Safety in Electrical Low Voltage Installations Vol-1 Basics of LV Earthing System-1

1
QUALITY POLICY
“We at RDSO, Lucknow are committed to maintain and update
transparent standards of services to develop safe, modern and cost
effective railway technology complying with statutory and
regulatory requirements, through excellence in research, designs
and standards by setting quality objectives, commitment to satisfy
applicable requirements and continual improvements of the quality
management system to cater to growing needs, demand and
DRAFT
expectations of passenger and freight traffic on the railways

through periodic review of quality management systems to achieve
continual improvement and customer appreciation. It is
communicated and applied within the organization and making it
available to all the relevant interested parties.”
2
III
DRAFT
IV
PREFACE
The “code of practice for earthing of power supply installations for 25kV single phase traction system ” is
covered in Appendix-III of ACTM Vol-II, Part-II. It is important to note that Low voltage (LT) electrical power
distribution system does not come under the purview of this code. (As per para-1 of the appendix-III)
There are Indian Standards and regulations on earthing and earthing system which are neglected and
misinterpreted at many places during design and commissioning of system. There is no other standard
document for LT earthing on I.R. Railway Board therefore, advised CAMTECH, Gwalior to study the subject
in details and address the common myths about LT earthing in the publication to disseminate the
knowledge among the electrical engineers and technicians about correct practices of earthing system.
The word “earth” and “earthing” is misunderstood as an electrode in soil and similarly there are so many
Myths and misconceptions related to earthing and earthing system which are deeply incorporated as
wrong practices in the regular working systems. The earth connection improves service continuity and
avoids damage to equipment and danger to human life. It also reduces the risk of a person in the vicinity of
earthed facilities being exposed to the danger of critical electric shock. The object of earthing is to ensure
safety of life and apparatus against earth faults
This volume-1 on “Basics of LV Earthing System” under the document “Safety in Electrical Low Voltage
Installations” has been prepared by CAMTECH, Gwalior with the intention to spread awareness on myths
and facts about earthing in LV installations, types of System earthing, Equipotential bonding and other
terms related to LV installations to all those who are concerned with the design, installation, inspection and
maintenance of electrical systems and apparatus.
Technological up-gradation & learning is a continuous process. Please feel free to write to us for any
addition/ modification in this booklet. We shall highly appreciate your contribution in this direction.
Himanshu Maheshwari
Dy. Director /Electrical
V
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Shri Jitendra Singh, PED/CAMTECH for the continuous
support, guidance & motivation in making of this publication.
I would like to thank Shri Manish Gupta, ED/EEM/Railway Board for his continuous encouragement,
direction, support and guidance during in making of this publication.
My sincere thanks to Shri Vivek Dixit, CEGE/Central Railway for his continuous motivation, guidance,
suggestions, insightful comments, and hard questions which guided us to make this publication simpler for
users to understand.
My sincere thanks to Shri S. Gopa Kumar, Member in various Electro Technical committees of BIS for his
technical guidance and support throughout the process of making this publication. He has helped us in
understanding the Indian and international standards, various concepts of earthings, comments and
clearing our doubts which we faced during the making of this publications.
I thank my team members Shri B. C. Agrawal SSE/EL/CAMTECH & Smt. Sangeeta Shrivastava
JE/IT/CAMTECH for their continuous study, hard work, sincere efforts & dedication to make this
publication.
DRAFT
Himanshu Maheshwari
Dy. Director /Electrical
VI
CONTENTS
1. MYTHS AND FACTS ABOUT EARTHING .......................................................................................... 1
1.1 Myth-1: “Earth, Earthing and Earth Electrode, all these three words convey the same
meaning. ............................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Myth-2: “Only Connecting exposed conductive part of an electrical equipment to the earth
electrode in soil will protect against electric shock”. ............................................................ 2
1.3 Myth-3: “When earth fault occurs the fault current goes into the earth and natural earth
serves as a return path for fault current”. ............................................................................. 3
1.4 Myth-4: “Entire fault current will always flow through least resistance path”. ........................ 3
1.5 Myth-5: ‘Grounding’ implies connection of current carrying parts to Earth, like transformer or
generator neutral and ‘Earthing’ implies connection of non-current carrying parts to Earth, like
metallic enclosures”. .......................................................................................................... 4
1.6 Myth-6: “The more earth electrodes in soil (Separate equipment earth electrode), the better
system”. ............................................................................................................................. 4
1.7 Myth-7:“Copper Earth Electrodes are better than GI or Steel Earth Electrodes”. ................... 4
1.8 Myth-8: “Plate Earthing is better than Pipe Earthing as it offers less resistance”.................. 5
DRAFT
1.9 Myth-9: “Deeper the earth pit and longer the earth pipe/rod, lesser will be the resistance”. ... 6
1.10 Myth-10: Adding more water will result in less resistance of earth pit. .................................. 7
1.11 Myth-11: Adding more salt will result in less resistance of Earth. ......................................... 8
1.12 Myth 12: Only high voltage lines pose a fatal danger and low voltage i.e. 240V AC domestic
supply is not fatal................................................................................................................ 9
1.13 Myth 13: All Rubber shoes/Sleepers/gloves can protect from electric shock. ....................... 9
1.14 Myth 14: Wood is an insulator and wooden ladders cannot conduct electricity. .................... 9
1.15 Myth 15: Neutral and body of every transformer/DG and the metallic parts not intended as
conductors each requires two separate and distinct connections to earth electrodes in soil. . 9
2. PURPOSE OF EARTHING .............................................................................................................. 13
3. EARTHED AND UNEARTHED SYSTEMS ........................................................................................ 14
4. EQUIPMENT EARTHING ................................................................................................................ 15
4.1 Earthing of Equipment using Current.................................................................................. 15
4.2 Voltage Exposure .............................................................................................................. 16

4.2.1 Avoidance of Thermal Distress ............................................................................ 16
I
4.2.2 Preservation of System Performance .................................................................. 16
4.2.3 Earthing and Protective Conductor ...................................................................... 16
5. SYSTEM EARTHING...................................................................................................................... 18
6. TYPES OF SYSTEM EARTHING ..................................................................................................... 19
6.1 TN System........................................................................................................................ 20
6.1.1 TN-S System ...................................................................................................... 21
6.1.2 TN-C System ...................................................................................................... 22
6.1.3 TN-C-S System .................................................................................................. 23
6.2 TT System ........................................................................................................................ 24
6.3 IT System ......................................................................................................................... 25
7. EQUIPOTENTIAL BONDING ........................................................................................................... 26
7.1 Protective Equipotential Bonding ....................................................................................... 27
7.2 Supplementary Equipotential Bonding ................................................................................ 27
7.3 Main Earthing Terminal (MET) ........................................................................................... 28
7.4 Typical Schematic of Earthing and Protective Conductors .................................................. 29

DRAFT
7.5 Extraneous Conductive Parts ............................................................................................. 29
7.6 Exposed Conductive Parts ................................................................................................. 30

7.6.1 Exposed conductive parts not required to be earthed ........................................... 30
8. EARTH FAULT PROTECTION IN LV INSTALLATIONS ..................................................................... 31
8.1 Protection against Indirect Contact .................................................................................... 31
8.2 Earthed Equipotential Bonding and Automatic Disconnection of the Supply ........................ 33
8.2.1 Disconnecting Times for Different Touch Voltages ............................................... 34
8.3 Requirement for Automatic disconnection in TN System .................................................... 34
8.4 Requirement for Automatic disconnection in TT System .................................................... 35
8.5 Requirement for Automatic disconnection in IT System ..................................................... 35
9. EARTH FAULT LOOP IMPEDANCE................................................................................................. 36
9.1 Fault Loop in TN-S System................................................................................................ 36
9.2 Fault Loop in TN-C System................................................................................................ 37
9.3 Fault Loop in TN-C-S System ............................................................................................ 37
II
9.4 For TT System .................................................................................................................. 38
10. EARTHING OF INSTALLATIONS..................................................................................................... 39
10.1 Earthing in Standby Generating Plants ............................................................................... 39
10.2 Unearthed Generators (Rating Below 10 kW) Supplying a Fixed Installation ........................ 39
10.3 Unearthed Generators Supplying a Mobile or Transportable Unit......................................... 40
10.4 Earthing in Building ........................................................................................................... 41
11. EARTH ELECTRODES ................................................................................................................... 43
11.1 Effect of Shape on Electrode Resistance ............................................................................ 43
11.2 Multiple Earth Electrodes ................................................................................................... 43
11.3 Common Types of Earth Electrodes................................................................................... 44

11.3.1 Plate electrode .................................................................................................... 44
11.3.2 Pipes or Rods electrode ...................................................................................... 44
11.3.3 Strip or Conductor Electrodes ............................................................................. 46
11.4 Other Means of Earthing .................................................................................................... 47

11.4.1 Cable Sheaths .................................................................................................... 47
11.4.2 Structural Steelwork as Earth Electrodes ............................................................. 47
11.4.3 Reinforcement of Piles ........................................................................................ 47
11.4.4 Water Pipes ........................................................................................................ 48
11.5 Connections to Earth Electrodes ........................................................................................ 48
11.6 Artificial treatment of soil................................................................................................... 49
12. EARTHING SYMBOLS ................................................................................................................... 50
13. VOLTAGE GRADIENT AROUND EARTH ELECTRODES ................................................................... 51
14. CURRENT DENSITY AT THE SURFACE OF EARTH ELECTRODE ..................................................... 52
15. BASICS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ..................................................................................................... 53
15.1 Simple Open and Closed Circuit ........................................................................................ 53
15.2 Open and Closed Circuit with Earth.................................................................................... 54
16. ELECTRIC SHOCK ........................................................................................................................ 55
16.1 Range of Tolerable Current ................................................................................................ 55
16.2 Effect of Frequency ........................................................................................................... 55
III
16.3 Effect of Magnitude and Duration of Current Passing through Body .................................... 55
16.4 Resistance of Human Body ............................................................................................... 56

ANNEXURE-I .......................................................................................................................................... 57
EARTHING TERMINOLOGY ..................................................................................................................... 57
1. Arc-Suppression Coil (Peterson Coil) ..................................................................... 57
2. Bonding Conductor .................................................................................................... 57
3. Class 0 Equipment ..................................................................................................... 57
4. Class I Equipment ...................................................................................................... 57
5. Class II Equipment ..................................................................................................... 57
6. Class III Equipment .................................................................................................... 57
7. Principal Characteristics of Equipment and Precautions for Safety .............................. 57
8. Dead ......................................................................................................................... 57
9. Double Insulation ....................................................................................................... 58
10. Reference Earth ......................................................................................................... 58
11. Earthing System ........................................................................................................ 58
12. Global Earthing System .............................................................................................. 58
13. Earth Electrode .......................................................................................................... 58
14. Earth Grid .................................................................................................................. 58
DRAFT
15. Earth Electrode Resistance ......................................................................................... 58

16. Earth Fault Loop Impedance ....................................................................................... 58
17. Earth Leakage Current ................................................................................................ 58
18. Earthed Concentric Wiring .......................................................................................... 58
19. Earthing Conductor .................................................................................................... 58
20. Electrically Independent Earth Electrodes .................................................................... 59
21. Equipotential Bonding ................................................................................................ 59
22. Exposed Conductive Part ........................................................................................... 59
23. Extraneous Conductive Part ....................................................................................... 59
24. Final Circuit................................................................................................................ 59
25. Functional Earthing .................................................................................................... 59
26. Live Part .................................................................................................................... 59
27. Main Earthing Terminal .............................................................................................. 59
28. Neutral Conductor ...................................................................................................... 59
29. PEN Conductor .......................................................................................................... 59
30. Portable Equipment .................................................................................................... 59
31. Potential Gradient (At a Point) .................................................................................... 60
IV
32. Earth Potential ........................................................................................................... 60
33. Earth Potential Rise .................................................................................................... 60
34. Hot Site ..................................................................................................................... 60
35. Transferred Potential .................................................................................................. 60
36. Protective Conductor ................................................................................................. 60
37. Reinforced Insulation ................................................................................................. 60
38. Residual Current Device ............................................................................................. 60
39. Residual Operating Current......................................................................................... 61
40. Resistance Area (for an Earth Electrode only) ............................................................. 61
41. Simultaneously Accessible Parts ................................................................................ 61
42. Supplementary Insulation ........................................................................................... 61
43. Switchgear ................................................................................................................ 61
44. Voltage, Nominal ....................................................................................................... 61
45. Touch Voltage ........................................................................................................... 61
46. Prospective Touch Voltage ......................................................................................... 61
47. Step Voltage .............................................................................................................. 62
48. Equipotential Line or Contour ..................................................................................... 62
49. Mutual Resistance of Earthing Electrodes ................................................................... 62
50. Earth Grid .................................................................................................................. 63
51. Earth Mat ................................................................................................................... 63
REFERENCES......................................................................................................................................... 64
NOTE ..................................................................................................................................................... 65
V
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Earth (Conductive Mass of the Earth) ..................................................................................... 1
Figure 2: Earthing (Connections to Main Earthing Terminal) .................................................................. 1
Figure 3: Earth Electrodes .................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 4: Effect of Length of Pipe Electrode on Calculated Resistance for Soil Resistivity of 100m
(Assumed uniform) ............................................................................................................... 6
Figure 5: Variation of Soil Resistivity with Moisture Content .................................................................. 7
Figure 6: Variation of Soil Resistivity with Salt (NaCl) Content, Clay Soil Having 3 Percent Moisture ....... 8
Figure 7: Wrong practice of connecting every appliance to two separate earth electrodes. ..................... 9
Figure 8: Wrong practices of separate earth electrodes in soil ............................................................. 11
Figure 9: Right practice of Earthing .................................................................................................... 12
Figure 10: Marking of Earth Conductors ............................................................................................... 17
Figure 11: Indicative supply system based on system earthing ............................................................. 19
Figure 12: TN-S System....................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 13: TN-S System for 230V Single Phase .................................................................................... 21
Figure 14: TN-S System for 415 V three-phase domestic commercial supply........................................ 22
Figure 15: TN-C System ...................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 16: Neutral breakage in TN-C System ........................................................................................ 23
DRAFT
Figure 17: TN-C-S System ................................................................................................................... 23

