A I F O R I N FR A S TRU C TU R E 1

Workers are gearing

up for their return
to the office. But are
America’s roads ready
for rush hour?
Commuting hassles are poised to reemerge as workers
return to the office. A new AI-powered study ranks the
cities where drivers may encounter fewer problems—and
notes the places where headaches may be the worst.

INTRODUCTION The detailed rankings, outlined later in this

report, shine a light on the connection between
Philadelphia’s roadways ranked best for
infrastructure investments and economic health
road infrastructure in a study of 20 major
—and warn of the long-term impacts that poorly
metropolitan areas by the U.S. Chamber of
maintained roads and long commutes have on
Commerce Foundation and partner RoadBotics,
the country’s business community, already hard
a Pittsburgh-based tech startup specializing
hit by pandemic losses and worker shortages.
in artificial intelligence (AI). The study’s results
come at a time when talks about the urgent
need for physical infrastructure improvements THE SITUATION
continue in Washington, D.C., and as America’s America’s 4 million miles of roads typically
major metropolitan areas prepare to welcome see more than 3.1 trillion miles driven annually.
back millions of commuters who will return to That changed abruptly last year when the
offices and other brick-and-mortar workplaces as pandemic forced many states to enact lengthy
America continues its rebound from COVID-19. stay-at-home orders that all but eliminated
Other cities that were studied include some of nonessential travel on roadways.
the country’s most populous and historically Fortunately, businesses and employees are
traffic-plagued cities. Washington and Los rebounding from the disaster. But a return to
Angeles ranked 10th and 17th respectively, normalcy means that the infrastructure issues
sprawling Houston, Texas, ranked 13th, and that were pressing before the pandemic—
Phoenix, Arizona, tied with Detroit, Michigan, including long daily commutes made worse by
for the worst of the areas studied at 19th. poor road conditions and the congestion they
cause—will reemerge with urgency once again.

2 A I F O R I N FR A S TRU C TU R E A I F O R I N FR A S TRU C TU R E 3
 As companies prepare their workers to return frequent inspections that cover limited portions of pavement and then repeats this analysis for
to offices across the country after Labor Day, of a community’s roadway network. In 2018, the next section until it has generated a high-
business leaders are making the direct connection state and local governments spent $187 billion definition map of the entire road system. 
between reliable roadways and COVID recovery. on highways and roads.  These maps provide a high level of detail in the
In short, keeping the nation’s roadways in a state Of this $187 billion in funding, 24% was sourced form of imagery and objective rating data at
of good repair contributes to a robust economy from the federal government. The transportation each 10-foot interval of roadway. Our findings
and improves the quality of life for all Americans. system is critical to the movement of people reveal the story of the complexity of managing
Reliable roadways connect supply chains that and goods, making one thing clear: Investing in and maintaining infrastructure on vast scales. 
keep essential goods and services moving. And transportation is one of the most effective ways
stronger roadway systems get people to jobs, to spur economic development.
PUTTING AI TO WORK
medical appointments, and school. Without
adequate infrastructure investment in a post-
FOR AMERICA’S ROADS
PRIVATE SECTOR INNOVATION The 20-city survey collected data aiming to
COVID world, our cultural and economic
rebound will suffer.
TO THE RESCUE represent a cross-section of major metropolitan
Using a technology like artificial intelligence to areas. The goal was to better understand the
But the challenge with monitoring the condition
assess roadway conditions is a new practice relationships and patterns of road conditions.
of infrastructure is twofold. Infrastructure is
and far less expensive than traditional  Maps of road quality were generated for about
massive in size and scope and can take hours to
assessment methods. For example, results 75 miles of each city, and the areas were
days for people to physically observe and assess.
showed that it took a Geographic Information chosen to correspond to the downtown area.
This report examines how private sector Systems (GIS) analyst and road maintenance Therefore, the data analyzed does not reflect
innovation can speed up the evaluation process worker about 600 hours (25 days), at a combined the entirety of any city. 
with artificial intelligence, allowing government hourly rate of $50 and a total cost of $30,000, to This innovative look at America’s roadways
agencies to better manage transportation staff, conduct a manual assessment of a 150-centerline uses technology to increase awareness of the
road improvement projects, and the overall cost mile network. Similar efforts using AI cost half growing infrastructure crisis, while showcasing
of assessment. that with the same turnaround time. Instead the power of private sector solutions.
of agencies manually assessing roadway and
A COST TO EVERY DRIVER pothole damage, roadways can now be visually
verified and tracked for repair through AI. 
According to TRIP, a national transportation
research nonprofit, driving on roads in need of This practice not only accelerates the pavement
repair costs every driver about $600 a year, and assessment process, but it also provides
the bill to fix the nation’s roads grows higher the actionable data that can be used to provide
longer we defer infrastructure investments. actual results. These modern tools facilitate

