elated on t i"e that ••«: a diiect c*. An ftejeet ear also incStstc «
di-ftr.licr. on f e batis o: its cv.n ;ern (structi.ml ske r.-tr»n)
Disc 7hr. f n*. ene rc..nc iu'li,ge. P ate Uial apeea't to oc hvs cltft'serfti.
Difcpsgec An octet! (or pais ftf s) '"At is -iwed avray I*ct :s tipper p o sits
DiSStnntf on 5 or«*aui':g. distrisutioa
Distance IwUvwyf two co ds o: daces.
Disimvl Stn«ung, *ftlc\vftihy, :aoi'i'fu*nl.

90
 VISUAL GRAMMAR| GLOSSARY

Distort 3ush, twist, or turn inside out.

Distr b jt o- Appciionment. d rf-s ic r.
Dominant 3art cularly P'om nenl. Makes its presence *'elt over that of others.
Dynan c "cachings about the movement of bod es under the riluerice o: energy. Creates and reduces te-s o- between oejects in
a visual composition.
Economica -rugal r use of dements to emphasize purity and s irp iic ty.
Edge "Transition "rein one area to another. The one osire of an oh cot.
Element One o: f e units comprising a cuantty. Components contributing to the creation o f a whole.
En<lpc int “ he e-‘d ol a line (cFcd).
Enargemont A reproduction tnat is larger lha-' the o* girial.
Ep sod c (Of repetition wirn frequency) a repetition that varies: repetition with breaks.
Eve- By 'emeving or decreas ng the effects —at ean create p o p — (perspective-, lioht/shado, transparency). o-'e wil amive at
someth ng that appear even.
Extrover: Outwardly oriented.
Extrucate The form brought about by lo-oino a male* al through ari opening.
Eye level L gh: waves that meet the eye at a r ght any e.
Fine Refined, pure, thin, sma l-g'a nod. Qoposte 0" eoa'se.
Fierce Streng:-, power, energy.
Fern A contour o* an object in a plane cef nes its form Al f c 'r s are de‘ ned by contcLrs created by n frito combinations of
straight and curves i-es.
Formal Having :o do with :-'e #orm. Per lairing to outer lorir. ri acco*dance with the to'ms. Without content.
Fonmgt The concrete surroundings in o' upon which tne visual elements snail luncocm. “ his can be t-e size c- a sheet of paper or
the type of medium by which signals 9re transported.
Fractal I'-egula' form that lies cuts do of the 'calm o~ classica geometry.
Fiagmenlay Broken vp. diviced into a number of parts. In pieces, disjointed, sol: up.
Frame I he h e surrounding a ;ornal.
Froefo-r A fo'm -hat is drf cult to categorize: organ c.
Frequency Rato. zreq..cn: occurrence.
Fusion When two or more u^its join to ra k e ere.
Geometry Mathematic teachings about ports, ires, surfaces, and solids and their mutua relations n space.
Gestalt (n) Figure, shape.
Gestalt (v) To form, precuce, give ife to
Glossy (Gf the character of a surface) a surface that is sc smooth and shiny that objects are reflected n it.
Golden section Proportion between two engths where the ratio c r the shortest to —o lergest is the sane as that o; '.he longest to the
who e. This ratio is 1.618.
Gradation Gradual cnange. Used n reference to a tone or textu-e's increasing or cecreasing saturation, or to an object's increasing or
decreasing size, e v e - through iepet tier or by way o* perspective.
Gramma' Teachings about the st'ucture cl language. t ie elements cornpris ng ; and the rules of tneir combination.
Gravity- Force crawing oh ccts towards rne center of the Earth.
Grid Vccule system, skeleton, st' jcturo. Dividing the composition into sma lor compos tiers that determ ne the des yn of the
object or the placement c- elements in the format.
Group Jn t made up ol elements pcs t oned together o- with a shared cnaracteris: r. so they are associated with one another.
Ha f-tone H..e n the gray tone scale, between b ack a-d white.
H ardrade Di'er.tly nflucncec by numan hands.
Harmo-y Whe- several e ements are p..t together creating a state of oalance. Contrast is 9 force ir opposition to haiTO"y. but
contrast a-d harmony wi 1always function together. A harmony can be full of contrasts and corrasts can be ha'monious
Hexagram Rec.il near iiyuie delimilec by six sides.
H ghlieht The lightest pad c* a ralt-tcre o- color p cture.
Horizon L no where the sky and Earth or surface ol the ocean meet. L r i t ol knowledge o- vision, vista.
Horizontal Level. Opposite of vert cal (perpendicular).
I typercube Volume w tF nro-e than three d nensions.