Figure 18: Multiple Earthing of PEN Conductor in TN-C-S System ......................................................... 24
Figure 19: TT System .......................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 20: IT System ........................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 21: Equipotential bonding with all exposed/extraneous conductive parts ..................................... 26
Figure 22: Equipotential Bonding with all exposed/extraneous conductive parts ..................................... 27
Figure 23: Equipotential Bonding with Supplementary Bonding ............................................................. 28
Figure 24: Main Earthing Terminal (MET) ............................................................................................. 28
Figure 25: Earthing Arrangements and Protective Conductors ............................................................... 29
Figure 26: Indirect Contact in case of earth fault ................................................................................... 31
Figure 27: A Non-Conductive Location ................................................................................................. 32
Figure 28: Fault loop impedance circuit in TN-S system........................................................................ 36
Figure 29: Fault loop impedance circuit in TN-C system ....................................................................... 37
Figure 30: Fault loop impedance circuit in TN-C-S system .................................................................... 37
Figure 31: Fault loop impedance circuit in TT system ........................................................................... 38
Figure 32: Single Low Voltage Standby Generator (Without paralleling Facility)...................................... 39
Figure 33: Small low voltage generator supplying a fixed installation ..................................................... 40
VI
Figure 34: Small unearthed generator supplying a mobile or transportable unit ...................................... 40
Figure 35: Example of Earthing Arrangements and Protective Conductors ............................................. 42
Figure 36: Sphere of Influence Earth Electrode...................................................................................... 43
Figure 37: Spheres of Multiple Earth Electrodes .................................................................................... 43
Figure 38: Copper Plate Electrode ........................................................................................................ 44
Figure 39: Pipe Electrode ..................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 40: Copper Bonded Steel Rod Electrode..................................................................................... 45
Figure 41: Typical arrangement of pipe electrode (Ref fig 25 of IS 3043:2018) ..................................... 46
Figure 42: Effect of Length of Strip or Conductor Electrodes in Calculated Resistance for Soil Resistivity
of 100 ΩM (Assumed Uniform) ........................................................................................... 47
Figure 43: Earthing of Foundation Reinforcement.................................................................................. 48
Figure 44: Incomplete circuit or open circuit, no current will flow in above condition. ............................ 53
Figure 45: Complete circuit or close circuit, current will flow in this condition according to the source
voltage and load resistance. ................................................................................................ 53
Figure 46: Incomplete circuit or open circuit, no current will flow in above condition. ............................ 54
Figure 47: Complete circuit or close circuit, current will flow in this condition according to the source
voltage and circuit resistance. ............................................................................................. 54
Figure 48: Illustration of body resistance for different part. .................................................................... 56
Figure 49: Step and Touch Voltages ..................................................................................................... 62
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Comparison between Earthed and Unearthed System .............................................................................. 14
Table 2: Disconnecting Times for Different Touch Voltages .................................................................................. 34
Table 3 : Effect of Magnitude and Duration of Current Passing through Body ......................................................... 55
Table 4: Equipment Characteristics and Safety Precautions .................................................................................. 57
ISSUE OF CORRECTION SLIP

The correction slips to be issued in future for this handbook will be numbered as follows:
CAMTECH/EL/2020-21/Earthing Vol.1/1.0/C.S. # XX date---

Where “XX” is the serial number of the concerned correction slip (starting from 01 onwards).
Sr. No. Date of Issue Page no. & Item no. modified Remarks
VII
DISCLAIMER
It is clarified that the information
.
given in this booklet does not
supersede any existing
provisions of Indian Standards
(IS) on the subject, related
matters, and other existing
provisions laid down by the
Railway Board, RDSO. This is
not a statuary document and
instructions given are for the
purpose of guidance only. If at
any point contradiction is
observed, then Indian
Standards, regulations issued
by Government bodies, Railway DRAFT
Board/RDSO guidelines shall be

referred.
VIII
OBJECTIVE OF PUBLICATION
To prepare guidelines which can educate the Indian Railway (IR) engineers and technicians dealing with low voltage
electrical installations and other IR officials about various provisions given in IS standards pertaining to IS 3043-
2018, IS 732:2019.
ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviation Full Form
AC Alternating Current
CEA Central Electricity Authority
CEAR Central Electricity Authority Regulations
CNE Combined Neutral and Earth
DB Distribution Board
DC Direct Current
EE Earth Electrode
ELCB Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
IE Indian Electricity
IEC International Electro-technical Commission
IS Indian Standard
LPS Lightning Protection System
MDB Main Distribution Board
MET Main Earthing Terminal
N Neutral
OCPD Over Current Protective Device
PEN Neutral and Protective Conductor Combined
PME Protective Multiple Earthed
PNB Protective Neutral Bonding
RCD Residual Current Device
SEBT Supplementary Equipotential Bonding Terminal
SPD Surge Protection Device
T Terre (French word for earth)
IX
SAFETY IN ELECTRICAL LOW VOLTAGE INSTALLATIONS
1. MYTHS AND FACTS ABOUT EARTHING

There are several myths and perceptions about earthing in the minds of IR personnel dealing with
low voltage electrical installations, which are either not true or partially true. Some of the commonly
noticed myths have been enumerated in the following sections along with related facts. The other
pertaining points have been covered in various other chapters.
1.1 Myth-1: “Earth, Earthing and Earth Electrode, all these three words convey the same
meaning.
Fact: Not True
The earth, earthing and earth electrodes convey different meaning, earth is general mass of mother
earth while earth electrode is an independent system provided to give electrical connection to
mother earth (soil). The Earthing is an elaborate network to connect all exposed conductive parts of
any equipment/installation to earth potential through MET (Main Earthing Terminal). Incidentally,
definitions given in Indian Standard (IS) are summarized below:
“Earth means the conductive mass of the earth, whose electric potential at any point is
conventionally taken as zero”.(Ref.: Para no. 3.60 of IS 732:2019)
DRAFT
Figure 1: Earth (Conductive Mass of the Earth)
“Earthing means connection of the exposed conductive parts of an installation to the Main Earthing
Terminal (MET) of that installation”.(Ref.: Para no. 3.66 of IS 732:2019)
Figure 2: Earthing (Connections to Main Earthing Terminal)
VOLUME 1: BASICS OF LV EARTHING SYSTEM 1

“Earth Electrode means a conductor or group of conductors in intimate contact with and providing
an electrical connection to earth. (Ref.: Para no. 3.7 of IS 3043:2018)
Figure 3: Earth Electrodes
They can include rods, plate, strip, steel reinforcing bars, sheaths of cables, etc.”.
MET (Main Earthing Terminal): The terminal or bar (which is the equipotential bonding
conductor) provided for the connection of protective conductors and the conductors of
functional earthing, if any, to the means of earthing. (Ref.: Para no. 3.21 of IS 3043:2018).
Exposed conductive part: A conductive part of equipment which can be touched and
which is not alive part but which may become live under fault conditions. Like panel Body. (Ref.:
Para no. 3.16 of IS 3043:2018).
DRAFT
1.2 Myth-2: “Only Connecting exposed conductive part of an electrical equipment to the earth
electrode in soil will protect against electric shock”.
Myth Explanation: - In general household/commercial wiring the earth wire also runs along with
phase and neutral wires. The conductive exposed part/body of electrical equipment which is
connected to earth through the earth wire and further earth wire is connected to the earth electrode.
It is pre-assumed that if there is any earth fault happens through contact of phase/live conductor to
the conductive exposed part/body of the equipment/installation, the earth fault current will flow
through the earth wire to earth electrode then to earth mass/back to the source
(Transformer/Generator) and this way protective device (Fuse, MCB, etc.) will operate and protect
person from the electric shock.
Fact: Not true
Protective equipotential bonding and automatic disconnection of supply within permissible time can
only prevent electric shock.
It is a common myth that system is healthy if connected to earth electrode with least earth pit
resistance. However, this may not be true in practical condition as it is not always possible to have
a low resistance earth pits such that fault current magnitude can cause tripping of OCPD (Over
Current Protective Device) within permissible time. Because of this reason only connection of
exposed conductive parts of electrical equipment to earth electrode in soil will not protect from an
electric shock.
2 VOLUME 1: BASICS OF LV EARTHING SYSTEM

Protective equipotential bonding1 that is connecting of the exposed conductive parts and extraneous
conductive parts with Main Earthing Terminal. Whenever earth faults occur a voltage will appear
between the exposed conductive parts and extraneous conductive parts in the location served by
the installation concerned, but the application of protective equipotential bonding minimizes these
touch voltage reaches a harmful value.
In case of earth fault if the fault current is less than the rated breaking current of protective device
(OCPD like MCB), then it will not trip. The automatic disconnection of supply system should be
designed considering fault loop impedance2, which is the impedance/resistance encountered by
current under fault condition i.e. impedance/resistance from fault point to neutral point of the source
(Transformer/generator)shall be such that it will disconnect the supply to faulty equipment by
detection of fault current and leakage current through use of suitably rated OCPD (Over Current
Protective Device like fuse, MCB, etc.) and RCD (Residual Current Device like RCCB) within
stipulated time.
1.3 Myth-3: “When earth fault occurs the fault current goes into the earth and natural earth
serves as a return path for fault current”.
Fact: Partially True
As a fact, Current will always return back to its source (Transformer/generator). In any electrical
system, during earth fault, the fault current will not get absorbed into the earth and it will go back to
the source only either via return conductor or through mother earth.
In case of earth fault, the fault current will flow back to the source through the return conductor
(protective earth and neutral conductor) in case of TN-C-S system. As IS 3043 : 2018 stipulates
several types of earthing systems like TN(TN-S, TN-C, TN-C-S) TT, and IT in which TN-C-S is most
common earthing system used in India for LV installations as mandated under statutory provisions
DRAFT
in para-4 of IS 3043 : 2018, other than some specialized requirements. Types of earthing systems3
are further explained in detail in this booklet.
As per IS 3043 : 2018 para 4 of foreword, “the earth now rarely serves as a part of the return circuit
but is being used mainly for fixing the voltage of system neutrals”. It is important to note that natural
earth is a very poor conductor of electric current. The typical resistivity of the general mass of earth
is about 100 ohm-meter. Compare this with the resistivity of Copper, which is, 1.7 x 10-8 ohm-
meter (0.017 ohm-mm2/m) and that of GI, which is, 1 x 10-7 ohm-meter (0.1 ohm-mm2/m).This
shows that, natural earth is much more resistive than Copper or GI.
The purpose of earth connection is to improve service continuity and to avoid damage to equipment
and danger to human life.
1.4 Myth-4: “Entire fault current will always flow through least resistance path”.
Fact: Partially true
Current does not only take the path of least resistance. Current will flow through all possible closed
paths back to its source, only the magnitude of current will depend on the impedance of that
particular closed path. For a lower impedance path, current will be higher compared to a higher
impedance path.
1
Refer to para 7.0 of this booklet
2
3

1.5 Myth-5: ‘Grounding’ implies connection of current carrying parts to Earth, like transformer
or generator neutral and ‘Earthing’ implies connection of non-current carrying parts to
Earth, like metallic enclosures”.
Fact: Not true.
Earthing and Grounding are synonym to each other.
 The terms ‘earthing’ and ‘grounding’ are used synonymously. This is also mentioned in para8
of ‘Foreword’ of IS 3043 : 2018.
 The different nomenclature is due to the usual conflicting usage of English language between
the Americans and the British.
 British termed it as ‘earthing’, while the Americans termed it as ‘grounding’. IEC and IS
Standards referring as ‘earthing’, while IEEE and ANSI Standards referring as ‘grounding’.
1.6 Myth-6: “The more earth electrodes in soil (Separate equipment earth electrode), the better
system”.
Fact: Not true.
More earth electrodes in soil i.e. separate earth electrode for each equipment, can cause more
problems than it solves. Adding more earth electrodes in soil can actually expose the
equipment/building to current from nearby lightning strikes or fault in Electrical power system of
utilities and this may cause equipment failure by providing a path for that high magnitude current
spike to travel through electrical and electronics equipment. Separate earth electrode for individual
equipment is a misconception which is explained in detail in 1.15.
DRAFT
When lightning strike happens, there is rise in earth potential near an electrode in that area, and that
may provide an additional path between earth electrodes and earth conductors for lightening/fault
current to travel through the equipment which may damage equipment. This may be avoided by
connecting earthing of all equipment through protective earth conductor to Main Earthing Terminal.
which is further connected to the earth electrode/return conductor depending on type of earthing
system.
1.7 Myth-7:“Copper Earth Electrodes are better than GI or Steel Earth Electrodes”.
Fact: Not true.
The type of Metal used has no significance on the earth electrode resistance.
 If ,we consider a plate electrode, according to Cl 14.2.1 of IS 3043 : 2018, the approximate
resistance to earth of a plate can be calculated from:
𝝆 𝝅
𝑹= √ 𝛀
𝟒 𝑨
where
= resistivity of the soil in -m (assumed uniform), and
A = area of both sides of the plate (in m2).
 Similarly, for Rod or Pipe Electrodes, according to Cl 14.2.2 of IS 3043 : 2018, the resistance
of a pipe or rod electrode is given by:

𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝆 𝟐𝒍
𝑹= 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆 𝛀
𝟐𝝅𝒍 𝒅
Where,
ρ = resistivity of the soil, in Ω-m (assumed uniform).
l = length of rod or pipe, in cm,
d = diameter of rod or pipe, in cm, and
 And, for Strip or Conductor Electrodes, according to Cl 14.2.3 of IS 3043 : 2018, the
resistance of a strip or conductor electrode is given by:
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝆 𝟒𝒍
𝟐𝝅𝒍 𝒅
where,
ρ = resistivity of the soil, in Ω-m (assumed uniform),

l = length of the Strip in cm, and
d = width (strip) or twice the diameter (conductors) in cm.
As can be seen from the above formulae, only the resistivity of the soil and the physical
dimensions of the electrode play a major role in determining the electrode resistance to earth.
The material resistivity is not considered anywhere in the above formulae. Hence, irrespective
of the material of construction of the earth electrode, any material of given dimensions would
offer the same resistance to earth.
However, in highly corrosive areas, it is recommended to use Cu or Cu coated electrodes

DRAFT
which have better resistance to corrosion as compared to GI/Steel electrode.
1.8 Myth-8: “Plate Earthing is better than Pipe Earthing as it offers less resistance”.
Fact: Not true.
A pipe, rod or strip has a much lower resistance than a plate of equal surface area.
 It is common believe that plate earthing is better over Pipe or Rod or Strip Earthing because
more surface area means less resistance.
𝝆𝑳
𝑹=
𝑨
where,
ρ = resistivity of the conductor material in Ω-m,

l = length in m, and
A = cross sectional area m2.
But this is not correct formula to calculate earth electrode resistance.
To examine this, let us consider a plate electrode of size 60 cm x 60 cm x 3.15mm thick. Assuming
a soil resistivity of 100 ohm-meter, the resistance of this electrode to earth as per following formula,
𝝆 𝝅
𝑹= √ 𝛀
𝟒 𝑨

𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒
𝑹= ×√
𝟒 𝟎. 𝟔 × 𝟎. 𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟔 × 𝟎. 𝟔
𝑹 = 𝟓𝟐. 𝟐𝟏 𝛀
Now, consider a Pipe Electrode of 50 mm Diameter and 400 cm Long. Assuming a soil resistivity of
100 ohm-meter, the resistance of this electrode as per following formula to earth:
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝆 𝟐𝒍
𝟐𝝅𝒍 𝒅
𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐 × 𝟒𝟎𝟎

𝑹= 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆
𝟐 × 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 × 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝟓
𝑹 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟐𝟎 𝛀
As can be seen from the above calculation the Pipe electrode (surface area 0.63 m2) offers a much
lesser resistance than even a plate electrode of more surface area (0.72 m2).
IS 3043 : 2018 also acknowledges this fact vide Cl. 14.1, wherein it states that ‘a pipe, rod or strip
has a much lower resistance than a plate of equal surface area. The resistance is not, however,
inversely proportional to the surface area of the electrode.
However for higher current density requirements plate earthing may be preferred over pipe/rod
earthing.
1.9 Myth-9: “Deeper the earth pit and longer the earth pipe/rod, lesser will be the resistance”.
Fact: Partially True DRAFT
As stated in Cl. No. 14.2.2 of IS 3043 : 2018, “that the resistance to earth of a pipe or rod electrode
diminishes rapidly with the first few feet of driving, but less so at depths greater than 2 to 3 m in soil
of uniform resistivity”.
Figure 4: Effect of Length of Pipe Electrode on Calculated Resistance for Soil Resistivity of 100m (Assumed uniform)
As can be seen from the graph given above (Cl. No. 14.2.2 of IS 3043 : 2018), after about 4m
depth, there is no appreciable change in resistance to earth of the electrode.