+
faster repairs at a lower cost to taxpayers.
Finding the budgetary needs required to keep
our roadways in a state of good repair is a The Foundation partnered with RoadBotics for
constant challenge for many local, state, regional, this study. The RoadBotics platform collects
Philadelphia’s roadways and federal departments of transportation, those data by mounting a smartphone camera running
ranked best for road primarily responsible for roadway maintenance.  the RoadBotics app into the windshield of a
vehicle. The vehicle drives the road network,
infrastructure in a recent For many cities, the infrastructure maintenance
allowing the app to collect videos of the
program is only as effective as its budget. For
study of 20 major instance, traditional roadway damage and
pavement. The platform blurs people and cars
in the imagery for privacy purposes and then
metropolitan areas by pothole detection rely on both public feedback
processes the remaining data to identify surface
the U.S. Chamber of and routine roadway inspections conducted
distresses like potholes, cracks, and raveling
by transportation agency staff or contractors.
Commerce Foundation This method of finding and assessing potholes
(a type of pavement distress). The RoadBotics
platform assigns a rating to that 10-foot section
and partner RoadBotics. is expensive and time intensive, resulting in less

4 A I F O R I N FR A S TRU C TU R E A I F O R I N FR A S TRU C TU R E 5
ANALYZING THE CITIES
categorizes its 70 miles within a range of 1.70-
2.37 for its various corridors. Most notably,
Nashville’s lowest rated corridors are its primary
+
linkages. These middle-grade zones may
Other populous and
provide the highest return on investment for traffic-plagued cities
Rankings were based on RoadBotics Road 3 NEW YORK CITY  roadway maintenance. 
like Washington and
Network Score that classified each city’s
aggregated road classification score within
New York City is America’s most populous city
with an MSA population of 19 million people in 6 SAN FRANCISCO  Los Angeles ranked 10th
its major business districts. The objective 2019. As a critical hub for both freight and person San Francisco is a national tech hub and and 17th, respectively.
nature of the data allows for easy comparisons travel, New York City’s transportation system California’s second most populous MSA region
between roads within a town or city or even management requires the oversight of multiple with 4.7 million residents. With one of the
between different cities. The lower the score, components such as highways, rail transit, bus highest highest costs of living, San Francisco
the better the roadway network condition. The transit, ports, commuter rail, freight rail, several has benefited from the largest city revenue
scores in the rankings are based on a scale, international airports, pedestrians, and bicycles. growth, 12.5%, of all cities in our analysis.
with one being best and five being worst.  The evaluation of 73 miles of roadway in New Investments in maintaining the 75 road miles
York City resulted in a score of 1.85, good enough in our study resulted in a score of 2.03 and the
for ranking third among the cities in our study.
1 PHILADELPHIA  Recognizing the need to support a complex,
number 6 ranking. 