91
VISUAL GRAMMAR! GLOSSARY

lrlo»'*. cal Alike, one y d the same, equiva *"*. to.

Inactive Icle. wither.: activity.
Ircunabulum Buck p*:nted between 1450 acid 1500.
Mkienee Tocha-ge one thing through the fb*ce or aewe^ o‘ someihirg e so.
h 'o rn a Net app ymg to *orni Tear wnch cue* net preserve Opposite of ferrai
hscrioicn Engraving
Mc'jOClion tV-e*e two axes have a c o r non pc n l Origc
intfonatcd Inwardly cricrted Opposite ol t x v w M c d

rrvpjifcSe I "at w tich cannot he j ^ t n by f ie eye

rrtvjJai (Of design) w *.h enshasis on toe uitexpecied o* .njs.id. ‘"dewirg a e-ea* or comprehensible p a r
Isolates (Of a corpos abevt a s<rgle e e rc "0 net suopertee oy erne' visual stmth
Knetics teavhrvos cf nevere"*„ dynamics.
Lab I* Unstab e. inconstant, nsecare. woek of ta la 're, unoleasant and cistu.'bng composition.
Light Electromagnetic *«ys ‘."a: cause sense h tp rt scions in the human eye. Opoosite of oark.
Line A I ne i ' t$ abstract lo rn cc-r. r,ts e* point* situated next te m o another n one d motion. II the r e 'a s a re f ned star. and
enepe nt. : is ca led a vector. A trie is the *l*eitest d s ta 're betwee" two ports. h its cc'crete fc iT a I no ;s a s ir lac*
with extrere contras*, betwee* length and width Lner. er s tro p s are alien used to enhance the ciffc'eneo i ' ten* or rice
-etween two s pace s
Lnear o l’aoed as a Ire.
Vayrily Pk.ral ly. "he coper. :e o* n nonty
V a ltx Ooeo cfc-i no rc-te. nego/e phnt Arrangement of elements h rows an: ee urns {lO'itfjntaily an: vert ral y)i
Vatt A su ffice character that ca-ser. Ight to spead on no surface. Opoo^il* ol glossy.
Minority Sralle* anoont. Dopes le o* na c ' 7.
Mivo* nags V.-hete eft a-d r qbt. and „p ai d dew- a*e reversed. A " object i-ve'teo rfroug- a !ne c* sj ra re .
Model FVctctyoe. oatierr.
Mod ticaKon M ner ad ustnent
Module Bfisx*. element
Msrtrft** h vssuaJ conruricat on no.-crc': is either rveresentee cr cn iL s o " c* never©**: is erected. In a two*dire*is o-fj $ tl
nage reprcsertMonsv' rw e r© 't ere ac'ieveo thro-g' composition arid technqje. A ' lusionof movement *s created
5y showng ebccts w v 5I gh:y d^rent oUccnenls a*, h 3- frec-e-cy so ihe eye s dice »tie into ou*e»i_g *."a: the
cbjecl r*c-»-es.
Mjl:rciTersier« -Uvno severaJ d non^ons. One ca" defre oojer.ts w *.h *ro*e ran *.'ree d nensions cut as -urfins we canriot see
cr ie d i^ T .
Negative Ic *t A notlcav shape <V-en somethirq is brictite* tnan scrrctnng e4se.
Ne..va Not fceleciei'g :oa* y exUcrc. Locft’ cd belweer e x t'in e s V.'nen noe»enve-:s are p ro n n e n l
Ob.ec: E e re n t fe m ng tl*« bav s *o? a conception or idea.
Cbtr.sc angle Ai* obtuse ancle s neater than go*
O t**d mensionat Havirg y:e siTC'SKir^ $ is a-* aostiac*. state because al p”ysica oh.eets t'Sr.-e !l>*ee direos nrs.
Cpaqje Dose..re. noe*nea:4e. Opoosile ol transparent.
O e:c Teach nes aboat Syst anc v sud pnenonerta
0*go Point of ceoar..re. nle’^edtcn betwee' axes.
Ova Oblong cixle.
Over ap W rc " parts cf an object ie asove oar is o* another obe el Uren one cbjee: overlaps h e o:he*.
s5Sfale Rurnbg n the sare dree: on. co xunev*. 5 de by side. Ol two i* es cr p fines neve* mee*. no nartc' hew la* their
cx-cnsioft
Path Inagiricc li-re along .vtvc- a*» ooject is niov ng. "he path ran be slraig—. a* curved.
Pa*1em Gr-aments cf a <»cte 'sb: xat-res cf sonei-i-g
Peak Ze* ith of a- angle between two cr none i'e s cr straces.
R » rd jljm A body that ca“ sw ng on a Iu k ) axis.
Fo-ec ‘"rough, e—.er. or seep ntc.
fie"*AQCr ^egLlar v.-c-skJed Kgu*e.