Number of rods/ pipes in parallel are to be preferred to a single long rod/pipe. When a number of
rods/ pipes are connected in parallel, the resistance is practically proportional to the reciprocal of
the number of electrode connected, provided each electrode is situated outside the resistance area
of any other electrode.
Deeply driven rods are, however, effective where the soil resistivity decreases with depth or where
substrata of low resistivity occur at depths greater than those with rods, for economic reasons, are
normally driven.
The earth electrode resistance value from a 4 meters long earth electrode cannot
be replaced by using two electrodes connected in parallel each of 2 meters length
(considering uniform soil resistivity).
1.10 Myth-10: Adding more water will result in less resistance of earth pit.
The resistance to earth of a given earth electrode depends upon the electrical resistivity of the soil in
which it is installed. Moisture content is one of the controlling factors of earth resistivity.
400
Resistivity of Soil in OHM Metre
300 DRAFT
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Moisture in Soil, Percent
Figure 5: Variation of Soil Resistivity with Moisture Content
As can be seen from the above graph (Cl. No. 13.6, fig 19 of IS 3043 : 2018), that above 20
percent moisture content, the resistivity is very little affected. Below 20 percent, the resistivity
increases abruptly with the decrease in moisture content. If the moisture content is already above
20 percent, there is no point in adding barrels of water into the earth pit as this may not help in
change in resistance of earth electrode.

1.11 Myth-11: Adding more salt will result in less resistance of Earth.
As a traditional practice whenever an earth pit is commissioned a homogenous layer of
coke/charcoal, salt is added surrounding the electrode as per figure 14 of IS 3043 : 1987. But now
As per latest guidelines of IS 3043 : 2018 figure no. 25 (Figure 38 of this booklet), only
homogenous layer of common earth is to be used. However earth enhancing material may be used
where soil resistivity is high.
As a common practice, during maintenance of earth pits in order to reduce the earth electrode
resistance more salt is added in the pit in a belief that it will reduce the earth electrode resistance
drastically.
The reduction in soil resistivity effected by the salt content is shown in the curve given below (Cl.
No. 13.8.3 fig-20 of IS 3043 : 2018).
400
350
Resistivity of Soil in OHM Metre
300
250
200
150
100
DRAFT
50
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Percent of Salt in Moisture
Figure 6: Variation of Soil Resistivity with Salt (NaCl) Content, Clay Soil Having 3 Percent Moisture
The salt content is expressed in percent by weight of the moisture content in the soil. As can be
seen from the above, the curve flattens off at about 5 percent. A further increase in salt content will
give a very little decrease in soil resistivity. So, there is no point again, in just filling up the pit with
salt.
For example, if we consider volume of soil is 1M3(1440kg.), the moisture content at 10 percent will
be about 144 kg. (10 percent of 1440 kg). The salt content shall be 5% of this (i.e.) 5% of 144kg,
that is, about 7.2kg. So, water addition should be about 144 kg and salt addition shall be about 7.2
kg per cubic metre of dry soil. Any further additions will not give appreciable benefits.
Further discussion on artificial treatment of soil is given in para
Bentonite or similar earth enhancing material may be advantageous in rocky terrain.

Bentonite packing will increase the contact efficiency with the general mass of
ground.
The possible corrosive effect of the salt should be considered which may also
reduce the life of the earth electrodes and connections.

1.12 Myth 12: Only high voltage lines pose a fatal danger and low voltage i.e. 240V AC domestic
supply is not fatal.
Fact: “Not true”.
Voltage creates the current flow through the body depending upon the body resistance. Any voltage
above 50 Volt AC can be fatal to human being. As per para 31.1.1.1 of IS 3043 : 2018 conventional
touch voltage limit is 50V AC. Details of various effects of current on human body are explained
further in this book.
1.13 Myth 13: All Rubber shoes/Sleepers/gloves can protect from electric shock.
Not all rubber shoes/sleepers/gloves provide full protection from electric shock. Proper voltage-rated
rubber gloves and shoes that are certified as electrically safe for that rated voltage can only protect
against electric shock.
1.14 Myth 14: Wood is an insulator and wooden ladders cannot conduct electricity.
Wood is a poor conductor but it can conduct electricity, especially when wet or when it has metal
brackets. Using a wooden ladder when working with live electrical wiring is not a guarantee of
safety. Additional guidelines, such as equipotential bonding of all metal parts including live wires
and body of equipment, wearing voltage insulated gloves, shoes and working with de-energized
circuits can only give protection against electric shock.
1.15 Myth 15: Neutral and body of every transformer/DG and the metallic parts not intended as
conductors each requires two separate and distinct connections to earth electrodes in soil.
DRAFT
Myth Explanation
There is a practice of connecting transformer (or DG) neutral terminal by two separate earth
electrodes in soil. Body of transformer (or DG) is also connected by two separate earth electrodes in
soil as per the interpretation of rule no 41 of CEAR (MEASURES RELATING TO SAFETY AND
ELECTRIC SUPPLY)-2010 as figure given below.
Figure 7: Wrong practice of connecting every appliance to two separate earth electrodes.
Fact: Not True

Due to this misinterpretation every electrical apparatus is connected to earth electrode in soil by 2
separate earth pits. This misinterpretation is probably the biggest threat for electrical safety in India.
Neither CEAR-2010 nor IS standards recommend these practices.

Before going further make sure you have read myth-1.The distinction between earth, earthing and
earth electrode has already been elaborated at Myth-1.
Selective part of CEAR 2010, Regulation 41 are reproduced below to understand this myth:
“The following conditions shall apply to the connection with earth of systems at voltage normally
exceeding 125 V but not exceeding 650 V, namely:”
(i) Neutral conductor of a 3-phase, 4-wire system and the middle conductor of a 2- phase, 3-
wire system shall be earthed by not less than two separate and distinct connections with a
minimum of two different earth electrodes or such large number as may be necessary to
bring the earth resistance to a satisfactory value both at the generating station and at the sub-
station.
Interpretation: It is the Neutral conductor (not neutral point) which is required to be connected
by not less than two separate and distinct connections with a minimum of two different earth
electrodes.
(iii) In the case of a system comprising electric supply lines having concentric cables, the
external conductor of such cables, shall be earthed by two separate and distinct connections
with earth.
Interpretation: It says the armour and/or sheath of such cables shall be earthed by two
separate and distinct connections with earth, not with the two separate and distinct earth
electrodes.
(iv) The frame of every generator, stationary motor, portable motor, and the metallic parts, not
intended as conductors, of all transformers and any other apparatus used for regulating or
controlling electricity, and all electricity consuming apparatus, of voltage exceeding 250 V but
not exceeding 650 V shall be earthed by the owner by two separate and distinct connections
DRAFT
with earth.
Interpretation: It says the metallic frame of every generator and the metallic parts, not
intended as conductors, shall be earthed by two separate and distinct connections with earth,
not with the two separate and distinct earth electrodes.
(v) Neutral point of every generator and transformer shall be earthed by connecting it to the
earthing system by not less than two separate and distinct connections.
Interpretation: It is Neutral point not neutral conductor which is required to be connected by
not less than two separate and distinct connections with earthing system, not with the two
separate and distinct earth electrodes.
As per above, the Transformer (or DG) body need to be connected to earth and not to specifically
separate earth electrodes in soil. The regulation never recommended to connect Transformer (or
DG) Neutral and body to separate earth pits. This wrong practice followed is merely a
misinterpretation of the regulation.
However, wrong practices create accidents during fault. Following figures explain the above
discussion for better understanding.

WRONG CONCEPT
Typical Indian practice. This wrong practice may lead to accidents, deterioration of insulation,
reduced life, malfunctioning of electronics.
DRAFT
WRONG CONCEPT
Independent earth electrodes resulting accidents, deterioration of insulation, reduced life,
malfunctioning of electronics.
WRONG CONCEPT
Separate earth electrodes connected as a grid under soil, resulting accidents, deterioration of
insulation, reduced life, malfunctioning of electronics, additional problems due to circulating
currents.
Figure 8: Wrong practices of separate earth electrodes in soil

Figure 9: Right practice of Earthing
GOOD PRACTICE
 This is correct practice to connect all earthing conductors and earth electrodes to create an
equipotential bonding among all for safe and maximum life of electrical and electronic system.
DRAFT

2. PURPOSE OF EARTHING
(Ref: IS 3043 : 2018, 11.1.3)
 Earthing of an electrical system or installation is provided for the reasons of safety. The earth
connection improves service continuity, avoids damage to equipment and danger to human life.
 Earthing also reduces the risk of a person in the vicinity of earthed facilities being exposed to
the danger of critical electric shock.
 Earthing in a substation is done to provide as nearly as possible a surface at a uniform potential

and as nearly as zero or absolute earth potential. The purpose of this is to ensure that all parts
(metal parts/exposed conductive parts) of apparatus/equipment other than live parts shall be at
uniform/earth potential. This will also ensure that user/operator will always remain at earth
potential at all times.
 Earthing also provides stable platform for operation of sensitive electronic equipment i.e., to
maintain the voltage at any part of an electrical system at a known value so as to prevent over
current or excessive voltage on the appliances or equipment.
 Earthing also provides a low earth fault loop impedance to facilitate automatic disconnection of
supply in the event of a fault to exposed conductive parts of equipment/apparatus.
 Earthing will also help to limit the rise in potential (touch voltage) of non-current carrying metal
parts with respect to earth under earth-fault conditions to a value which is not harmful for the
safety of persons/animals in contact/proximity to such metal parts.
 Earthing also provides safe path to dissipate lightning current to earth.

DRAFT

3. EARTHED AND UNEARTHED SYSTEMS

(Cl. No.5 of IS 3043 : 2018)
Table 1: Comparison between Earthed and Unearthed System
Earthed system Unearthed system
Earthed systems are designed and installed so In case of un-earthed system, on occurring first
that the protective devices provided in the earth fault, neither circuit performance will be
circuit will operate and remove the faulty affected nor there will be any indication and in
circuit from the system in case of any earth general there will also be no service interruption.
fault. The occurrence of a second earth fault on a
In this way the faulty circuit can be isolated different phase before the first fault is cleared,
from rest of the system even in case of first does result in an outage.
earth fault before any damage.
It is experienced that multiple earth faults are The longer a earth fault is allowed to remain on
rarely, if ever, experienced on earthed neutral an unearthed system, greater is the probability
systems. of a second one occurring in another phase,
causing failure and repairs are required to
restore service.
In earthed system, any earth fault is detected For unearthed system, an organized
and isolated by automatic disconnection of maintenance program is extremely necessary so
supply. that earth fault if any is traced and removed
soon after detection.
In earthed system, the protection of personnel In unearthed system also, the protection of
DRAFT
and property from hazards are ensured personnel and property from hazards are
thorough earthing of equipment and structures. required thorough earthing of equipment and
Proper earthing results in less chance of structures.
accidents/electrocution to personnel. An earth fault does not open the circuit in an
unearthed system, some means of detecting the
presence of an earth fault requires to be installed
like insulation monitoring, leakage current
monitoring, etc.

4. EQUIPMENT EARTHING
(Ref: IS 3043 : 2018, Para 12.0)
Earthing of non-current carrying metal work and conductor which is essential to the safety of
human life, animals and property is known as Equipment Earthing or Protective Earthing. (Ref IS
3043 : 2018 Forward para 6)
“Equipment earthing or protective earthing of low voltage installation as per IS732:2019 is provided
to limit the potential with respect to the general mass of earth of non-current carrying metal works
associated with equipment, apparatus and appliance connected to the system”.( Ref IS 3043 : 2018
1.1 (a))
The basic objectives of equipment earthing are:
a) “To ensure freedom from dangerous electric shock/voltages exposure to persons in the area”.
b) “To provide adequate earth fault current carrying capability, both in magnitude and
duration, permitted by the protective system without creating a fire or explosive hazard
to building/equipment”.
4.1 Earthing of Equipment using Current

(Ref: IS 3043 : 2018, para 11.1.4)
Class I appliances are usually made of metal, Class I Equipment (Ref IS 9049 : 1980)
have three cables, it has a metal Earth pin
Equipment in which protection against electric
(Earth wire of the equipment which comes to
shock does not rely on basic insulation only, but
the earth pin of 3 pin plug top). Appliances
which, includes an additional safety, precaution
under Class I have two levels of protection, DRAFT
in such a way that means are provided for the

the basic insulation and the earth connection.
connection of accessible conductive parts to the
Accessible/exposed metal parts of Class-I
protective (earthing) conductor in the fixed
equipment/appliances that may become live
wiring of the installation in such a way that
in the event of an insulation failure, shall be
accessible conductive parts may not become
permanently and reliably connected to an
live in, the event of a failure of the basic
earthing terminal within the appliance or to
insulation.
the earthing contact of the appliance inlet. Ex.
Iron, refrigerators, microwaves, etc.
Do not connect Earthing terminal and earthing contact of the equipment to the
neutral terminal.
A Class II (double insulated) electrical Class II Equipment (Ref IS 9049 : 1980)

appliance is one which has been designed in
Equipment in which protection against
such a way that it does not require a safety
electric shock does not rely on basic
connection to electrical earth. Class II
insulation only but in which additional safety
equipment, may not have provision for
precautions such as double insulation or
connection of exposed metal work of the
reinforced insulation are provided, there
equipment to a protective/earth conductor. Ex
being no provision for protective earthing or
Mobile chargers, Hand Dryers, TV, etc.
reliance upon installation conditions.

