Chapter 1

LINES, ANGLES, LETTERS, DIMENSIONING AND RECTILINER FIGURES

1.1 INTRODUCTION
You are welcome to the subject of Engineering Graphics. Though it is a new subject for us still we have studied a bit in our previous
classes. Let us recall the simple geometrical constructions where we have drawn them without much caring about the thickness of
lines etc. and written the steps of construction also. At this level of study we shall study geometrical constructions again but here we
shall use proper lines to construct them and there is no need of writing steps of construction. We have studied systeme International
& units (S.I.Units). These units are used throughout the world. Similarly, many languages are spoken in the world and different dialects
are used for expression. We can understand few of them but not all of them. It will not be a surprising fact if we say that there is a
language which is understood by a class of persons, known as ‘Engineers’ who speak the same dialects and understand each other
very well. This is the universal language of Engineers known as ‘Engineering Graphics’. In Engineering Graphics we use different lines,
symbols and conventions. Each line, symbol and convention has a definite purpose and sense to convey. Thus, we can say that
Engineering Graphics is the language of Engineers. It is a graphic representation of thinking, planning and a language of every
technical person who uses to communicate his ideas clearly to other technical persons. In the age of automation, Engineering
Graphics has greatly developed. Without the fundamental knowledge of Graphics a student cannot succeed in Industry. There are
many uses of Engineering Graphics in practical field, especially in modern industry. These Engineering Graphics are widely used in
Mechanical, Electrical, Electronics, Automobiles, Marine, Aeronautical, Chemical, Computer and instrumentation industry etc. In Civil
Engineering and Architecture, Graphics are used to draw top view and front view of buildings and structures.
In this chapter we shall learn about the basics of this universal language of Engineers. In Engineering Graphics we make extensive
use of various types of lines, symbols and conventions (standard symbols). We shall learn about the standard letters and Numerals.
These letters and Numerals are very necessary for writing notes, dimensions and the information needed on Graphics. Lastly, we
shall undertake some simple constructions on rectilinear figures such as angles, triangles, quadrilaterals and polygons. We will also
learn about dimensioning as it is an important aspect of our subject ‘Engineering Graphics’. These methods dimensioning allows a
standard shape and size of the product to be.
ACTIVITY
1. Measure the size of your books, note books and files etc. Draw a rough sketch of these in your sketch book and write their sizes.
2. Collect different types of cartons of consumer goods such as : Medicine cartons, Tea cartons, Chocolate cartons, Toothpaste
Cartons etc. Identify their shapes and note them in the sketch book.
3. Note down the different shapes of your rooms in your house, Measure their length, width and height. And write these
measurements in your sketch book.
4. Note different types of rectilinear figures in your study room such as note books, geometry box, pencil set, square etc.

1
Engineering Graphics

1.2 TYPES OF LINES

Now, let us learn about the different types of lines used :- (Refer Fig. 1.1)

Fig. 1.1

2
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

1.2.1 LINES
First of all we shall study about the quality and use of different lines, symbols and conventions which we shall use at this stage.
We shall come to know about different pencils used for this purpose.
These lines are black (Bold), medium and thin. In Engineering graphics we use the term ‘Thick’, ‘Extra wide’ and ‘wide’ for these lines.
The General ratio of these lines is 4 : 2 : 1. For drawing these lines with pencil, we use ‘HB’, ‘2H’ and ‘4H’. These pencils are used with
equal pressure of hand. When we are confident and habitual with the quality of these lines, we can use a single pencil of 0.3 mm or 0.5
mm and get the same result by applying different pressure on the pencil.

It will be interesting to not that all lines should be sharp, distinct, and uniform in thickness and according to the type of line to be
used.
Now let us learn more about these lines.
1. Continuous thick line : It is used as a boundary line of the drawing sheet and title block lines at the bottom of the drawing
sheet. For showing the end of threaded portion and visible out lines of the object, so that the form of the object is at once clear.
It is also known as object line.
2. Thin continuous line : This line is used to show projection lines, dimension lines, extension lines etc. These are drawn continous
thin.
3. Given Line : It is drawn with medium thickness to show the given lines and angles.
(a) Construction lines : These lines are drawn for constructing drawings. These are continuous thin lines.
(b) Extension line : Extension lines are projected from the out lines at right angle to the boundary line to be dimensioned.
These lines extend at least 3 mm beyond the dimension line.
(c) Dimension line : This line is drawn thin and at a distance of 6 to 8 mm away from the boundary line and parallel to it.
Dimension line is terminated by the arrow heads on both sides touching projection line, extension line or centre line.
(d) Leader line : Leader line is an inclined line followed by a horizontal line. Numerals or notes are written on the horizontal
portion of the leader line.
4. Hidden Line : This line is used where outline is not visible at viewing surface. This line is represented by thick short dashes
evenly spaced. This line is a broken line, composed of short strokes of equal lengths (approximately 2 to 3 mm) and spaced at
equal distances (1 mm), must be used.