92
 VISUAL GRAMMAR! GLOSSARY

fV p rn jry Q -c u rfa e i-c a outer edge OutSk its. e ig th itio .rd r e edge o* % d*c e.
Perpcnck-U* A<* ang e of g d * .
3ersoeclive Vance* ol cepicfcn that c e s e s " C trp-essiGO o; depth.
-’lace (v) To affix n a specific p see.
PUtfic Product with n s e - d rensiona’ lcr*r.
Pont Ar abstract phe -o-re-o- i'd eating a ptadse locaton Place witltcut a ea SYalest typocrspnica u n t o f m eagre rA2
Cicero. Aotreviatec as z r, O -e pent v OjOm S mc»e$.
Point c f departure D'igc
soly9M V u ’ iangJai. tu : lateral
°w>:«cr Pose, star'doo nt, location.
in cisio n Cor cretn rep'esenta-io-- cf ou« visual surroundings; it ur.ralcs that at c b je rs - f iv e an irnate wealth of cetail.
Prima'y co 0'S Basic colors. Coto-s that cannot be created by mixing other colors.
Fro, notion Dcoiclion of one o* mcie poi-tr, on a line. Rcp'oscntat o-r o: a oocy on a plane.
Proper inr Relation ol one thirg to a"oltier. Corrc ation n sea o.
Radiation Lig.ni smi$$ o*\ ema-atier. Distribute- Iron- a cento*.
Radius Oistance f*om the center c f a circle tothe periolyy.
R ancor (Ot rreguar vara tic ns} not -ol ow i-g any cycle o* fixed oottern.
Raster A stiuctue * th oonts d stricutcd r r a Surface.
Rearrange To reccate something.
Rectargte =oj * sderi f g u e vntn fc..r right 3-glcs.
Rejection Rctu'.n c f a wave-noverent *'cm a su-face M»*ro*irg.
Regularity Oes g r -s 03 Ln fo m e e x e r s : de$ gn -5 r>g a faec plan c* pafern.
Relate- f i r 0. co rre e fe n
Relst ve Seen n relate^ to something else. cmrpa»ed *->th s o n e th rg e sc.
Remote Lccatec fa* away ir t ir e or space.
Rendering To cover the surface of a threc-dimer^iena object.
Repetition V/'-en an e e-rent re a rs several times, wtne.* n a corpus :«cr or ovet time.
Representation O re tning standirg fo* another.
Repi.ls.on Force i-a e a sirg tt-e distance between 0ejects. Opposite of attraction
Rh0Tb Parallelogram with 5 des of eoua! length, hut whose a-glcs reed net be r gh1any es.
Rhythm Movement reasured in time. Repet tier in groups,
Rotation An object's revolution around a r axis.
Rubric A categO'y er column n a table.
Saturation T ie ntensity o; a color's hue. In unsaturated colors, s o re ot the cclcr has deer replaced by white or black.
Scaled dow- A reprod.iCr on that is sral'e* than the original.
Secondary color A color derived by n ix iig two orirary colors.
Sector ’’be pa*t c* 2 e rd e r a t l« s oetween two rad i
Segment The pa-t cf a arc e n a : is d s fre e fey a c^O'd and the periphery.
SanCogy Stop/ of signs.
Snade Specif c cc c* tore o* gray :cne& Can also dose be a tcxt.re.
Shade*- '•Ahere ►phi coos net *‘a l ucon an osject
Sirpe Direct arid e e r e iia r g the i-terp ay between fortrs rta-acle-ued by o*der. Vsua elements s -ro u t cistortcrs c* a n d *‘<a-
fc>ns can be ca led s mole.
SraUtareous A: tie s a re ir e .
S to 1- v reUbvc area ot length of a~ cbjec. neasurec agwrst anctnar ob.ee10* a scale cf measurement.
S<ele*on Cr9*-ii»atanu plan, th s c y n^movvork jp e r w h e t Cne can bald.
Spam Thrce-cirrersicra, geometric term, volume cc m ic e by a sur'acc or su-laces.
Sp-e-c Physical entity where al^ points on Ihe su'lace arc ot on equal dislonr.o fro*r (he center. 3 ooe. Scope, *c8l-r. w c u n c in g ju
$l)i hI Curve revek-ing around a pc>nt several times as \ distances ilsel* 'rom tiftt point.