As the largest city in Pennsylvania,

Philadelphia’s Metropolitan Statistical Area
high-volume transportation network, New York
City has by far the highest city revenue at nearly
7 CHICAGO
(MSA) is home to over 6 million people. As a $300 billion in 2019.  As the largest city in the Midwest, with over
major city on the heavily traveled I-95 corridor, 9.5 million residents, Chicago is well known
Philadelphia’s transportation infrastructure is 3 DENVER  for having a high-functioning and extensive
critical to the movement of people and goods transportation system. However, since 2017,
in the mid-Atlantic region. The analysis of 71 Denver tied for third. Since 2010, Denver’s city Chicago has had the second highest population
road miles in Philadelphia scored the highest population has grown by over 21% and has decrease (-0.2%) and the lowest tax revenue
of all cities in our analysis with an overall score benefited from an annual revenue growth rate of growth rate (0.9%) of all the cities analyzed. 
of 1.74, indicating the well-maintained street over 9% between 2017 and 2019. Denver’s growth The 72 roadway miles studied resulted in a
surfaces. This score may be attributed to a high presents both opportunities and challenges, Road Network Score of 2.11, giving the Windy City
average revenue per capita value of $1,145. including an increased number of vehicles on the seventh best infrastructure ranking. But the
the roadways. The 76 miles of roadway network loss in tax revenue and population could be an
evaluated resulted in a Roadway Network
2 JACKSONVILLE  Score of 1.85. Of the roadways surveyed, only
issue in how the roadway network is maintained
in future years. 
Our study rated Jacksonville, Florida, as 3% of the road links were rated higher than a
number two for its business district roadway
network. The city boasts a healthy 6.1% growth
3.00. Based on Denver’s increasing growth
and large geographical boundary, the city may
8 CHARLOTTE 
in tax revenue with a booming population to have challenges expanding and improving on its Charlotte is the second largest city in the South
complement its healthy roadway network. The roadway network in the future.  and North Carolina’s largest urban area. Of all
75 miles surveyed showed that most motorways the cities studied in this analysis, Charlotte has
scored exceptionally well with only 8% of their 5 NASHVILLE  had the second highest population increase
links rating no worse than 2.00. This is even (2.4%) and the sixth highest annual revenue
more impressive as Jacksonville’s modest tax Nashville, Tennessee’s capital city, comes in at growth rate (7.2%). With a Road Network Score
revenue was $1.25 billion in 2019, ranking it number 5 in our rankings. The growing city has of 2.16, Charlotte ranks eighth on the list. With
16 out of 19 for the major metropolitan areas seen over 1% annual capita growth since 2017, average revenue per capita at $440, Charlotte’s
considered in this study. while its tax revenue has increased 5% per 70 roadway miles could be seeing a lot more
annum. Though Nashville maintains a reliable money in the future based on current trends. 
transportation network, recent analysis

6 A I F O R I N FR A S TRU C TU R E A I F O R I N FR A S TRU C TU R E 7
 9 SAN ANTONIO  12 MINNEAPOLIS 14 COLUMBUS  17 OKLAHOMA CITY 
The San Antonio MSA is the third most Minnesota’s largest city lands at number 12 in Ohio’s capital city comes in at number 14 in the As the largest city in Oklahoma and the
populous region in the state of Texas with our ranking. Our data was collected from both rankings. As the city’s population (2.1 million) state capital, Oklahoma City has an MSA
close to 2.5 million people. With a city revenue Minneapolis and twin city Saint Paul to better and annual tax revenue ($1.6 billion) continue population of 1.4 million, the smallest of the
growth rate of 4.6%, San Antonio had a total understand the region’s state of repair. Nearly to grow, Columbus will need to look for ways cities in our analysis. Consistent with the
city revenue of $2.2 billion in 2019. With the 30% of Minneapolis’ roadway corridors rated to improve its 75 roadway miles analyzed at population, city revenue for Oklahoma City is
average revenue per capita at $849, the 73 Tier 3, though its primary roadway networks the Roadway Network Score of 2.32. Currently, the second smallest at $927.7 million in 2019.
roadway miles in San Antonio resulted in a rank scored very well with 96% classified as Tier 1. over a third of Columbus’ roadway network The measurement of 74 roadway miles results
of 9 with a score of 2.21.  This tells us that Minneapolis is adept at moving falls at a rating of 3 or higher. This score is in in a score of 2.38, tied with Los Angeles for the
vehicles through its corridors, but there may large part a reflection of its residential roadway number 17 rank. 
10 WASHINGTON, D.C.  be significant opportunities to encourage network that encompasses nearly 39 of the