4.2 Voltage Exposure

(Ref: IS 3043 : 2018, para 12.0.2)
When there is unintentional contact between an energized electric conductor (live conductor) and
the metal frame (body) or enclosure/structure, the frame or structure tends to become energized to
the same voltage level as exists on the energized conductor.
In such cases, to avoid the dangerous voltage on exposed metal frame (body) the equipment
earthing conductor provides a low impedance path from the metal frame to the zero potential earth
junction (MET).
Impedance/Resistance of Protective conductor from point of installation (Equipment) to MET should

be sufficiently low enough to avoid creation of dangerous voltage on equipment.
4.2.1 Avoidance of Thermal Distress

The earthing conductor also functions to carry the full earth fault current without excessively raising
the temperature of the earthing conductor or causing the expulsion of arcs and sparks that could
initiate a fire or explosion.
4.2.2 Preservation of System Performance

The earthing conductor must return the earth fault current back to the source without introducing
additional resistance/impedance to such an extent that would affect the operation of OCPD.
4.2.3 Earthing and Protective Conductor

Earthing Conductor: - A protective conductor connecting the main earthing terminal (or the
equipotential bonding conductor of an installation when there is no earth bus) to an earth electrode
or to other means of earthing.(Ref: IS 3043 : 2018, para 3.13)
DRAFT
In general earthing conductor is the conductor connecting the MET to electrode. The earth
conductor designated as ‘E’ shall not be colored i.e. it shall have the original color of bare
conductor. (Ref: IS 3043 : 2018, para 11.2)
No switching device shall be inserted in the protective conductor, but joints which
can be disconnected for test purposes by use of a tool may be provided.
Protective conductor
(Ref: IS 3043 : 2018, para 3.26)
Protective Conductor — A conductor used as a measure of protection against electric shock and
intended for connecting any of the following parts:
a) Exposed conductive parts,
b) Extraneous conductive parts,
c) Main earthing terminal, and
d) Earthed point of the source or an artificial neutral.
The protective conductor designated as ‘PE’ shall have bi-colour combination, green and yellow
(green/yellow), for identification as protective conductor and for no other purpose. (Ref: IS 3043 :
2018, para 11.2)

Figure 10: Marking of Earth Conductors
Bare conductors or bus bars, used as protective conductors, shall be coloured by equally broad
green and yellow stripes, each 15 mm up to 100 mm wide, close together, either throughout the
length of each conductor or in each compartment or unit or at each accessible position. If adhesive
tape is used, only bi-coloured tape shall be applied.
For insulated conductors, the combination of the colours, green and yellow, shall be such that, on
any 15 mm length of insulated conductor, one of these colours covers 30-70%of the surface of the
conductor and other colour cover the remaining surface.
DRAFT

5. SYSTEM EARTHING
(Ref: IS 3043 : 2018, para 11.0)
Earthing associated with current-carrying conductor which is normally essential to the security of
the system is known as System Earthing. (Ref IS 3043 : 2018, foreword para 6)
System earthing of low voltage installation is carried out to limit the potential of current carrying
conductor forming part of the electrical system with respect to general mass of earth. Earthing of
system is designed primarily to preserve the security of the system by ensuring that the potential on
each conductor is restricted to such a value as is consistent with the level of insulation applied.
The basic objective of system earthing is to ensure efficient and fast operation of protective device
in the case of earth faults. The system earth fault loop impedance should be such that, when any
earth fault occurs, the protective device (circuit-breakers or fuses, etc.) will operate to isolate the
faulty main or equipment.
In system earthing only one point (i.e. Neutral in TN and TT systems) is earthed to prevent the
passage of current through the earth under normal conditions and thus to avoid the accompanying
risks of electrolysis and interference with communication circuits. (In case more than one point is
earthed it will lead to creation of local loops in the system there by flowing of circulating current
which may cause electromagnetic induction).
DRAFT

6. TYPES OF SYSTEM EARTHING

Any system comprises mainly two portions, first the source of energy (transformer/DG) and second
is installation. The source includes supply cables/conductor connecting to the installation. The
supply system is generally denoted by two letters as shown below:
DRAFT
Figure 11: Indicative supply system based on system earthing

Description of letters:
The first letter refers to the relationship of the power system (source) to earth.
T ‘Direct connection of one point to earth’.
‘All the live parts isolated from earth, or one point connected to earth though a high
I
impedance’.
Second letter refers to the relationship of the exposed-conductive-parts of the installation to

earth’.
‘Direct electrical connection of exposed conductive parts to earth, independently of the

T
earthing of any point of the power system’.
‘Direct electrical connection of exposed conductive parts to the earthed point of the power
N system’. (in ac systems, the earthed point of the power system is normally the neutral
point or, if a neutral point is not available, a line conductor).
Subsequent letters if any,
Separate neutral and protective earth functions provided by separate conductors i.e.PE and
S
N conductor.
Combined neutral and protective earth functions provided by same conductor i.e. PEN/CNE
C
conductor.
The letters used in European Standards are derived from the French language:
DRAFT
T - Terre which represents Earth

N – Neutre which represents Neutral
S – Separe which represents Separate
C – Combine which represents Combined
I – Isole which represents Insulated
Electrical supply systems are further classified as TN system, TT system and IT system based on
system earthing. They are as given under.
6.1 TN System
TN system has one or more points of the source of energy (preferably Neutral point of Transformer
or DG) directly earthed at source end. The exposed and extraneous conductive parts of the
consumer installation are connected by means of protective conductors to the earthed point(s) of
the source. In this way, there is a metallic return path for earth fault currents to flow from the
installation to the earthed point(s) of the source. TN systems are further sub-divided into TN-S, TN-
C and TN-C-S systems.
Every supply neutral conductor of electrical network of voltage 650V and below is
required to be connected with earth generally at the source of voltage. (Ref- IS 3043
: 2018 para 4.1 Note-2)

6.1.1 TN-S System

In the system where separate conductors each for neutral and protective functions are provided
throughout the system is called as TN-S system (as shown blow in figure).
Figure 12: TN-S System
6.1.1.1 For 230 V single phase domestic/commercial supply

(Ref: Fig. 12 of IS 3043-2018).
Source TN-S SYSTEM (230 V SINGLE PHASE)

R
B
DRAFT
N
PE
SOURCE EARTH
EXPOSED
CONDUCTIVE PART
EQUIPMENT IN
CONSUMER
INSTALLATION INSTALLATION
Figure 13: TN-S System for 230V Single Phase
 The protective conductor (PE) is the metallic covering (armour or sheath of the cable
supplying the installation) or a separate conductor.
 All exposed conductive parts of an installation are connected to this protective conductor
via main earthing terminal of the installation.
6.1.1.2 For 415 V three-phase domestic/commercial supply

 415 V three phase domestic/commercial supply having three phase and single-phase
loads, all exposed conductive parts of the installation are connected to protective conductor
via the main earthing terminal of the installation.
 It is necessary to install an independent earth electrode within the consumer’s premises
and same to be connected as shown in the figure given below (Ref: Fig. 13 of IS 3043-
2018).

Source TN-S SYSTEM (415 V THREE PHASE)

R
Y
B
N
PE
SINGLE PHASE LOAD
SOURCE EARTH CONSUMER
INSTALLATION
Installation Earth THREE PHASE LOAD EXPOSED

Electrode CONDUCTIVE PART
Figure 14: TN-S System for 415 V three-phase domestic commercial supply
TN-S system requires 5 conductors (three lines, one neutral and one protective
conductor), due to this, cost of installation is high as compared to other systems.
6.1.2 TN-C System

In TN-C system, neutral and protective functions are combined in a single conductor throughout the
system (Ref: Fig. 14 of IS 3043-2018).
DRAFT
Source TN-C SYSTEM

R
B
COMBINED PE AND
N CONDUCTOR
(PEN)
SOURCE EARTH Additional Source

Earth
EXPOSED
THREE PHASE CONDUCTIVE PARTS
CONSUMER
SINGLE PHASE
INSTALLATION
EXPOSED
CONDUCTIVE PARTS Installation Earth
Figure 15: TN-C System

 All exposed conductive parts are connected to the PEN conductor.
 For three phase consumer, local earth electrode has to be provided in addition.
TN-C systems are not suitable for modern installations with electronic equipment.
As the protective function and neutral function are combined in one conductor, in case of PEN
conductor breaks/disconnects due to any reason (neutral breakage), the exposed conductive parts
in an installation becomes live, which may lead to shock hazards.

Figure 16: Neutral breakage in TN-C System

6.1.3 TN-C-S System
In TN-C-S system, neutral and protective functions are combined in a single conductor (PEN
conductor) only in part of the system. Usually, the neutral and protective functions are combined in
a single conductor up-to consumer’s premises and separate at installation side as shown in the
figure below.
All exposed conductive parts of an installation are connected through protective conductors. All the
protective conductors/connections run separately inside consumer’s premises and connected to
main earthing terminal (MET)and then to the PEN conductor. (Ref: Fig. 15 of IS 3043-2018).
Source TN-C-S SYSTEM

R
DRAFT
Y
B
COMBINED PE AND N
CONDUCTOR (PEN)
Earth Electrode
SOURCE
EARTH
Three Phase Consumer Installation

EXPOSED
CONDUCTIVE
PARTS Installation Earth Electrode
Figure 17: TN-C-S System
This system requires only four conductors in public distribution (i.e. up-to incoming supply at
consumer’s premises). This saves the cost of 5th conductor in public distribution.
 The supply system PEN conductor is earthed at several points. Therefore, this type of
distribution is known also as Protective Multiple Earthing (PME) and the PEN conductor is also
referred to as the Combined Neutral and Earth (CNE) conductor.
 An earth electrode may be necessary at or near a consumer’s installation.
 Multiple earthing of the PEN/CNE conductor ensures that if the conductor becomes open circuit
for any reason (probably cut or snapped), exposed-conductor parts remain connected to earth,

under such conditions the supply voltage between the installation line and neutral conductor is
substantially reduced and consumer will experience unacceptable voltage variations.
Figure 18: Multiple Earthing of PEN Conductor in TN-C-S System
 If PME is not provided to PEN conductor any breakage of it may cause dangerous rise in
potential of exposed-conductor parts and which may lead to shock hazards.
As per statutory provisions for earthing mentioned in Cl. No. 4 of IS 3043-2018. The
TN-C-S is the most common system adopted by Electrical supply undertakings. TN-
C-S system is also called as Protective Multiple Earthed (PME) system.
6.2 TT System
DRAFT
TT system has one or more points of the source of energy directly earthed and the exposed and
extraneous conductive parts of the installation are connected to a local earth electrode. Source and
installation earth electrodes are electrically independent. (Ref: Fig. 17 of IS 3043-2018).
TT System
Source
R
B
N
Exposed Conductive Parts
SOURCE EARTH
Installation
Earth
Exposed Conductive Electrode
Parts
Single Three Phase Load
Phase Consumer
Load Installation
Figure 19: TT System
 All exposed conductive parts of an installation are connected to an independent earth electrode.
 Single phase TT system is not present in India.

6.3 IT System
IT system has the source either unearthed or earthed through a high impedance and the exposed
conductive parts of the installation are connected to electrically independent earth electrodes. (Ref:
Fig. 18 of IS 3043-2018).
Source IT System
R
B
Consumer
Installation
HIGH
IMPEDANCE
SOURCE
EARTHING Installation Earth
Electrode
Single Phase
Three Phase Load Load
Exposed Conductive Exposed
Parts Installation Earth Electrode Conductive Parts
Figure 20: IT System
 All exposed conductive parts of an installation are connected to an earth electrode.

 The source is either connected to earth through deliberately introduced earthing impedance or
DRAFT
is isolated from earth.

 IT system is used where continuity of supply is desired.

7. EQUIPOTENTIAL BONDING
“Electrical connection putting various exposed conductive parts and extraneous conductive parts at
a substantially equal potential is termed as equipotential bonding”. (ref: IS:3043-2018 para no.
3.15)
Equipotential is derived from Equal potential between two points. In a system, connections of all
non-current carrying (exposed conductive parts) parts of a current using equipment like metal body
of equipment, etc. and connections of all non-electrical metallic items embedded in building
structure(extraneous conductive parts) for ex Reinforced steel in concrete, Metallic pipe lines, etc. to
main earthing terminal in order to bring all at same potential (Equipotential) in event of an earth fault
is called Equipotential bonding.
M
Exposed
Conductive Parts 1 M
4
4
M 1
1 2
DRAFT
Structural
2 Steel
MET
3
Protective Conductor PE Metallic
water pipes
Supplementary Bonding Conductor
Earth Electrode
Figure 21: Equipotential bonding with all exposed/extraneous conductive parts
Structural steel (extraneous-conductive-part)

Metallic water pipe (extraneous-conductive-part)
Earth electrode (TT and IT system)
PE (TN systems)
1 Circuit protective conductor
2 Main protective bonding conductor
3 Earthing conductor
4 Supplementary protective bonding conductor (if required)
1,2,3,4 Protective conductors
Common equipotential bonding system has both protective equipotential bonding and functional
equipotential bonding.