93
VISUAL GRAMMAR!GLOSSARY

SoyriUrecus With obvious auk c: p an or pattern. emotional. irripu sive. mrJ without rriyilion.
Start ng yy nl Fo nt of departure. bey rrhg.
Sta: c. Sta: ooary ard h absolute equilibrium.
Stratum I -lye- p ana.
Stick* Physical, overate re. Exrcmely rvvcw yurfac*.
Structural s<«le:on Ah cbjcr*':? me* structure. Structure l* w n a l y r
Structure Composition hn«i nature: tie way r. whole ■$ pul together c -t of ctffft'O.r.r pads
StMCturo he TIve one or n..nerr».i$ tvv-iyl* o' invisible) lines that d$t ngush Uie individual stn.xn.re unite von one a'ottvr.
Sructu'e urit Area i" a structure —fit can fo d an foment.
Sostle Ref nod ar.j wp-isxatec
Subtnc: To take away.
Super u'it An entity r a t is conon.see c' seve*a unts.
Surace The outs de o*‘ a volume or an object.
Symyc Object. sgr>, or image representing something.
Symmetrica Tna: which car ye divteed r :o two ccua parti camp* s r»g rrircr images o* each ylli-r. A-a-gemonl a erg an axis.
Tactile Reiatnc to the ae-seo' louvti
Tango,r : Tyjc" border r.-, crush agar isl of two ob cots w - a c o n v y yomt (poi- of tangcrCyX
Texture Texture can be the cohcrete expression yl a st uclu’o A tex’.-rc* $ a cistt but o* cf objects ir a compcs: c~ that s so even
that i! i> “ xoenenced as pad of 4 surlsc*. Texture :a* be excenenced bw i tacbkly and visua ty.
Itvee-eire-stcra Having jurienaicns. AI ohys cal Objects three d mansions.
Tone Characteristic. o‘ a~ object basec c- *ow much Sght ra I* yn it a~d hew t it *cf ectec Icme is o<j- ro s : irp o ra r:
nyrass os of an obect** Io n size, an: position «n term* c onwitabso.
Torso Hody. trun<
■(arspa-ert t nc d. cemeacle Gponsite of cpac.e.
"riange T-nec-s ded Vju e
'»engjLr T-rec-a ded.
hav nc two. d mens yn* Th s is a- abstract s**tc because al physical ob cots t«a>e Urea t ir e 's o-fv
Jrdorstetomr-nt Ceut ous statement. Attenot tc create maximum re*ooh$e Iron' a viewer through minimum use cl ejects.
U - ifc rT When v“ ve a objects * t tngethe* n svd' x way as to create atltAM any ye se-ceved as a tol?.l y.
U-it Object or giy.jp -y?cejects afssumerf *o ce coriylete r a-d of ttvom« vcs.
Va'nC Ar. object s value slu rs fry-n a suajec* assessment c : its cha-actc' sties.
V i' ah e 0 virility w t“ cha'gr-acle va w?
Va-a*ft“ Corpus t o" that rha-gc-i a'c^nc <1 v c riro it theme.
Vertex S u r n : y reetng oo nt.
Vertival ^erperd cu »•. Opposite of newer :^t
vsfce ssrce»v«!h e by :**a e>-v.
Vsi.f.1 n rafereaco to $ ghl
Vs-cl syntax 1 i *s conocsit o t cf eb.ccls
Vbd Vacuum.
Vo ume T*c searn within » tti -e citc “ s c'ct hody.
V ttm W t“ a "loh *ompo atu « . Vca*m co O 'S cae he associated with h gt- terp:.f(j'..rr-s Vtgc<;»us. -atural Opposite ot cckl
V & g tt Fcrua that nfLo'ce.* live masu V* wi otject and its gravity tcwvrds the Ear—V, cehtcr.
Zenith Ver.ax.
 VISUAL GRAMMARI BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bibliography