The nation’s capital is a focal point of history,

business activity along secondary and tertiary total 75 miles and has a rating of 2.36. 19 PHOENIX
zones. Ranking 18th in tax revenue growth and
policy, and political movements. It has a mix Phoenix is by far the largest city in Arizona with
13th in population growth lines up with the data
of transportation and commercial activity. Our
collection assessment as well. 16 SAINT PAUL  a 2019 population of 1.6 million and 4.7 million
findings rank D.C. among the middle of the pack MSA residents. It also has a moderate revenue
Saint Paul, separated by only 7 miles and
at number 10 with a score of 2.38. Most corridor growth rate of 5.7% with a 2019 city revenue
links scored well, ranging from 2.00 for residential
13 HOUSTON  the Mississippi River from Minneapolis, ranks just under $2.6 billion, resulting in an average
number 16 in our assessment. Nearly 40% of its
streets to 2.60 for service corridors. Washington With an MSA population of 6.8 million residents revenue per capita of $520. The evaluation of
secondary roads, where primary commercial
benefits from significant federal grants that and an MSA land area of 9,444 square miles, 75 roadway miles in Phoenix generated a score
activity is located, rate as Tier 3. Like Minneapolis,
ensure the downtown business district is well Houston is larger than the State of New Jersey. of 2.57, tied for the number 19 rank with Detroit. 
over 90% of its primary roadway network rates
maintained. In response to the well-maintained Of the cities studied in this analysis, Houston
Tier 1, showing an aptitude for moving vehicles
core business district, the city saw its annual city ranks second lowest in revenue growth rate
revenue grow by 5.4% per annum. The District at 1.8%, but has the fifth highest population through Minnesota’s second largest city. We 19 DETROIT 
expect that modest investment in roadways
Department of Transportation deployed over growth at 1.9%. With an average revenue per Detroit comes in at number 19, tied with
through business nodes may encourage retail
$93 million in 2017 to maintain and grow its capita at $353, the 75 roadway miles resulted in Phoenix. Detroit’s population growth rate sits
and similar type activity. 
1,100-mile roadway network. a rank of 13 with a score of 2.31.  at 0.2% annually—tied for the second lowest
compared with all cities analyzed—and has an
10 BOSTON  14 SEATTLE  17 LOS ANGELES MSA population of 4.3 million residents as of
Los Angeles boasts an economy that is larger 2019, making it the largest metropolitan area in
Boston, the capital of Massachusetts, is the Seattle is a major hub for international goods
than all of Sweden. This, in turn, places great Michigan. Detroit was the first city in the U.S.
major center of economic and cultural life for and people movement. With an MSA population
stress on the local transportation network, to install a mile of paved concrete, which is
New England. It is the hub of a metropolitan of over 3.8 million residents, the city has a
ranking 17 in our study. Los Angeles’ nearly $20 especially appropriate as Detroit is best known
region that extends well into its neighboring revenue of over $2.5 billion. The challenging
billion in annual revenue is distributed across a as home to the U.S. automotive industry. With
states. With an MSA population of 4.8 million weather conditions may contribute to the score
huge number of city services, including health, a revenue growth rate of 6.2% and an average
residents and a tax revenue of over $3.2 billion, of 2.32 on the 72 road miles analyzed in our
transit, safety, and, of course, transportation. Our revenue per capita of $323, the 73 roadway
Boston ranks 10th in this analysis. Of the 72 study, resulting in a ranking of number 14. 
study notes that only 11% of its roadway corridors miles resulted in a score of 2.57. 
roadway miles surveyed, nearly a third of the
are considered Tier 1, none of which are considered
network ranks at 3 or higher, contributing to
primary roadway links. Further work connecting
its 2.23 Road Network Score. 
this business zones through mega projects,
such as Metro’s Purple line, look to improve
safety and build economic activity centers. 