7.1 Protective Equipotential Bonding

(Ref: IS 732 : 2019 para 3.150, 4.2.11.3.1.2)
Equipotential bonding done for the purpose of safety is termed as “Protective Equipotential bonding”.
In this protection is achieved by automatic disconnection of supply.
In each building the earthing conductor, the main earthing terminal and the following conductive parts
shall be connected to the protective equipotential bonding:
• Metallic pipes supplying services into the building, for example, gas, water, fire fighting, sewage,
etc.;
• Structural extraneous conductive parts, if accessible in normal use, metallic central heating and
air-conditioning systems; and
• Metallic reinforcements of constructional reinforced concrete, if reasonably practicable.
Metal pipe (eg. Fire fighting system)
Metal pipe (eg. Sewage system)
Metal pipe (HVAC/ ducting etc.)
Steel Structure work
Main DRAFT
Line
Protective Exposed conductive parts
Equipotential
Load
Bonding
Neutral
Equipment
Figure 22: Equipotential Bonding with all exposed/extraneous conductive parts
Note :- Where such conductive parts originate outside the building, they shall be bonded as close
as practicable to their point of entry within the building.
7.2 Supplementary Equipotential Bonding

Supplementary Equipotential Bonding is also called as Local Equipotential Bonding. This is done to
achieve high degree of safety against electric shock, Supplementary equipotential bonding is
considered as an addition to fault protection. This will also reduce the voltages occurring in the event
of an earth fault still further.
During design of an electrical system if the fault loop impedance which is required for automatic
disconnection of supply is not achieved through equipotential bonding, then it is necessary to provide
supplementary equipotential bonding. (Ref: IS 3043: 2018 para 11.1.3)

Metal pipe (eg. Fire fighting system)
Metal pipe (eg. Sewage system)
Metal pipe (HVAC/ ducting etc.)
Steel Structure work

Supplementary
Bonding (if necessary)
MET(SUB)
Main Line
Protective Exposed conductive parts
Equipotential
Load
Bonding
Neutral
Equipment
Figure 23: Equipotential Bonding with Supplementary Bonding
7.3 Main Earthing Terminal (MET)

“The terminal or bar (which is the equipotential bonding conductor) provided for the connection of
protective conductors and the conductors of functional earthing, if any, to the means of earthing.
DRAFT
(Ref: IS 3043 : 2018, para no. 3.21)
• The function of MET is to provide a reference point for the installation, it consists of a terminal or
bar provided for the connection of protective conductors and conductors for functional earthing.
• MET is connected to earth, but it remains rarely at zero potential because of the potential difference
caused by leakage and other current flowing to earth.
Figure 24: Main Earthing Terminal (MET)
In the case of TT and IT system, the MET should be earthed by an independent

earth electrode only.

All connections shall be carefully made on MET if they are poorly made or
inadequate for the purpose for which they are intended, loss of life or serious
personal injury may result.
7.4 Typical Schematic of Earthing and Protective Conductors

A typical schematic of earthing and protective conductors is shown in given below figure. In the
installation, all protective conductors of exposed conductive parts are connected to main earthing
terminal at distribution boards. Further the METs of all distribution boards are connected to main MET.
All extraneous conductive parts, incoming metallic service pipes, are also connected to main MET.
Further this main MET is connected to earth electrodes by Earth conductor or PEN conductor as per
design of the supply system.
Exposed
conductive
parts
Distribution Board
Current Using
Equipment
Main Earthing Exposed

Terminal(s) conductive
(MET)
DRAFT
parts
Earthing Conductor
Protective Conductor
Figure 25: Earthing Arrangements and Protective Conductors
No switching device shall be inserted in the protective conductor, but joints which can
be disconnected for test purposes by use of a tool may be provided.
During designing of a system, earthing conductors are also protective conductors and
should be sized in the same way as other protective conductors.
7.5 Extraneous Conductive Parts

(Ref IS 3043 : 2018 para 23.2.3)
The extraneous conductive parts that are required to be bonded to the main earthing terminal of the
installation (or to the earth electrode of the installation) include:
a) Gas pipes,
b) Other service pipes and ducting,
c) Risers and pipes of fire protection equipment,
d) Exposed metallic parts of the building structure, and
e) Lightening conductors.

7.6 Exposed Conductive Parts

(Ref IS 3043 : 2018 para 23.2.4)
Exposed conductive parts that are required to be connected by means of protective conductors to
the main earthing terminal of the installation are as follows:
a) All metal structure associated with wiring system (other than current-carrying parts) including
cable metal sheaths and armour, conduit, ducting, trunking, boxes and catenary wires.
b) The exposed metal structure of all Class I equipment fixed and portable current-using
equipment. All fixed wiring accessories should incorporate an earthing terminal that is
connected to the main earthing terminal by means of the protective conductors of the circuits
concerned.
c) The exposed metal structure of transformers used in the installation other than those that are
an integral part of equipment.
7.6.1 Exposed conductive parts not required to be earthed

Exposed conductive parts that (because of their small dimensions or disposition) cannot be gripped
or contacted by a major surface of the human body (that is, a human body surface not exceeding
50 mm x 50 mm) need not be earthed if the connection of those parts to a protective conductor
cannot readily be made and reliably maintained.
Typical examples of such parts are:
a) Screws and nameplate, cable clips and lamp caps.

b) Fixing screws for non-metallic accessories need not be earthed provided there is no
appreciable risk of the screws coming into contact with live parts.
DRAFT
Other exposed conductive parts not required to be earthed
c) Overhead line insulator brackets and metal parts connected to them if such parts are not within
arm’s reach.
d) Short lengths of metal conduit or other metal enclosures used give mechanical protection to
equipment of Class II or equivalent construction.

8. EARTH FAULT PROTECTION IN LV INSTALLATIONS
Direct Contact
Protection against direct contact (Basic protection)
(Ref: IS 732 : 2019 para 4.1.2.1)
Protection against direct contact is also termed as basic protection in case of

low-voltage installations, systems and equipment. This type of protection is
provided against dangers that may arise from direct contact and can be
achieved by one of the following methods:
a) Preventing a current from passing through the body of any person or any livestock; and
b) Limiting the current which can pass through a body to a non-hazardous value.
Measures for Protection against direct contact:

(Ref- IS 732 : 2019 Annex A&B)
a) By provision of insulation on live parts: Live parts shall be completely covered with insulation
which can only be removed by destruction.
b) By provision of Barriers or enclosures: Live parts shall be inside enclosures or behind

barriers.
DRAFT
8.1 Indirect Contact
The occurrence of an earth fault in an installation creates two possible hazards. Firstly, voltages
appear between exposed conductive parts and extraneous conductive parts, and if these parts are
simultaneously accessible, these voltages (potential difference) constitute a shock hazard, this
condition being known as Indirect contact.
Figure 26: Indirect Contact in case of earth fault
Secondly, the fault current that flows in the phase and protective conductors of the circuit feeding
the faulty equipment may be of such a magnitude as to cause an excessive temperature rise in
those conductors, thereby creating a fire hazard.

8.2 Protection against Indirect Contact

Protection against indirect contact is achieved by the adoption of one of the following protective
measures:
1) Safety extra low voltage (IS 9409 : 1980 para no 2.6)
A voltage which does not exceed 50 V ac rms between conductors or between any conductor
and earth in a circuit which is isolated from the supply mains by means of a safety isolating
transformer or converter with separate windings.
2) The use of Class II equipment or by equivalent insulation

(The detail of classes of equipment are explained in annexure)
3) A non-conducting location (IS 732 : 2019 Para C-1)
The non-conducting location is a special arrangement where there is no earthing or protective
system provided because there is nothing which needs to be earthed. In this non-conducting
location, all exposed conductive parts are so arranged that it is impossible to touch two of
them, or an exposed conducting part and an extraneous conductive part, at the same time. This
measure can only be applied in a dry location.
DRAFT
Figure 27: A Non-Conductive Location
4) Earth free local equipotential bonding (IS 732 : 2019 Para C-2)
Earth-free local equipotential bonding is provided to prevent the appearance of a dangerous

touch voltage by connecting equipotential bonding conductors with all simultaneously
accessible exposed conductive parts and extraneous conductive parts without electrical
connection to the earth directly and indirectly (i.e. through exposed conductive- parts and
extraneous-conductive-parts)
5) Electrical separation
Electrical separation is a protective measure in which, basic protection is provided by basic

insulation of live parts or by barriers/enclosures and fault protection is provided by simple
separation of the separated circuit from other circuits and from earth.
6) Earthed equipotential bonding and automatic disconnection of the supply

In order to achieve a high degree of protection against both shock and fire hazards the earthed
equipotential bonding and automatic disconnection of the supply is used. Details are mentioned
in the following section.
8.3 Earthed Equipotential Bonding and Automatic Disconnection of the Supply
The two aims of this protective measure are to:
a) Ensure that when an earth fault occurs, the voltages appearing between exposed conductive
parts and extraneous conductive parts in the location served by the installation concerned are
minimized; and
b) Ensure rapid disconnection of the circuit in which that earth fault occurs.
In order to meet (a), a zone is created by connecting all extraneous and exposed conductive parts
by means of equipotential bonding conductors to the MET and earth electrode of the installation is
called equipotential zone as explained earlier in para 7.0 in this booklet.
This does not mean that voltages cannot exist between conductive parts in that zone when an earth
fault occurs a voltage will appear between the exposed conductive parts and extraneous conductive
parts in the location served by the installation concerned, but the application of protective
equipotential bonding minimizes these touch voltage reaches a harmful value.
An installation may consist of a number of zones; for instance, when an installation supplies a
number of buildings, equipotential bonding is necessary in each building so that each constitutes a
zone having a reference point to which the exposed conductive parts of the circuits and current-
using equipment in that building are connected. (Ref: IS 3043 : 2018 para 23.2.2.1)
The second aim of this protective measure is to disconnect the supply to the faulty equipment
within the prescribed time by limiting the upper value of the earth fault loop impedance of each
circuit. On the occurrence of an earth fault (assumed to be of negligible impedance), disconnection
DRAFT
will occur before the prospective touch voltage reaches a harmful value.
The choice of protective device used to give disconnection is influenced by the type of system of
which the installation is part, because either:
1) The earth fault loop impedance has to be low enough to allow adequate earth fault current
flow in order to cause operation of an over current protective device (for example, a fuse or
MCB, MCCB) in a sufficiently short time.
2) Where it is not possible to achieve a low enough earth fault loop impedance, disconnection
may be initiated by fitting a Residual Current Device (RCD) of 30 mA rating. (Ref- IS 732 :
2019 para 4.2.11.1).
Protection against shock in case of a fault (protection against indirect contact) is provided by
automatic disconnection of supply and this is to prevent a touch voltage persisting for such long
time that may be dangerous.
Automatic disconnection of supply following an insulation fault relies on the association of two
conditions given below:
a) The existence of a conducting path (fault loop) to provide for circulation of fault current (this
depends on type of system earthing); and
b) The disconnection of this current by an appropriate device in a given time.
The determination of this time depends on various parameters, such as probability of fault,
probability of a person touching the equipment during the fault and the touch voltage to which a
person might thereby be subjected.

8.3.1 Disconnecting Times for Different Touch Voltages

Limits of touch voltage are based on studies on the effects of current on human body (Ref IS/ IEC
60479 : 2005). Table 2 shows the values disconnection time limits (t) for different touch voltages
for two most common conditions (dry and wet conditions) for safety of human beings. If the
system has to protect the human, it should trip with in the stipulated time limits. During the
designing of system, the selection of protective devices can be done based on the tripping time
w.r.t the prospective fault current. This fault current can be calculated with the help of System
voltage and Fault loop impedance.
Table 2: Disconnecting Times for Different Touch Voltages
(Ref- IS 3043 : 2018, Table 13)
Condition 1 Condition 2
Prospective Touch Dry or moist locations, dry skin and Wet locations, wet skin and low
Voltage Uc significant floor resistance floor resistance
Z1 I t Z2 I t
(V) () (mA) (s) () (mA) (s)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
25 -- -- -- 075 23 5
50 1725 29 5 925 54 0.47
75 1625 46 0.60 825 91 0.30
90 1600 56 0.45 780 115 0.25
DRAFT
110 1535 72 0.36 730 151 0.18

150 1475 102 0.27 660 227 0.10
220 1375 160 0.17 575 383 0.035
280 1370 204 0.12 570 491 0.020
350 1365 256 0.08 565 620 --
500 1360 368 0.04 560 893 --
Z1- Total Impedance of human body in Dry condition (IS 60479:2005 part 1)
Z2- Total Impedance of human body in wet condition (IS 60479:2005 part 1)
I – Current that will flow through the human body
t- Disconnecting time limit which will not result in harmful physiological effects on Human body.
8.4 Requirement for Automatic disconnection in TN System

(Ref IS 3043 : 2018 para 23.0.7)
In TN system the characteristics of the protective devices and the cross-sectional area of
conductors shall be so chosen that if a fault of negligible impedance occurs anywhere between a
phase conductor and a protective conductor or exposed conductive part, automatic disconnection
of the supply will occur within the minimum possible safe time. The time of operation would depend
on the magnitude of the contact potential.
This requirement is met if:

Zs x Ia ≤ Uo………………. (1)
where

Zs = fault loop impedance,

Ia = current ensuring the automatic operation of disconnecting device, and
Uo = conventional voltage limits.
 Zs may be calculated or measured.
 The duration of Ia permitted depends on the prospective touch voltage (please refer table 2 for
prospective touch voltage and corresponding timings). Higher touch voltages should be cleared
in shorter times.
 If this condition cannot be fulfilled, supplementary bonding may be necessary.
8.5 Requirement for Automatic disconnection in TT System

(Ref IS 3043:2018 para 23.0.8)
In TT system the characteristics of the protective devices and the cross-sectional area of
conductors shall be so chosen that if a fault of negligible resistance occurs anywhere between a
phase conductor and a protective conductor or exposed conductive parts, automatic disconnection
of the supply will occur within the minimum possible safe time. The time of operation would depend
on the magnitude of the contact potential.
This requirement is met if:

RA x Ia ≤ Uc………………. (2)
where
RA= resistance of the earthed system for exposed conductive parts,
Ia = operating currents of the disconnecting series device or settings of shunt relays, and
Uc= conventional voltage limit
8.6 Requirement for Automatic disconnection in IT System

DRAFT
(Ref IS 3043 : 2018 para 23.0.9)
The impedance of the power system earth shall be such that on the occurrence of a single fault to
exposed conductive parts or to earth, the fault current is of low value. Disconnection of the supply is
not essential on the occurrence of the first fault. Protective measures must, however, prevent
danger on the occurrence of two simultaneous faults involving different live conductors.
The following condition shall be fulfilled:

RA x Id ≤ Uc……………… (3)
where
RA = resistance of the earthed system for exposed conductive parts,
Id = operating currents of the disconnecting series device, and
Uc = conventional voltage limit.

