TCU 202: THERMODYNAMICS I

LESSON 1

BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

I am certain you may be wondering what thermodynamics is and how it is relevant in your
profession in renewable energy. In this lesson you will be introduced to thermodynamics and
definitions of the various concepts used in thermodynamics, classify the various types
thermodynamic systems, explain the various applications of thermodynamics and summarize the
principles of thermodynamics. It is hoped that this lesson will be a starting point to build your
foundation in understanding the various forms of energy and work.

1.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to;

1.2.1 Define concepts of thermodynamics and thermodynamic systems

1.2.2 Illustrate the thermodynamic processes and states

1.2.3 Summarize the principles of thermodynamics and applications

1.2.1 Concepts of thermodynamics and thermodynamic systems

The word “thermo-dynamic,” used first by Thomson (later Lord Kelvin), has Greek origin, and is
translated as the combination of therme: heat, and dynamis: power.

Thermodynamics is a science that governs the following:

⁻ Energy and its transformation

⁻ Feasibility of a process involving transformation of energy
⁻ Feasibility of a process involving transfer of energy
⁻ Equilibrium processes
It is a branch of science which deals with energy and energy interactions that is energy
conversions, exchange and direction of exchange.

Thermodynamics may be defined as follows:

Thermodynamics is an axiomatic science which deals with the relations among heat, work and
properties of system which are in equilibrium. It describes state and changes in state of physical
systems.

Or

Thermodynamics is the science of the regularities governing processes of energy conversion.

Definitions and terms

• Thermodynamic system: a quantity of fixed mass/ region(control volume) under
investigation,
We may want to study a quantity of matter contained within a closed rigid walled
chambers, or we may want to consider something such as gas pipeline through which the
matter flows. The composition of the matter inside the system may be fixed or may
change through chemical and nuclear reactions. A system may be arbitrarily defined. It
becomes important when exchange of energy between the system and everything else
outside the system is considered.
• Surroundings: everything external to the system,
• System boundary: interface separating system and surroundings, and
 • Universe: combination of system and surroundings.

Figure 1.1 Sketch of a universe composed of a system, its surroundings, and the system
Boundary. (J. M. Powers, 2017)

Energy: Energy is the capacity to exert a force through a distance. In SI, the unit of energy is
Newton-meter, N m or Joule, J.
Power: The rate of energy transfer or storage is called power. The unit of power is watt, W. 1 W
= 1 J/s = 1 N m/s and 1 kW = 1000 W.

Process: A process occurs when the system undergoes a change in a state or an energy transfer at
a steady state. A process may be non-flow in which a fixed mass within the defined boundary is
undergoing a change of state. A substance which is being heated in a closed cylinder undergoes a
non-flow process a process may be a flow process in which mass is entering and leaving
through the boundary of an open system.
Quasi-static process. Quasi means ‘almost’. A quasi-static process is also called a reversible
process. This process is a succession of equilibrium states and infinite slowness is its
characteristic feature
Cycle: Any process or series of processes whose end states are identical is termed a cycle
Point function:When two properties locate a point on the graph (co-ordinate axes) then those
properties are called as point function.
Examples. Pressure, temperature, volume etc.

Path function:There are certain quantities which cannot be located on a graph by a point but are
given by the area or so, on that graph. In that case, the area on the graph, pertaining to the
particular process, is a function of the path of the process. Such quantities are called path
functions.
Examples. Heat, work etc.
Heat and work are inexact differentials. Their
change cannot be written as difference between
their end states.

State is the condition of the system at an

instant of time as described or measured by its
properties. Or each unique condition of a
system is called a state.

Thermodynamic Properties of Systems

Thermodynamic Property: Any observable or measurable characteristic of a system or any
mathematical combination of measurable characteristics. They can also be defined as
macroscopic characteristics of a system such as mass, volume, energy, pressure and temperature
to which numerical values can be at a given time without knowledge of the past history of the
system

Extensive Properties: Properties that are dependent of the size or extent of the system, i.e. mass,
energy, volume etc.
(They are additive) XA+B = XA + XB
Intensive Properties: Properties that are independent of the size (or mass) of the system
(They are not additive)
XA+B ≠XA + XB
Example, pressure, temperature, density and viscosity.
Specific Properties: Extensive properties expressed per unit mass to make them intensive
properties.
Extensive property
Specific property (intensive)=
mass
All specific properties are intensive properties e.g. specific volume, specific heat, specific
internal energy etc.