8 A I F O R I N FR A S TRU C TU R E A I F O R I N FR A S TRU C TU R E 9
KEY INSIGHTS FOR AMERICA’S
LOCAL, STATE, AND FEDERAL
LEADERS
U.S. infrastructure is crumbling. With our country
on the cusp of new transportation demands,
the need to collect quality data on the safety,
mobility, reliability, and sustainability of the
transportation system has never been greater.
Traditional data collection methods such as traffic
detectors, closed circuit television (CCTV) feeds,
and incident data require transportation agencies
to install, operate, and maintain equipment to Figure B: Trajectory Data of a Single Trip (Ayers, 2020)
measure the performance of the transportation
system. While these methods still play a critical
proactively show driving environments with poor reconstruct an individual trip. This data can
role in transportation system monitoring and
or degrading safety performance. This data can be used to derive a trip’s start location (i.e.,
management, recent technology enhancements
Figure A: Connected and Automated Vehicle Concept then be used to activate business districts. origin), end location (i.e., destination), route
are driving a change in how transportation (USDOT, 2017) 
Further awareness of traffic operations taken, inferred mode(s) of travel, and total
professionals collect and analyze data. Leading
allows the safer integration of vehicles and trip time. Figure B presents a visualization of
professionals are integrating this data with New companies are using roadway data
pedestrian areas, exemplified by Las Ramblas trajectory data used to reconstruct an individual
macroeconomic information to enhance and plan collection to optimize agency budgets. Other
in Barcelona or the Kensington High Street vehicle trip, while Figure C shows a sample
regional business activity.  sample technologies include connected and
shopping district in London. These business analysis of a full trajectory dataset (thousands of
These enhancements are creating new automated vehicles (CAV) and location-based individual trips) indicating route usage (orange
zones have seen significant increases in
opportunities for transportation agencies to services (LBS). CAV technologies such as in- and blue routes) between a specific origin
pedestrian foot traffic with a reduction in traffic
collaborate with nontraditional entities— vehicle radar sensors, cameras, and warning (orange) and destination (blue) geography. 
fatalities. This shows the win-win relationship of
as well as the public—to improve transportation systems are designed to help motorists detect
such planning efforts.  The second transportation data product from
systems and stimulate economic growth. safety hazards. In some vehicles, the response
Location-based services (LBS) refer to LBS is probe data. Probe data is an aggregation
Agencies are using these AI data collection to detected hazards is automated (automatic
technologies that use high resolution geographic of trajectory data and most applied to the
methods across roadway, transit, and fixed rail. braking). To support these functions, massive
This data collection not only provides key insights amounts of high resolution data are collected data to provide specific services to end users.
to agencies, but it also provides innovative from on-board sensors. A representation of a Examples of LBS are smartphone apps that
modeling for record keeping. hypothetical CAV environment is presented provide route guidance or information about
in Figure A. a specific geographic area based on the time-
Imagine deploying a Light Detection and
stamped location of an LBS-equipped device.
Ranging (LIDAR) drone over a bus depot to While the original design of these technologies
establish facility dimensions while considering was for real-time and near-future predictive Like CAV applications, transportation
an expansion. This can be carried out for a few applications, transportation professionals professionals are using the data from LBS
thousand dollars instead of mobilizing an entire are creating tremendous value from archived technologies to collect real-time information
field crew to collect the same data. Agencies CAV data. This data is supplying first-of-its-kind on transportation system performance and
then draft conceptual designs and calibrate observations of individual vehicle kinematics, real-world travel behavior patterns. The two
financial models to figure out what impacts acceleration/deceleration, braking, horsepower, primary data products stemming from LBS
a facility improvement may have on the fuel consumption/energy use, seatbelt usage, technologies for transportation analysis are
traveling public. What once took months can steering angle, etc., collected in real-world trajectory data and probe data.
now be done in weeks, catalyzing transit- driving environments. Trajectory data is a series of time-stamped
oriented development and delivering faster Such data is enabling transportation analysts latitude and longitude coordinates (stripped
economic growth. to better understand human factors and of personally identifiable information) that Figure C: Route Analysis Using Trajectory Data
(CATT Lab, 2021) 