9. EARTH FAULT LOOP IMPEDANCE

Impedance/resistance encountered by fault current under earth fault condition is called “Earth fault
loop impedance” i.e. the impedance of the earth fault current loop (phase to earth loop) starting and
ending at the point of earth fault. (Ref: IS:3043 : 2018 para 3.10). This impedance is denoted by the
symbol Zs.
The earth fault loop comprises the following, starting from the point of fault (Ref: IS:732 : 2019 para
3.64)
a) The circuit protective conductor,

b) The consumer’s earthing terminal and earthing conductor, and for TN systems, the metallic
return path,
c) For TT and IT systems, the earth return path,
d) The path through the earth neutral point of the transformer,
e) The transformer winding, and
f) The line conductor from the transformer to the point of fault.
Whenever fault occurs the current will flow through this fault loop and protection
system will be designed accordingly with prospective fault current. This fault current
can be calculated with the help of System voltage and Fault loop impedance.
9.1 Fault Loop in TN-S System

DRAFT
In TN-S system, the earth fault loop impedance comprises the impedance starting from the point of
fault, protective conductor up to source, neutral point of the transformer, transformer winding
(involved in faulty circuit) and phase (line) conductor from the transformer to the point of fault. A
sample schematic is shown below:
Transformer Body Fault Loop in TN-S

OPCD
R
Earth
Fault
Y
Source
B Load
Transformer Neutral N
PE
Source
Consumer Installation
Earth
Exposed conductive parts
Figure 28: Fault loop impedance circuit in TN-S system

9.2 Fault Loop in TN-C System
In TN-C system, the earth fault loop impedance comprises the impedance starting from the point of
fault, protective and neutral conductor (PEN) up to source, neutral point of the transformer,
transformer winding (involved in faulty circuit) and phase (line) conductor from the transformer to
the point of fault. A sample schematic is shown below:
Transformer Body Fault Loop in TN-C

OPCD
R
Earth
Fault
Y
Source
B Load
Transformer Neutral PEN
Source
Earth Consumer Installation
Exposed conductive parts
Figure 29: Fault loop impedance circuit in TN-C system
9.3 Fault Loop in TN-C-S System DRAFT
In TN-C-S system, there will be two loops for flow of fault currents, first through the metallic return
path i.e. PEN conductor and second through the earth (Soil). The magnitude of fault current flowing
through each path will depend on its impedance. Practically the major portion of fault current
through the first path i.e. PEN conductor. This fault loop impedance in this path comprises the
impedance starting from the point of fault, protective conductor (PE) up to MET (Neutral link at main
incoming supply), protective and neutral conductor (PEN) up to source, neutral point of the
transformer, transformer winding (involved in faulty circuit) and phase (line) conductor from the
transformer to the point of fault. The other earth fault loop through installation earth electrode, soil
back to source earth electrode. A sample schematic is shown below:
Transformer Body Fault Loop in TN-C-S Exposed conductive parts

OPCD
R
Earth
Fault
B Load
Transformer Neutral PEN
Source Soil Consumer Earth
Earth
Figure 30: Fault loop impedance circuit in TN-C-S system

9.4 For TT System

In TT system, the earth fault loop impedance comprises the impedance starting from the point of
fault, circuit protective conductor up to MET, earthing link to installation earth electrode conductor,
installation earth electrode, soil path resistance from installation earth electrode to source earth
electrode, source earth electrode conductor from source earth electrode to neutral point of the
transformer, transformer winding (involved in faulty circuit) and phase (line) conductor from the
transformer to the point of fault. A sample schematic is shown below:
Transformer Body Fault Loop in TT Exposed conductive parts

OPCD
R
Earth
Fault
B Load
Transformer Neutral N
Source Soil Consumer Earth
Earth
Figure 31: Fault loop impedance circuit in TT system

DRAFT
Earth fault loop impedance tester is used for measurement of earth Fault loop
impedance. It is very useful for testing of electrical installations for ensuring the
safety.

10. EARTHING OF INSTALLATIONS
10.1 Earthing in Standby Generating Plants

(Ref - IS 3043 : 2018 para 29)
In any low voltage installation where, regular supply is coming from state electricity board and
standby supply is being provided by Diesel Generator/Alternator (DG/DA) set, earthing of standby
generator set is necessary to protect against indirect contact.
The protective earthing conductors are connected as shown in below figure. Generating set metal
body, alternator metal frame, neutral point of alternator, metallic cable sheaths and armouring, and
all exposed conductive parts of installation (load) are connected by earthing conductors to main
earthing terminal (bar) and MET is further connected to earth (normally at one point only). Neutral
earthing of DG, earth link of electricity board incoming supply are also connected to MET by
protective conductors as shown below:
DRAFT
Figure 32: Single Low Voltage Standby Generator (Without paralleling Facility)
 Four-pole changeover switching between the mains and standby, supplies should be used to
provide isolation of the generator and electricity board neutral earths. (Ref - IS 3043 : 2018
para 29.2.2.2)
10.2 Unearthed Generators (Rating Below 10 kW) Supplying a Fixed Installation

(Ref - IS 3043 : 2018 para 28.2)
Where an unearthed generator is to supply a fixed installation, for the purpose of protection against
indirect contact in case of any earth fault occurs following measure are recommended which will
initiate automatic disconnection of supply and isolation of faulty equipment/circuit.
a. One pole of a single-phase generator should be connected to the installation main earthing
terminal.
b. The installation should be protected by RCDs.
c. The main earthing terminal should be connected to an earth electrode. The resistance of
electrode to earth should sufficiently low to operate the RCDs.

d. All exposed-conductive parts and all extraneous-conductive-parts in the installation are to be

connected to the main earthing terminal.
Fixed Electrical Installation
Unearthed Generator
Isolator RCD
Load
Main Earth Terminal

PE
Exposed Conductive Parts Earth Electrode Exposed Conductive Parts
Figure 33: Small low voltage generator supplying a fixed installation
10.3 Unearthed Generators Supplying a Mobile or Transportable Unit

(Ref - IS 3043:2018 para 28.3)
Where an unearthed generator is to supply a mobile installation, for the purpose of protection against
indirect contact in case of any earth fault occurs following measure are recommended which will
initiate automatic disconnection of supply and isolation of faulty equipment/circuit.
a. One pole of a single-phase generator should be connected to the installation main earthing
terminal.
b. All exposed-conductive parts and all extraneous-conductive-parts are to be connected to the
DRAFT
main earthing terminal.

c. The installation should be protected by RCDs.
d. If the unit supplies equipment or socket outlets outside the unit these circuits should be
protected by RCDs with a rated residual operating current not exceeding 30 mA and an operating
time not exceeding 40 ms at a residual current of 5 times rated current I.
If practicable, an earth electrode should be connected to the main earthing terminal of the unit with a
resistance to earth sufficiently low to operate the RCDs.
Mobile Unit
Unearthed Generator
Isolator RCD
Load
PE
Exposed Conductive Parts Exposed Conductive Parts
Figure 34: Small unearthed generator supplying a mobile or transportable unit
The RCD will not provide protection for faults on the generator side of the RCD, and
consequently precautions should be taken.

10.4 Earthing in Building

(Ref - IS 732:2019 Annex FF)
In any building installation, using LT supply for lighting, air conditioning, heating etc., the entire
installation metallic components shall be connected to each other for creating equipotential zone to
prevent personnel from shock hazard in case of indirect contact during any earth fault.
All exposed conductive parts of all current using equipment shall be connected to MET via
protective earthing conductors through sub distribution boards and main distribution board. All
metallic water and waste pipelines in the bathrooms/toilet shall be connected through
supplementary equipotential bonding terminal (SEBT) by protective bonding conductors and this
SEBT is to be connected to MET by protective earthing conductors. All metallic fittings to heating
and air-conditioning system (ducts, grills etc.) shall also be connected to MET by protective
bonding conductors. Other metallic pipelines coming to installation and other metallic structures
within the building shall be connected to MET by protective bonding conductors.
All protective conductors of sub distribution boards shall be connected to MET through main
distribution board. Main distribution board protective conductor may be connected to PE/PEN
conductor as per requirement of the system (in case of TN-S to PE or in case of TN-C, TN-C-S to
PEN conductor of supply system).
The MET shall be connected to Concrete-embedded foundation earth electrode or soil-embedded

foundation earth electrode by earthing conductor.
The down conductor of lightning protection system (LPS) if provided shall be connected to
Concrete-embedded foundation earth electrode or soil-embedded foundation earth electrode as well
as to earth electrode provided for LPS. An example of earthing arrangements and protective
conductors is shown below: DRAFT

Bathroom Metallic
Room Water pipe
Exposed Exposed
conductive part conductive part
3
3
Lightning Protection System

Lightning Protection System
SEBT
Waste water
1 pipe (metal)
Sub Distribution 1
Board
PE
Air Conditioning
1
Heating system
Main Distribution Board
PE/PEN Waste
water pipe
1a Water
(metal)
pipe Gas pipe with
DRAFT
(Metal) insulating insert

1 2 (metal outside)
2
Main Earthing Insulating
Terminal Insert
Earthing Conductor
Earthing Conductor Earthing Conductor
Ground
Surface
T1 Soil embedded or Concrete embedded foundation T1
Earth Electrode
Figure 35: Example of Earthing Arrangements and Protective Conductors
Symbol Name Symbol Name

1 Protective earthing conductor (PE) T1 Earth electrode for LPS if necessary
1a Protective conductor, or PEN conductor, if any, PE PE terminal(s) in the main distribution
from supplying network board
2 Protective bonding conductor for connection to PE/PEN PE/PEN terminal(s) in the main
main earthing terminal distribution board
3 Protective bonding conductor for supplementary Extraneous-conductive part (water pipe, metal from
bonding outside, wastewater pipe, metal from outside, gas
4 Down conductor of a lightning protection system pipe with insulating insert, metal from outside)
(LPS) if any
5 Earthing conductor

11. EARTH ELECTRODES

“A conductor or group of conductors in intimate contact with and providing an electrical connection
to earth”.(Ref: IS3043 : 2018 para3.7)
11.1 Effect of Shape on Electrode Resistance

(Ref: IS 3043 : 2018 para 14.1)
The greater part of the fall in potential occurs in the soil within a few feet of the electrode surface,
since it is here that the current density is highest. To obtain a low overall resistance of the earth the
current density should be as low as possible in the medium adjacent to the electrode and it should
be so designed as to cause the current density to decrease rapidly with distance from the electrode.
To achieve the above requirement the dimensions (i.e. Length, width and thickness) of earth
electrode is made large in one direction compared with other 2 directions (), thus a pipe, rod or strip
has a much lower resistance than a plate of equal surface area. However, resistance is not inversely
proportional to the surface area of the electrode.
DRAFT
Figure 36: Sphere of Influence Earth Electrode
11.2 Multiple Earth Electrodes
In this system more than one electrode is driven into the ground and connected in parallel to lower
the resistance. Each earth electrode has its own sphere of influence and for additional electrodes to
be effective the spacing of additional rods needs to be at least equal to the depth of the driven rod.
Without proper spacing of earth electrodes, the spheres of influence will intersect and the lowering
of the resistance will be minimal and of little value.
Figure 37: Spheres of Multiple Earth Electrodes
It is recommended that a drawing showing the main earth connection and earth
electrodes be prepared for each installation.

11.3 Common Types of Earth Electrodes

11.3.1 Plate electrode
Figure 38: Copper Plate Electrode
According to Cl 14.2.1 of IS 3043 – 2018 the approximate resistance to earthof a plate can be
calculated from:
𝝆 𝝅
𝑹= √ 𝛀
𝟒 𝑨
where
= resistivity of the soil in -m (assumed uniform), and

A = area of both sides of the plate (in m2).
Plate electrodes shall be of the size at least 60 cm × 60 cm. Plates are generally of cast iron not
less than 12 mm thick and preferably ribbed. The earth connection should be joined to the plate at
not less than two separate points. Plate electrodes, when made of GI or steel, shall be not less
DRAFT
than 6·3 mm in thickness. Plate electrodes of Cu shall be not less than 3·15 mm in thickness.
Plate electrodes shall be buried such that its top edge is at a depth not less than 1·5 m from the
surface of the ground.
The use of coke breeze as an infill is not recommended as it may result in rapid
corrosion not only of the electrode itself but also of cable sheaths, etc. to which it
may be bonded.
11.3.2 Pipes or Rods electrode

According to Cl 14.2.2 of IS 3043 – 2018, the resistance of a pipe or rod electrode is given by:
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝆 𝟐𝒍
𝟐𝝅𝒍 𝒅
Where,
ρ = resistivity of the soil, in Ω-m (assumed uniform).

l = length of rod or pipe, in cm,
d = diameter of rod or pipe, in cm,
The earth resistance diminishes rapidly with the first few feet of driving, but less so at depths
greater than 2 to 3 m in soil of uniform resistivity. If required to achieve less resistance a number
of rods or pipes may be connected in parallel than to increase the length of earth electrode.

Figure 39: Pipe Electrode
Figure 40: Copper Bonded Steel Rod Electrode
11.3.2.1 Erection of pipe Earth electrode

Construction of pipe electrode along with earth pit shall be as per figure shown below (Fig 25 of
IS 3043:2018) all dimensions are in millimetre. The earth fill shall be of homogenous layers of
common earth soil (In Earlier version of IS 3043:1987 with amendments the earth fill was a
homogenous layer of coke/charcoal, salt). Where soil resistivity is high, earth resistivity
enhancement material may be used. Bentonite or similar earth enhancing material may be
DRAFT
advantageous in rocky terrain. Bentonite packing will increase the contact efficiency with the
general mass of ground.
Copper clad mild steel rods can be used in place of normal mild steel rods where
the soil is corrosive.
Mutual separation between multiple earth electrodes of Length (L) should be

between L to 2L. In case of mutual separation is not possible between L to 2L, a
substantial gain is affected even at 2 m separation.
In case of rocky area where it is difficult to drive the electrode up to required depth
or high resistivity soil occur at relatively small depths, considerable advantage
may result from driving rods at an angle of about 30° to the horizontal, thus
increasing the installed length of electrode for a given depth.

C.I.COVER HINGED
125 400 125 TO C.I. FRAME
100
WIRE MESH
SEE
DETAIL 250
DIA 65 PVC CONDUIT
EMBEDDED TO
GROUNDING
CONDUCTOR
150 1250
250
250
150 150
HOMOGENOUS LAYER OF
COMMON EARTH/ EARTH
RESISTIVITY ENHANCING
MATERIAL WHERE
REQUIRED
AFTER FIXING SURFACE
SHOULD BE COVERED WITH
BITUMIN OR GREASE
50 75
25 AS PER IS 3043: 1987
AMENDMENT NO.2, JAN
2010: A HOMOGENOUS
LAYER OF COKE/
50 X 6 CHARCOAL AND SALT.
G.I.STRIP DRAFT
DIA 10
BOLT AND 3000
NUTS 50 X 3 G.I. C.I.PIPE 100 ID
STRIP 13 THICK
DETAIL A
Figure 41: Typical arrangement of pipe electrode (Ref fig 25 of IS 3043:2018)
11.3.3 Strip or Conductor Electrodes

According to Cl 14.2.3 of IS 3043 – 2018 the resistance of astrip or conductor electrode is given
by:
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝆 𝟒𝒍
𝟐𝝅𝒍 𝒅
where,
ρ = resistivity of the soil, in Ω-m (assumed uniform),
l = length of the Strip in cm, and
d = width (strip) or twice the diameter (conductors) in cm.