Measurable Properties

P; V; T; and m are important because they are measurable quantities

Pressure (P) and temperature (T) are easily measured intensive properties.
Note: They are not always independent of one another.
Volume (V) and mass (m) are easily measured extensive properties

Pressure
Force
Pressure=
Area

Gauge = absolute – atmospheric

⟹ Pabs > Patm

Pgauge = Pabs – Patm

vacuum pressure⟹ Pabs < Patm

Pvac = Patm – Pabs

Where;
Pabs is absolute pressure
Patm is atmospheric pressure
Pgauge is gauge pressure
Pvac is vacuum pressure

Thermodynamics properties depend on absolute pressure

Temperature
Temperature is a pointer for the direction of energy transfer as heat
0th Law of Thermodynamics: when two objects are in thermal equilibrium with a third object
they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Note: the zeroth law was stated by R.H Fowler in 1931, long after the 1 st ,2nd and 3rd laws were
conceived it is so basic that it was named 0th because it should have been conceived first..

1st ,2nd and 3rd will be introduced later in the lesson

Example 1 of zeroth law,
Consider three systems A, B and C that are not initially in thermal equilibrium.
Let us place the three systems into a perfectly insulating box (isolated) and allow system C to
interact with both A and B

150°C 70 °C
A
QAC B Perfectly insulated
QCB
C
100 °C

Experiment shows that after sometime, all the systems are in mutual thermal equilibrium with
each other

107°C 107 °C
A
B Perfectly insulated

C
107 °C

Example 2: The thermometer

⁻ Let system C be a mercury type thermometer

⁻ Let systems C, A and B attain mutual thermal equilibrium according to the 0th law.
⁻ The three systems are again inside an isolated box
⁻ Now disconnect B from C

107 °C
107°C
A
B
Perfectly insulated
 ⁻ Experiment shows that thermal equilibrium is not affected by disconnecting (or
insulating) the three bodies as long as there is no other outside environmental
interactions. The reading on thermometer C will not change if it were in contact with A
ONLY or B ONLY.
⁻ The two systems A and C are in thermal equilibrium if and only if they have the same
temperature

NOTE: This last experiment is what makes the thermometer useful. It actually measures its own
temperature.

However, when a thermometer is in thermal equilibrium with another body, the temperature
must be equal.

If a thermometer is built properly, then the readout is an accurate representation of the

temperature of the measured body when the two systems are in thermal equilibrium

Temperature Scales

All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states of mater such as the freezing
and boiling points of water.

This allows anyone in the universe to construct an identical thermometer scale so that a person
can calibrate their thermometer instrument, conduct an experiment and easily compare data with
other scientist and engineers.

Refer to this book on more about temperature and scales

Other Properties

Energy within a system can be stored as a combination of kinetic energy, potential energy or
internal energy
Internal energy U [kJ]:

⁻ associated with molecular motion i.e. translational, rotational or vibrational

⁻ extensive since it depends on the amount of matter in the system

Kinetic energy KE:

1 2
The energy of motion relative to some reference frame KE= m(V )
2

Potential energy PE:

The energy of position within a gravitational field ) PE=mgz

State and Equilibrium

State is the condition of the system at an instant of time as described or measured by its

properties. Or each unique condition of a system is called a state. It follows from the definition
of state that each property has a single value at each state. Stated differently, all properties are
state or point functions. Therefore, all properties are identical for identical states.

On the basis of the above discussion, we can determine if a given variable is property or not

by applying the following tests :

A variable is a property, if and only if, it has a single value at each equilibrium state.

A variable is a property, if and only if, the change in its value between any two prescribed
equilibrium states is single-valued.

Therefore, any variable whose change is fixed by the end states is a property.

The state of a system is its condition as described by a set of relevant energy related properties.

A system at equilibrium is in a state of balance

A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if the temperature and pressure at all points are same;
there should be no velocity gradient; the chemical equilibrium is also necessary. Systems under
temperature and pressure equilibrium but not under chemical equilibrium are sometimes said to
be in metastable equilibrium conditions. It is only under thermodynamic equilibrium conditions
that the properties of a system can be fixed.

Thus for attaining a state of thermodynamic equilibrium the following three types of equilibrium
states must be achieved:
1. Thermal equilibrium. The temperature of the system does not change with time and has
same value at all points of the system.

2. Mechanical equilibrium. There are no unbalanced forces within the system or between the
surroundings. The pressure in the system is same at all points and does not change with respect
to time.