10 A I F O R I N FR A S TRU C TU R E A I F O R I N FR A S TRU C TU R E 11
driving mode to provide estimated travel times The second example of AI in action is
and speeds on predefined road segments. inferring trip routes from imprecise or sparse
Real-time applications of probe data include trajectory data. This is especially valuable
travel time estimation and road network information because it helps agencies identify
mobility performance. This information is often where people choose to live, work, and
used by transportation agencies to provide socialize. Building infrastructure along these
travel information on dynamic signs, such corridors brings new commercial activity
as the one seen in Figure D. incredibly quickly as people already wish to
access these nodes.

AI IN TRANSPORTATION: In some instances, data from LBS technologies

THE TECHNICAL DETAILS  can be geographically imprecise or
interrupted. These interruptions can cause
AI uses deep-learning techniques to analyze
data gaps that make trip routing analysis
each video frame captured while conducting
challenging if not impossible. To overcome
a roadway assessment. Based on the images
this challenge, researchers have developed
captured of the road surfaces and their varying
Figure D: Travel Information Signs (INDOT, 2021)  AI techniques to map imprecise points to Figure F: Pneumatic Tube Traffic Counters (TNDOT, 2021) 
color factors, AI can identity every aspect of
the transportation network (such as a road
the road surface—from giant potholes to more temporary count stations, such as pneumatic segment or transit line) in a process called
nuanced factors such as bumps, depressions, tube counters (Figure F). While these traffic snapping. They can then infer the most
and cracks. AI can do this as well, if not volume tools provide valuable information, likely route taken between consecutive data
better, than a human. they inherently limit the spatial coverage of points in a process called routing, using
Recent advances in AI have created new paths traffic volume measurement. Given the cost historical similar trips and traffic conditions
in transportation research and analysis. Two to install, operate, and maintain these sensors, at the time of the trip. Figure G illustrates
examples of transportation AI applications many agencies are turning to AI applications the general concept of snapping and routing. Original waypoint
“Snapped” waypoint
include network-level traffic volume estimation to estimate traffic volumes on road segments These techniques allow transportation analysts Trip route

and trip routing from sparse trajectory data. not equipped with traffic count technologies. to maximize the use of this valuable data that
Traffic volumes are traditionally measured at In doing so, transportation agencies can more otherwise would be considered unusable. Figure G: Visualization of Trajectory Data Snapping
and Routing
point locations using permanent sensors (loop comprehensively monitor and analyze the
detectors or roadside radars, Figure E) or performance of the transportation system.

+
The transportation system
is critical to the movement
of people and goods, making
one thing clear: Investing in
transportation is one of the
most effective ways to spur
economic development.
Figure E: Field deployed inductive loop (left) and roadside acoustic sensor (right) (FHWA, 2003) 

12 A I F O R I N FR A S TRU C TU R E A I F O R I N FR A S TRU C TU R E 13
+ ABOUT THE AUTHORS  REFERENCES Tennessee Department of Transportation
(TDOT). Traffic Data. Available at: https://
www.tn.gov/tdot/long-range-planning-
This innovative look at Mark L. Franz is the lead transportation Ayers, R. Map Based Time-Space Cube of
home/longrange-road-inventory/
America’s roadways uses analyst at the University of Maryland’s Center
for Advanced Transportation Technology
Vehicle Trajectory Data in ArcGIS. Internal CATT
Lab Exploratory Analysis. December 2020.
longrange-road-inventory-traffic.
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html. Accessed January 15, 2021.

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United State Department of Transportation
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tripnet.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/
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Urban Institute – State and Local Finance

Kans Law Firm. “Little Known Facts –
Initiative. Highway and Road Expenditures.
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www.dwiminneapolislawyer.com/resources/
policy-centers/cross-center-initiatives/
little-known-facts-minnesotas-twin-cities/.
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article/54172/25-things-you-might-not-know-
about-los-angeles. Accessed January 16, 2021.

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16 A I F O R I N FR A S TRU C TU R E