Strip or conductor electrode has special advantages where low resistivity soil is at shallow depth
and high resistivity soil below surface layers of low resistivity soil. In such cases Plate/pipe/rod
electrode will not give satisfactory results. As seen from the graph below, the earth resistance of
electrode reduces substantially up to certain length, further increase in length of electrode will not
have any significant reduction in earth resistance.
Figure 42: Effect of Length of Strip or Conductor Electrodes in Calculated Resistance for Soil Resistivity of 100 ΩM
(Assumed Uniform)
To reduce resistance further strip or conductor electrode may be connected in parallel or they may
radiate from a point. In case of parallel connections of two strips at a separation of 2.4 m, the total
resistance (Rt) will be less than 65% of the individual resistance (R) (i.e. Rt<0.65R).
The care should be taken in positioning of these electrodes so as to avoid damages

during civil or agriculture work/operations.
DRAFT
11.4 Other Means of Earthing
11.4.1 Cable Sheaths

Where an extensive underground cable system is available, the sheath and armour form a most
effective earth-electrode. In the majority of cases, the resistance to earth of such a system is less
than 1 Ω. Cable sheaths are more commonly used to provide a metallic path to the fault current
returning to the neutral.
11.4.2 Structural Steelwork as Earth Electrodes
The resistance to earth of steel frames or reinforced concrete buildings will vary considerably
according to the type of soil and its moisture content, and the design of the stanchion bases. For
this reason, it is essential to measure the resistance to earth of any structural steelwork that it is
employing and at frequent intervals thereafter. These are called as foundation earth electrodes,
which is a recommended practice in modern electro-technical standards.
11.4.3 Reinforcement of Piles
At power stations and large substations, it is often possible to secure an effective earth-electrode by
making use of the reinforcement in concrete piles. The earth strap should be bonded to a minimum
of four piles and all the piles between the bonds should be bonded together. Each set of four piles
should be connected to the main earthing-strap of the substation.

Figure 43: Earthing of Foundation Reinforcement
 Top ring should be half the size of main vertical reinforcement rod and to be welded to main
reinforcement rods.
 Earthing Pads should be welded to reinforcement rods and shall be connected to main earth
grid.
 Inserts other than earthing pads may or may not be welded to reinforcement.
DRAFT
11.4.4 Water Pipes

All Metallic pipe systems of services like water service, flammable liquids or gases, heating
systems, etc. shall not be used as earth electrodes for protective purposes. For existing installations
in which a water pipe is used as a sole earth electrode; an independent means of earthing should be
provided at the first practicable opportunity.
Water pipes shall not be used as consumer earth electrodes.
11.5 Connections to Earth Electrodes
The materials used for making connections have to be compatible with the earth rod and the copper
earthing conductor so that galvanic corrosion is minimized. In all cases, the connections have to be
mechanically strong.
For large earthing installations, such as at major substations, it is common to make provision for the
testing of earth electrodes. This is achieved by connecting a group of rod driven electrodes to the
main earth grid through a bolted link adjacent to the electrodes in a sunken concrete box. Simpler
disconnecting arrangements (or none at all) may be acceptable for small earthing installations.
The connection of an earthing conductor to an earth electrode shall be soundly made and
electrically satisfactory. Where a clamp is used, it shall not damage the electrode or the earthing
conductor.

A consumer’s electrical installation of voltage 250 V but not exceeding 650 V supplied from TN (TN-
S, TN-C-S, TN-C) distributor network should have a main earthing terminal (MET) that is connected
to the protective conductor of the source and via this to earth electrode installed in the electricity
distributor supply system.
As far as possible, all earth connections shall be visible for inspection.
Aluminium or copper clad aluminium conductors should not be used for final
connection to earth electrode.
11.6 Artificial treatment of soil

(Ref – IS 3043:2018 para 13.8)
In areas of high soil resistivity, and where it is difficult to achieve low resistance to earth even after
providing multiple earth electrodes, for such types of locations artificial treatment of soil by adding
earth enhancing material can be done.
Such installation requires constant monitoring and replacement of the additives as migration and
leaching of applied chemicals over a period of time reduces the efficiency of the system. Chemical
treatment of soil also has environmental effects and should not be considered as a long term
solution in order to meet a specified level of resistance.
To reduce the soil resistivity of the soil immediately surrounding the earth electrode, alternative
DRAFT
earth enhancing material which are easily dissolvable in the moisture (contained in the soil), and
are highly conductive may be used. These alternative substances are common salt (sodium
chloride = NaCl), calcium chloride (CaCl2), sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), copper sulphate
(CuSO4), salt and soft coke, and salt and charcoal in suitable proportions. These agents form a
conducting electrolyte throughout a wide region surrounding the earth electrode. In using artificial
treatment, the possible corrosive effect of the earth enhancing material salt on the driven rods and
connections should be considered.
11.6.1 Procedure for Artificial treatment

In general when artificial treatment of earth electrode pit is done, it is done by dissolving salt in
water and further pouring this solution inside the hollow earth electrode pipe considering that the
solution will disperse around the electrode through the perforated earth electrode but this is not the
correct practice.
As per IS 3043:2018 para 13.8.1 approximately 90 percent of the resistance between a

driven rod and earth lies within a radius of about 2 m from the rod. This should be kept in
mind when applying the agents for artificial treatment of soil. The correct and simplest
application is by excavating a shallow basin around the top of the rod, 1 m in diameter
and about 30 cm deep, and applying the artificial agent in this basin. The basin should
subsequently be filled several times with water, which should be allowed each time to
soak into the ground, thus carrying the artificial treatment, in electrolyte form, to
considerable depths and allowing the artificial agent to become diffused throughout the
greater part of the effective cylinder of earth surrounding the driven rod.

12. EARTHING SYMBOLS

(Ref- IEC 60417)
No.5017 Earth (ground)

To identify an earth terminal in cases where neither the symbol 5018 nor
5019 is explicitly stated.
No.5018 Functional Earth

To identify a noiseless (clean) earth terminal, of a specially designed earthing
system to avoid causing malfunction of the equipment. (e.g. connection of
sensitive electrical equipment of circuits directly to the PE conductor or to a
functional earthing conductor (FE), to minimize common mode distribution).
No.5019 Protective Earth

To identify any terminal which is intended for connection to an external
conductor for protection against electrical shock in case of a fault, or the
terminal of a protective earth electrode. (e.g. protective conductor connecting
point to an electrical equipment).
DRAFT
No.5020 Frame or Chassis

To identify a frame or chassis terminal. (e.g. it is a measure to enhance the
immunity of the equipment against conducted and radiated RF disturbance.
The connection of sensitive electrical circuits to the chassis).
No.5021 Frame or chassis Equipotentiality

To identify the terminals when connected, bring the various parts of an
equipment or of a system to the same potential, not necessarily being the
earth potential, e.g. for local Equipotential bonding.
No 5173 Signal low terminal

To indicate the signal terminal the potential of which is closest to the earth or
chassis potential.

13. VOLTAGE GRADIENT AROUND EARTH ELECTRODES
During earth fault conditions, the earth electrode is raised to a potential with respect to the general
mass of the earth. This potential can be calculated by the magnitude of fault current and the earth
resistance of the electrode (Potential rise = Fault current × Earth electrode resistance). This results
in the existence of voltages in the soil around the electrode that may be dangerous to livestock.
An effective remedy is to earth the neutral conductor at some point (PME) on the system
inaccessible to animals rather than earthing the neutral at the transformer itself.
Alternatively, an effective method is for pipe or rod electrodes to be buried with their tops below the
surface of the soil and connection made to them by means of insulated leads. The maximum
voltage gradient over a span of 2 m adjacent (for a 25 mm diameter pipe electrode) is reduced from
85 percent of the total electrode potential at ground level to 20 and 5 percent when the top of the
electrode is buried below 0·3 m and 1·0 m respectively.
Earth electrodes, other than those used for the earthing of the fence itself, should not be installed in
proximity to a metal fence, to avoid the possibility of the fence becoming live and thus dangerous at
points remote from the substation or alternatively giving rise to danger within the resistance area of
the electrode by introducing a good connection with the general mass of the earth.
DRAFT

14. CURRENT DENSITY AT THE SURFACE OF EARTH

ELECTRODE
An earth electrode should be designed to have a current carrying capacity adequate for the system
of which it forms a part, that is, it should be capable of dissipating energy without failure. Failure of
earth electrode is mainly due to excessive temperature rise at the surface of the electrode and is
thus a function of current density and duration as well as electrical and thermal properties of the
soil. In general, soils have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance so that sustained current
loading results in an initial decrease in electrode resistance and a consequent rise in the earth fault
current for a given applied voltage.
Based on experimental studies on the subject by experts at the international level has led to the
following conclusions:
a) Long-duration loading due to normal unbalance of the system will not cause failure of earth-
electrodes provided that the current density at the electrode surface does not exceed 40A/m2.
Limitation to values below this would generally be imposed by the necessity to secure a low-
resistance earth.
b) Time to failure on short-time overload is inversely proportional to the specific loading, which is
given by the i2, where i is the current density at the electrode surface. For the soils investigated,
the maximum permissible current density, i is given by:
(7.57×103 )
i= 𝐴/𝑚2
DRAFT
√𝜌𝑡
where
t = duration of the earth fault (in s); and
ρ = resistivity of the soil (in ohm.meter).
Experience indicates that this formula is appropriate for plate electrodes.

15. BASICS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

Let us revise some basics of electrical circuit which will be helpful for understanding better.
15.1 Simple Open and Closed Circuit

Current leaves the source and returns to the source. That is called a circuit. If you take a battery
(power supply source), the circuit is complete ONLY if you have one part of the circuit connected to
the positive and the other side to the negative.
DRAFT
Figure 44: Incomplete circuit or open circuit, no current will flow in above condition.
Figure 45: Complete circuit or close circuit, current will flow in this condition according to the source voltage and load
resistance.

15.2 Open and Closed Circuit with Earth
There is NO circuit if you connect one side to the positive and the other side to ground. Try it. Take a
battery and connect positive to the one terminal of the light bulb and connect the other terminal to
earth. It will not go on. (Do this with a battery, not a 220 V power supply).
Figure 46: Incomplete circuit or open circuit, no current will flow in above condition.
DRAFT
Figure 47: Complete circuit or close circuit, current will flow in this condition according to the source voltage and circuit
resistance.
Current does not go to Earth. Current is always trying to make it back to the
source.

16. ELECTRIC SHOCK

(Cl. No. 7 of IS 3043 : 2018)
16.1 Range of Tolerable Current

Effects of an electric current passing through the vital parts of a human body depend on the
duration, magnitude, and frequency. The most dangerous consequence of such an exposure is a
heart condition known as ventricular fibrillation, resulting in immediate arrest of blood circulation.
A circuit connected to the earthing arrangement (protective equipotential bonding) will protect us
from an electrical shock if the supply is disconnected within the recommended time. Connection to
earth electrode (plate/pipe/rod) will not protect us from electric shocks. The ONLY way to prevent or
stop an electric shock is to turn off the circuit before it creates a shock.
16.2 Effect of Frequency

Humans are very vulnerable to the effects of electric current at frequencies of 50 Hz. Currents of
approximately 100 mA can be lethal. Research indicates that the human body can tolerate a slightly
higher 25 Hz current and approximately five times higher direct current.
16.3 Effect of Magnitude and Duration of Current Passing through Body

Table 3 : Effect of Magnitude and Duration of Current Passing through Body
S. No Current Range Repercussion on Body
1 1 mA Threshold of perception; that is, the current magnitude at which a

person is just able to detect a slight tingling sensation in his
hands or fingertips.
DRAFT
2 1 mA to 6 mA Let-go currents, though unpleasant to sustain, generally do not

impair the ability of a person holding an energized object to
control his muscles and release it.
3 9 mA to 25 mA This currents range may be painful and can make it difficult or

impossible to release energized objects grasped by the hand.
4 25mA to 60mA This currents range could lead to muscular contractions which
can make breathing difficult. These effects are not permanent and
disappear when the current is interrupted, unless the contraction
is very severe and breathing is stopped for minutes rather than
seconds.
5 60mA to 100 mA This currents range may cause ventricular fibrillation, stoppage of
the heart, or inhibition of respiration might occur and cause injury
or death.
If shock currents can be kept below this value by a carefully designed earthing system by reducing
the shock voltage (shock voltage can be reduced by protective equipotential bonding) and duration,
injury or death may be avoided. The magnitude and duration of the current conducted through a
human body at 50 Hz should be less than the value that can cause ventricular fibrillation of the
heart.

16.4 Resistance of Human Body
For D.C and 50 Hz A.C currents, the human body can be approximated by a resistance. The current
path typically considered is from one hand to both feet or from one foot to the other one. The
internal resistance of the body is approximately 300, whereas values of body resistance including
skin range from 500 to 3000.The value of resistance of a human body (RB) from hand-to-feet
and also from hand-to-hand, or from one foot to the other foot is to be taken as 1000  as per IS
3043-2018.
DRAFT
Figure 48: Illustration of body resistance for different part.

ANNEXURE-I
EARTHING TERMINOLOGY
(Ref IS 3043:2018 & IS 732:2019)
1. Arc-Suppression Coil (Peterson Coil)

An earthing reactor so designed that its reactance is such that the reactive current to earth under fault
conditions balances the capacitance current to earth flowing from the lines so that the earth current at
the fault is limited to practically zero.
2. Bonding Conductor
A protective conductor providing equipotential bonding.
3. Class 0 Equipment
Equipment in ‘which protection against electric shock relies upon basic insulation; this implies that
there are no means for the connection of accessible conductive parts, if any, to the protective
conductor in the fixed wiring of the installation, reliance in the event of a failure of the basic insulation
being placed upon the environment.
4. Class I Equipment
Equipment in which protection against electric shock does not rely on basic insulation only, but which,
includes an additional safety, precaution in such a way that means are provided for the connection of
accessible conductive parts to the protective (earthing) conductor in the fixed wiring of the installation
in such a way that accessible conductive parts may not become live in, the event of a failure of the
basic insulation.
5. Class II Equipment DRAFT
Equipment in which protection against electric shock does not rely on basic insulation only but in which
additional safety precautions such as double insulation or reinforced insulation are provided, there
being no provision for protective earthing or reliance upon installation conditions.
6. Class III Equipment
Equipment in which protection against electric shock relies on supply at safety extra-low voltage (SELV)
and in which voltages higher than those of SELV are not generated.
7. Principal Characteristics of Equipment and Precautions for Safety
Table below gives the principal characteristics of equipment according to this classification and
indicates the precautions necessary for safety in the event of a failure of the basic insulation.
Table 4: Equipment Characteristics and Safety Precautions
Class 0 Class I Class II Class III

Principal No. means for Protective earthing Additional Designed for supply
characteristics of protective means are provided insulation and no at safety extra low
the equipment earthing means for voltage.
protective
earthing
Precautions for Earth-free Connection to the Unnecessary Connection to safety
safety environment protective earthing extra-low voltage
8. Dead
The term used to describe a device or circuit to indicate that a voltage is not applied.