A odot:. Ed*.v.n A. Flatland. New York: New American Liorary, 1984. =irs: publishes by
London: Sec ey & Co. 1884.
Arnneim, Rudolf. A rt and Visual Perception. Be*kc 'ey: University c l Cal *c nia Press. 1954.
Bancnolf, Thomas F. Beyond the Third Dimension. New York: Scierr ’ ic American Liorary, 1990.
Berger. Jonn. Ways of Seeing. London: Penguin Books. 197?.
Broby-Johansen, R. Kunstordbog. V bo'g: Forlage*. Sesam. 200c.
Danbolt. Gunrar. Blikk for bifder. Oslo: A oslra^l rorlag, 2C02.
Davidson, Stein. Grafisk hdndbok. Oslo: Yrkesopp'asvig. 995
Dorcis A. Dcndis. A Primer of Visual Literacy. C u rb ' see: MIT Press. 1973.
Fletcher, Alan. The A rt of Looking Sideways. Lordon: Phaidon °rcss. 200:.
Garrett, LII an. Visual Design. New vork: Reirhc d. 1967.
Gottu. Tor. sc. Norsk ordbok C$ 0: Kunnskapstcnage'.. I99 &-
It:en. Jcnarnes. The Art o f Color. New Yof k: Reirhoid. 1967.
H ell'-a'< t Corn; ter. Bokstaven. ordei. texten. S lo c k h o lr: O ro ro r* fo* ag. 1997.
Horn. Rooert. Visual Language. Banondge Is and: MacRovu Inc, 1993.
Hornby. A. S.. ec. Advanced Learner’s Dictionary o f Current English. Oxforc: Oxford
University Press, 1974.
Kandinsky, Wassily. Point and Line to Plane. New Yoik: Dover, 1979. F r$t puokshed at Bduhaus,
■92I)
Koes: er. Arthur. The Act of Creation. London: H jtchinson & Cc, 1964.
Krausse. J., ed. Your Private Sky. R. Buckminster Fuller. Bacen: Lars M iilie'
Publishers. 1999.
K'ftss, Gurther, ed. Reading Images. The Grammar of Visual Design. London: Rout’ecge. i 99 <i
Kruger, Anna, ed. Faktikon. Os’o: Gyldenda , 1997.
Lungman, Carl C. Symboler. Malm*: Aldebarar For'ag. 199c.
Tveteras. Egii. ed. Ettbindsleksikon. 0 $'o: Ku nnskapstor agel, 1983.
Winters. Nathan. Architecture is Elementary. Lay to r: Gibbs VI. Sm :nt i$SS.
Wong, W jc us. Principles of Form and Design. New York: Van \o s :'a n d Rc rh o d. 1993.

95
 3 5 Visible Structures

3 5 Active Structures

Concrete Structures
3 6 Texture

3 0 Sue

Concrete Objects
3 2 Colo-

28 Form
4 3 M i-o rin c agairst a Vc'u~ic
Life in the image world has made us all voracious, if not always
deliberate, consumers of visual messages. Easy access to
computer graphic tools has turned many of us into either amateur or
professional image producers. But without a basic understanding
of visual language a productive dialog between producers and
consumers of visual communication is impossible. Visual
Grammar can help you speak and write about visual objects and
their creative potential, and better understand the graphics that
bombard you 24/7. It is both a primer on visual language and a
visual dictionary of the fundamental aspects of graphic design.

Christian Leborg is a designer and design educator. He is

a founding partner of K, a knowledge and communications
consultancy in Oslo, Norway.

O the r titles available

in this series:

G eom etry o f D esign

K im b e rly Elam
ISBN 1-56898-249-6

E lem ents o f D esign

Gail Greet Hannah
ISBN 1-56898-329-8

G rid System s
K im b e rly Elam
ISBN 1-56898-465-0

Thinking w ith Type

Ellen Luplon
ISBN 1-56893-448-0

D.I.Y. D esign It Yourself

E lle n L u p to n
ISBN 1-56898-552-5

ISBN -156898- 58'-9 Princeton A rchitectural Press

978- 1- 55808- 581-7 $ 19.95 w w w .papres 5.com

DESIGN BRIEFS