3. Chemical equilibrium. No chemical reaction takes place in the system and the chemical
composition which is same throughout the system does not vary with time

Different Approaches in the Study of Thermodynamics:

Thermodynamics can be studied through two different approaches:

(a) Macroscopic Approach and

(b) Microscopic Approach

Macroscopic Approach:

Consider a certain amount of gas in a cylindrical container. The volume (V) can be measured by
measuring the diameter and the height of the cylinder. The pressure (P) of the gas can be
measured by a pressure gauge. The temperature (T) of the gas can be measured using a
thermometer. The state of the gas can be specified by the measured P, V and T . The values of
these variables are space averaged characteristics of the properties of the gas under
consideration. In classical thermodynamics, we often use this macroscopic approach.

The macroscopic approach has the following features.

⁻ The structure of the matter is not considered.

⁻ A few variables are used to describe the state of the matter under consideration.

⁻ The values of these variables are measurable following the available techniques of
experimental physics.

Microscopic Approach:

On the other hand, the gas can be considered as assemblage of a large number of particles each
of which moves randomly with independent velocity. The state of each particle can be specified
in terms of position coordinates (xi , yi , zi ) and the momentum components ( Pxi , Pyi , Pzi ). If
we consider a gas occupying a volume of 1 cm3 at ambient temperature and pressure, the number
of particles present in it is of the order of 10 20. The same number of position coordinates and
momentum components are needed to specify the state of the gas. The microscopic approach can
be summarized as:

⁻ A knowledge of the molecular structure of matter under consideration is essential.

⁻ A large number of variables are needed for a complete specification of the state of the
matter.

Tabulation of the comparison of macroscopic and microscopic approach

Macroscopic approach Microscopic approach

In this approach a certain quantity of matter is The approach considers that the system is
considered without taking into account the made up of a very large number of discrete
events occurring at molecular level. In other particles known as molecules. These molecules
words this approach to thermodynamics is have different velocities and energies. The
concerned with gross or overall behaviour. values of these energies are constantly
This is known as classical thermodynamics changing with time.

This approach to thermodynamics which is

concerned directly with the structure of the
matter is known as statistical thermodynamics

The analysis of macroscopic system requires The behaviour of the system is found by using
simple mathematical formulae statistical methods as the number of molecules
is very large. So advanced statistical and
mathematical methods are needed to explain
the changes in the system

The values of the properties of the system are The properties like velocity, momentum,
their average values. For example, consider a impulse, kinetic energy, force of impact etc.
sample of a gas in a closed container. The which describe the molecule cannot be easily
pressure of the gas is the average value of the measured by instruments. Our senses cannot
pressure exerted by millions of individual feel them.
molecules.

Similarly the temperature of this gas is the

average value of translational kinetic energies
of millions of individual molecules. These
properties like pressure and temperature can be
measured very easily. The changes in
properties can be felt by our senses.

In order to describe a system only a few Large numbers of variables are needed to
properties are needed. describe a system. So the approach is
complicated

Note. Although the macroscopic approach seems to be different from microscopic one, there
exists a relation between them. Hence when both the methods are applied to a particular system,
they give the same result.

Numbering, pacing and sequencing 1.2.1

Title Concepts of thermodynamics and
thermodynamic systems
Purpose To expose you to concepts of thermodynamics and
thermodynamic
Brief summary of overall task Watch this video on thermodynamics and basic concepts
Explain the terms, thermodynamics, systems, continuum
boundary , thermodynamic equilibrium ,surrounding
and universe

Spark

Interpret the photos in thermodynamics terms

Individual task 1.After watching the video explain the following terms
i. Isolated system
ii. surrounding
iii. Imaginary boundary
2. giving examples differentiate between intensive and
extensive properties
3. Give the answer to the question on the spark
Post your answers on the discussion forum 1.2.1
provided

Interaction begins ● Read what your colleagues have posted in the

discussion forum1.2.1
● Keeping netiquette in mind, comment on what three
of your colleagues have posted.
 ● Read the facilitator’s comments too to get feedback
Add any new point you have learnt to your
notes/portfolio
E-moderator interventions

Schedule and time This task should take you one hour
Next Thermodynamic processes and states

1.2.2 Thermodynamic processes and states

State: It is the condition of a system as defined by the values of all its properties. It gives a
complete description of the system. Any operation in which one or more properties of a system
change is called a change of state.

Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another.

Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.

To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states, as well as the
path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 1.2.2
Title Thermodynamic processes and states
Purpose To illustrate Thermodynamic processes and states

Brief summary of overall task Read this article page 7-10 on thermodynamic
processes and states
Explain the different types of states and processes.

Spark

Explain the type of process shown in the diagram

Individual task After reading the article and looking at the spark
explain the various thermodynamic processes with
illustrations .
Interaction begins ● Read what your colleagues have posted in the
discussion forum1.2.2
● Keeping netiquette in mind, comment on what three
 of your colleagues have posted.
● Read the facilitator’s comments too to get feedback
Add any new point you have learnt to your
notes/portfolio
E-moderator interventions

Schedule and time This task should take you 30 minutes

Next principles of thermodynamics and applications

1.2.3 Principles of thermodynamics and applications

The First Law of Thermodynamics states that heat is a form of energy, and thermodynamic
processes are therefore subject to the principle of conservation of energy. This means that heat
energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can, however, be transferred from one location to
another and converted to and from other forms of energy. The First Law says that the internal
energy of a system has to be equal to the work that is being done on the system, plus or minus
the heat that flows in or out of the system and any other work that is done on the system

∆ U =Q−W

This is fundamental law is the conservation of energy principle: energy cannot be created or
destroyed, but it can be transformed from one form to another

The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of any isolated system always
increases. It defines efficiency of processes that convert heat into work. No heat engine or animal
has 100% efficiency.

The Second law indicates the limit of converting heat into work and introduces the principle of
increase of entropy.

The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system approaches a constant
value as the temperature approaches absolute zero. Systems become disorderly with time

These laws are based on experimental observations and have no mathematical proof. Like all
physical laws, these laws are based on logical reasoning.
 Numbering, pacing and sequencing 1.2.3
Title Principles of thermodynamics and applications
Purpose Summarize thermodynamic principles and
application
Brief summary of overall task Watch this video and summarize the application of the
various laws of thermodynamics

Spark

Explain the law of thermodynamics applied in the

illustration shown
Individual task After watching the video and looking at the spark,
summarize the laws of thermodynamics giving real
life applications
Interaction begins ● Read what your colleagues have posted in the
discussion forum1.2.3
● Keeping netiquette in mind, comment on what three
of your colleagues have posted.
● Read the facilitator’s comments too to get feedback
Add any new point you have learnt to your
notes/portfolio
E-moderator interventions

Schedule and time This task should take you 30 minutes

Next Lesson 2

1.3 Assessment questions

1. An open system is one which

a. heat and work cross the boundary, but the mass does not
b. Mass crosses the boundary, but the heat and work do not
c. heat, work and mass cross the boundary
d. no heat, work and mass cross the boundary
2. Which of the following is the basis of temperature measurement?

a. zeroth law of thermodynamics

b. first law of thermodynamics
c. second law of thermodynamics
d. third law of thermodynamics

3. Which of the following is an intensive property of a thermodynamic system?

a. volume
b. mass
c. energy
d. temperature

4. The standard fixed point of thermometry is the

a. ice point
b. triple point of water
c. boiling point of water
d. sulphur point

6. A system comprising a single phase is called

a. a closed system
b. open system
c. heterogeneous system
d. homogeneous system

7. When mean free path of molecules of a gas approaches the order of magnitude of the
dimensions of the vessel, which concept of the following loses its validity

a. continuum
b. equilibrium
c. stability
d. entropy

8. Most of the real processes are

a. quasi static
b. non quasi static
c. adiabatic
d. isothermal

1.4 E- References
Audiopedia (2017). Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics [Year - 1] Retrieved July 24, 2020 from

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F_NmS-Wy2lE&t=210s

Audiopedia (2020). Laws of thermodynamics Retrieved July 24, 2020 from

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qk3qMRuCeV8

Applied thermodynamics Module 01 Retrieved July 24, 2020 from

engineersedge.weebly.com/uploads/4/6/8/0/4680709/module01.pdf

Engineering thermodynamics R.K.RAJPUT.pdf Retrieved July 24, 2020 from

https://www.academia.edu/31055460/Engineering_thermodynamics_R.K.RAJPUT.pdf?
email_work_card=minimal-title

Thermometers and Temperature Scales Retrieved July 24, 2020 from

https://cnx.org/contents/FiWjdT98@8/Thermometers-and-Temperature-Scales