9. Double Insulation
Insulation comprising both basic and supplementary insulation.
10. Reference Earth
The conductive mass of the earth, whose electric potential at any point of this mass of earth is taken as
zero with reference to an earthing system of electrical power system or electrical installations in a
building.
11. Earthing System
Arrangement of connections and devices necessary to earth equipment or a system separately or
jointly.
12. Global Earthing System
Equipment earthing system created by the interconnection of local earthing system that ensures, by the
proximity of the earthing system, that there is no dangerous touch voltage.
NOTES
1 Such system permits the devices of the earth fault current in a way that results in a reduction of
the earth potential rise at the local earthing system. Such a system could be said to form a
quasi-equipotential surface.
2 The existence of global earthing system may be determined by simple measurement or
calculation for such system. Typical examples of global earthing systems are in city centre,
urban or industrial areas with distributed low and high voltage earthing.
13. Earth Electrode
A conductor or group of conductors in intimate contact with and providing an electrical connection to
earth. DRAFT
14. Earth Grid

Earth electrode in the form of two over lapping groups of buried, parallel, horizontal electrodes usually
laid approximately at right angle to each other with the electrodes bonded at each inter section. Earth
grid provides common earth for electrical devices and metallic structures.
15. Earth Electrode Resistance
The resistance to earth of an earth electrode or earth grid.
16. Earth Fault Loop Impedance
The impedance of the earth fault current loop (phase-to-earth loop) starting and ending at the point of
earth fault.
17. Earth Leakage Current
A current which flows to earth or to extraneous conductive parts in a circuit which is electrically sound.
NOTE — This current may have a capacitive component including that resulting from the deliberate use
of capacitors.
18. Earthed Concentric Wiring

A wiring system in which one or more insulated conductors are completely surrounded throughout their
length by a conductor, for example, a sheath which acts as a PEN conductor.
19. Earthing Conductor
A protective conductor connecting the main earthing terminal (or the equipotential bonding conductor of
an installation when there is no earth bus) to an earth electrode or to other means of earthing.

20. Electrically Independent Earth Electrodes

Earth electrodes located at such a distance from one another that the maximum current likely to flow
through one of them does not significantly affect the potential of the other(s).
21. Equipotential Bonding

Electrical connection putting various exposed conductive parts and extraneous conductive parts at a
substantially equal potential.
NOTE — In a building installation, equipotential bonding conductors shall interconnect the following
conductive parts:
a. Protective conductor;
b. Earth continuity conductor; and
c. Risers of air-conditioning systems and heating systems, if any.
22. Exposed Conductive Part

A conductive part of equipment which can be touched, and which is not a live part, but which may
become live under fault conditions.
23. Extraneous Conductive Part

A conductive part liable to transmit a potential including earth potential and not forming part of the
electrical installation.
24. Final Circuit

A circuit connected directly to current-using equipment or to a socket outlet or socket outlets or other
outlet points for the connection of such equipment.
DRAFT
25. Functional Earthing

Connection to earth necessary for proper functioning of electrical equipment.
26. Live Part

A conductor or conductive part intended to be energized in normal use including a neutral conductor
but, by convention, not a PEN conductor.
27. Main Earthing Terminal

The terminal or bar (which is the equipotential bonding conductor) provided for the connection of
protective conductors and the conductors of functional earthing, if any, to the means of earthing.
NOTE —The conductors of the functional earthing may be connected to main earthing terminal
(which is the equipotential bonding conductor) only if the same is recommended by
original electrical equipment manufacturer.
28. Neutral Conductor

A conductor connected to the neutral point of a system and capable of contributing to the transmission
of electrical energy.
29. PEN Conductor

A conductor combining the functions of both protective conductor and neutral conductor.
30. Portable Equipment

Equipment which is moved while in operation or which can easily be moved from one place to another
while connected to the supply.

31. Potential Gradient (At a Point)

The potential difference per unit length measured in the direction in which it is maximum.
NOTES
1 When an electric force is due to potential difference, it is equal to the potential gradient.
2 Potential gradients is expressed in volts per unit length.
32. Earth Potential

Electric potential with respect to general mass of earth which occurs in, or on the surface of the earth
around an earth electrode when an electric current flow from the electrode to earth.
33. Earth Potential Rise

Voltage between an earthing system and reference earth.
34. Hot Site

Substation where the rise of earth potential under maximum earth fault condition can exceed the value
either 430V or 650 V depending upon the fault clearance time.
35. Transferred Potential

Potential rise of an earthing system caused by a current to earth transferred by means of a connected
conductor (for example a metallic cable sheath, PEN conductor, pipeline, rail) into areas with low or no
potential rise related to reference earth resulting in a potential difference occurring between the
conductor and its surroundings.
NOTES
DRAFT
1 The definition also applies where a conductor which is connected to reference earth,
leads into the area of the potential rise.
2 Transferred potential can result in electrocution path through the human body other than
the ‘touch voltage’ path that is hand to hand.
36. Protective Conductor

A conductor used as a measure of protection against electric shock and intended for connecting any of
the following parts:
a) Exposed conductive parts,
b) Extraneous conductive parts,
c) Main earthing terminal, and
d) Earthed point of the source or an artificial neutral.
37. Reinforced Insulation

Single insulation applied to live parts, which provides a degree of protection against electric shock
equivalent to double insulation under the conditions specified in the relevant standard.
NOTE —The term ‘single insulation’ does not imply that the insulation has to be one homogeneous
piece. It may comprise several layers that cannot be tested singly as supplementary or
basic insulation.
38. Residual Current Device

A mechanical switching device or association of devices intended to cause the opening of the contacts
when the residual current attains a given value under specified conditions.

39. Residual Operating Current

Residual current which causes the residual current device to operate under specified conditions.
40. Resistance Area (for an Earth Electrode only)
The surface area of earth (around an earth electrode) on which a significant voltage gradient may exist.
41. Simultaneously Accessible Parts
Conductors or conductive parts which can be touched simultaneously by a person or, where
applicable, by livestock.
NOTES
1 Simultaneously accessible part may be:
a) live parts,
b) exposed conductive parts,
c) extraneous conductive parts,
d) protective conductors, and
e) Earth electrodes.
2 This term applies for livestock in locations specifically intended for these animals.
42. Supplementary Insulation

Independent insulation applied in addition to basic insulation, in order to provide protection against
electric shock in the event of a failure of basic insulation.
43. Switchgear DRAFT
An assembly of main and auxiliary switching apparatus for operation, regulation, protection or other
control of electrical installations.
44. Voltage, Nominal
Voltage by which an installation (or part of an installation) is designated.
45. Touch Voltage
Voltage between conductive parts when touched simultaneously that is the potential difference between
an earthed conductor part of equipment, (that is exposed conductive part) which can be touched and
which is not a live part but which may become live under fault condition and a point on a conductive
part (that is extraneous conductive part)liable to transmit a potential including earth potential and not
forming part of the electrical installation or a point on earth’s surface separated by a distance equal to
the maximum normal reach (hand to hand or hand to foot) approximately one metre (see Fig. 25).
NOTE — The value of the effective touch voltage may be greatly influenced by the impedance
of the person in electrical contact with these conductive parts.
46. Prospective Touch Voltage

Voltage between simultaneously accessible conductive parts (exposed conductive parts when
energised under fault condition and extraneous conductive parts or mass of earth) when those
conductive parts are not touched simultaneously by a person.

I
R1 RK
E Step Potential rise above RF
remote earth during
short circuit E Step R2
R0 RF IK
RK
RF RF IK
R1 R2 R0
Step Voltage at an Earthed Structure
E Touch Potential Rise Above

DRAFT
Remote Earth During RK

Short Circuit E Touch R1
RF
2
R0 IK
RK
IK RF
2
R1 R0
Touch Voltage at a Grounded Structure

Figure 49: Step and Touch Voltages
47. Step Voltage

The potential difference between two points on the earth’s surface, separated by distance of one pace,
that will be assumed to be 1 m in the direction of maximum potential gradient see fig. 25.
48. Equipotential Line or Contour
The locus of points having the same potential at a given time.
49. Mutual Resistance of Earthing Electrodes
Equal to the voltage change in one of them produced by a change of one ampere of direct current in the
other and is expressed in ohms.

50. Earth Grid

A system of earthing electrodes consisting of inter-connected connectors buried in the earth to provide
a common earth for electrical devices and metallic structures.
NOTE — The term ‘earth grid’ does not include ‘earth mat’.
51. Earth Mat

An earthing system formed by a grid of horizontally buried conductors and which serves to dissipate
the earth fault current to earth and also as an equipotential bonding conductor system.
DRAFT

REFERENCES
1. IS 3043-2018: Code of Practice for Earthing (Second Revision).

2. IS 732-2019: Code of Practice for Electrical Wiring Installations (Fourth Revision)
3. IS 9409-1980: Classification of Electrical and Electronic Equipment with Regard to Protection Against
Electric Shock
4. Central Electricity Authority (Measures Relating to Safety and Electric Supply), Regulations -2010.
5. IEEMA Journals August 2020 and October 2020.
6. “The Missing Link-Guide on Electrical Safety in LV System” By Shri S. Gopa Kumar, Member in various
Electro Technical committees of BIS.
DRAFT

NOTE
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CONTACT US
CAMTECH is continuing its efforts in the documentation and up-gradation of information on maintenance
practices of electrical assets. Over the years a large number of publications on electrical assets have been
prepared in the form of handbooks, pockets books, pamphlets and video films, etc. These publications have
been uploaded on the internet as well as rail net.
For downloading these publications please do following:
1. On internet visit: www.rdso.indianrailways.gov.in
Go to Directorates  CAMTECH Other important links Publications for download Electrical

Engineering
2. On Railnet visit RDSO website at 10.100.2.19
Go to Directorates  CAMTECH Publications for download  Electrical Engineering
For any further information regarding publications please contact:
Dy. Director (Elect.) BSNL : 0751- 2470740 (O)

Rly. : 03747202, 9752447030 (CUG)
SSE/Electrical : 9755549297 (CUG)
E-mail : [email protected]
DRAFT
Fax : 0751- 2470841

Write at : Dy. Director (Electrical)
Indian Railways, Centre for Advanced Maintenance Technology

In front of Hotel Adityaz, Airport Road, Maharajpura, Gwalior, Pin code – 474 005

DRAFT
Government of India - Ministry of Railways
INDIAN RAILWAYS
CENTRE FOR ADVANCED MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY
Maharajpura, Gwalior, M.P. 474 005

Safety in Electrical Low Voltage Installations Vol-1 Basics of LV Earthing System-1

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1

expectations of passenger and freight traffic on the railways

Dy. Director /Electrical

2. PURPOSE OF EARTHING .............................................................................................................. 13

3. EARTHED AND UNEARTHED SYSTEMS ........................................................................................ 14

4. EQUIPMENT EARTHING ................................................................................................................ 15

4.1 Earthing of Equipment using Current.................................................................................. 15

4.2 Voltage Exposure .............................................................................................................. 16

6. TYPES OF SYSTEM EARTHING ..................................................................................................... 19

6.2 TT System ........................................................................................................................ 24

6.3 IT System ......................................................................................................................... 25

7. EQUIPOTENTIAL BONDING ........................................................................................................... 26

7.1 Protective Equipotential Bonding ....................................................................................... 27

7.2 Supplementary Equipotential Bonding ................................................................................ 27

7.3 Main Earthing Terminal (MET) ........................................................................................... 28

7.4 Typical Schematic of Earthing and Protective Conductors .................................................. 29

7.5 Extraneous Conductive Parts ............................................................................................. 29

7.6 Exposed Conductive Parts ................................................................................................. 30

8. EARTH FAULT PROTECTION IN LV INSTALLATIONS ..................................................................... 31

8.1 Protection against Indirect Contact .................................................................................... 31

8.3 Requirement for Automatic disconnection in TN System .................................................... 34

8.4 Requirement for Automatic disconnection in TT System .................................................... 35

8.5 Requirement for Automatic disconnection in IT System ..................................................... 35

9. EARTH FAULT LOOP IMPEDANCE................................................................................................. 36

9.1 Fault Loop in TN-S System................................................................................................ 36

9.2 Fault Loop in TN-C System................................................................................................ 37

9.3 Fault Loop in TN-C-S System ............................................................................................ 37

10. EARTHING OF INSTALLATIONS..................................................................................................... 39

10.1 Earthing in Standby Generating Plants ............................................................................... 39

10.3 Unearthed Generators Supplying a Mobile or Transportable Unit......................................... 40

10.4 Earthing in Building ........................................................................................................... 41

11. EARTH ELECTRODES ................................................................................................................... 43

11.1 Effect of Shape on Electrode Resistance ............................................................................ 43

11.2 Multiple Earth Electrodes ................................................................................................... 43

11.3 Common Types of Earth Electrodes................................................................................... 44

11.4 Other Means of Earthing .................................................................................................... 47

11.5 Connections to Earth Electrodes ........................................................................................ 48

11.6 Artificial treatment of soil................................................................................................... 49

12. EARTHING SYMBOLS ................................................................................................................... 50

13. VOLTAGE GRADIENT AROUND EARTH ELECTRODES ................................................................... 51

14. CURRENT DENSITY AT THE SURFACE OF EARTH ELECTRODE ..................................................... 52

15. BASICS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ..................................................................................................... 53

15.1 Simple Open and Closed Circuit ........................................................................................ 53

15.2 Open and Closed Circuit with Earth.................................................................................... 54

16. ELECTRIC SHOCK ........................................................................................................................ 55

16.1 Range of Tolerable Current ................................................................................................ 55

16.2 Effect of Frequency ........................................................................................................... 55

16.4 Resistance of Human Body ............................................................................................... 56

15. Earth Electrode Resistance ......................................................................................... 58

Figure 17: TN-C-S System ................................................................................................................... 23

ISSUE OF CORRECTION SLIP

CAMTECH/EL/2020-21/Earthing Vol.1/1.0/C.S. # XX date---

Board/RDSO guidelines shall be

CEA Central Electricity Authority

CEAR Central Electricity Authority Regulations

CNE Combined Neutral and Earth

ELCB Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker

IEC International Electro-technical Commission

LPS Lightning Protection System