3
Engineering Graphics

5. Centre/axis line : This line is used to locate the center of circles, arcs and axis of cylindrical objects. This line indicates the axis of
symmetry like cylindrical, conical, spherical, circles, arcs and should be extended slightly beyond the views in which they are
applied. The centre line is drawn thin and is represented by long and short dashes evenly spaced approximately 1 mm apart in
a proportion from 6 : 1, to 8 : 1 or in other words long dashes are about 3 to 5 times longer than the shorter dashes, which are
taken about 2 mm long. Pitch circle lines are also shown by this type of line.

6. Short break line : This line is drawn thin with free hand for showing short breaks. It is thin curved (wavy) line. These are used to
show limits of partial or interrupted views and sections.

7. Long break line : This line is drawn thin and straight with evenly spaced free hand zigzags, is used for shortening of long parts,
which are same throughout or for showing long breaks.

8. Chain line : It is drawn with thin long dashes and dots (also with double dots) visible removed portions of the objects and with
thin long dashes and double dots in between to show the hidden (invisible) removed portions. These portions are generally
removed by cutting plane, in front of the viewing direction.

9. Cutting plane line : It is drawn thin and is similar to axis line but thick at ends and change of direction. This line indicates plane
of section and arrow indicates the direction of viewing.

10. Hatching lines : These lines are also called section lines. These lines are continuous thin lines drawn at an angle of 45° to the
main outlines of the sectioned portion. They are uniformly spaced and drawn 2 to 3 mm apart.

Refer Fig. 1.2 for reference on the next page

4
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

Fig. 1.2

5
Engineering Graphics

1.3 ORDER OF PRIORITY OR COINCIDING LINES

Some time it may happen that when we have drawn some line/lines on our drawing sheet according to the need of the Graphics the
same line or some other line/lines overlap each other then the following order of priority should be observed by us :
1. Continuous thick Line
2. Hidden Line
3. Centre/axis Line

1.4 CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF MATERIALS

Fig. 1.3

6
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

1.5 CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF BREAKS

Some time you may have noticed that some machine parts are quite long and it is unnecessary to show them in full length. Such as
steel rods, pipes or long threads etc. Then we use conventional breaks and by moving the member closer. The break in the member
is shown by different conventions. Generally these breaks are shown for a cross section of the uniform member. The true length is
given by putting the dimension. (See Fig. 1.4)

Fig. 1.4

7
Engineering Graphics

1.6 CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF COMMON FEATURES

To save our time in drawing for making the drawing easier and to save space, conventional representation of various parts and
features is adopted. (See Fig. 1.5)

Fig. 1.5

8
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

ASSIGNMENT
1. Draw and write which type of line you will use for drawing the following :
(a) Axis of a Cone (b) Boundary line (c) Projection line
(d) Line for short Break (e) Line for long break (f ) Dimension line
2. What do you understand by the “order of priority of coinciding lines” ?
3. Write full form of “CAD” Explain the term “CAD” in brief.
4. How “CAD” can save, time, labour and natural resources ?
5. In which language the Engineers converse with each other and what is their script ?
6. Fill in the blanks by choosing the correct term. (curved thin line, thin, thin straight line with zigzags, thin continuous thin lines
at 45°, thick)
(a) Axis line is drawn as a ................................................ line.
(b) Visible out line is shown graphically as.......................................................... .
(c) Short break line is shown as ........................... .
(d) Long break line is shown as a ................................ .
(e) Hatching line is shown as .............................. .

9
 Engineering Graphics

1.7 ANGLES
If we look around in our school. We will notice that our school playground is horizontal and our school building is standing vertical on
the ground. On some festivals you may have flown kites in the open sky. Have you observed that the thread attached to the kite is
neither horizontal nor vertical? It is inclined at some angle with respect to the ground and this angle changes with the magnitude of
the flying kite.
We have learnt in the previous classes that when two straight lines meet at a point they are said to form an angle. We also know that
these angles are of different types. Let us revise what we have learnt in the previous classes.

1. An acute angle : The angle less than 90° is an acute angle.

(See Fig. 1.7.1)

ABC is an acute angle

Fig. 1.7.1

2. Right angle : When one straight line stands on another straight line so as to make
the adjacent angles equal to each other, then we can say that one line
is perpendicular to the other and the adjacent angles are called right
angles.
Angle ABC and Angle CBD are right angles
(See Fig. 1.7.2) Fig. 1.7.2

10
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

3. Obtuse angle : The angle between 90° and 180° is called an obtuse angle.
(See Fig. 1.7.3)

ABC is an obtuse angle

Fig. 1.7.3

4. Straight angle : This angle is a straight line or of 180°.

(See Fig. 1.7.4)
ABC is a Straight Line
Fig. 1.7.4

5. Reflex angle : This angle is greater than 180° but less than 360°.
(See Fig. 1.7.5)

ABC is a reflex angle

Fig. 1.7.5

6. Adjacent angles : Those angles which lie on either side of a common arm are called
adjacent angles.
(See Fig. 1.7.6)
Angle ABC and Angle CED are adacant angles
Fig. 1.7.6

11
 Engineering Graphics

7. Complementary angles : When sum of two angles is 90° they are said to be
complementary angles. One angle is the complement of
the other angle.
(See Fig. 1.7.7)

Angle ABC and Angle CED are

complementary angles
Fig. 1.7.7

8. Supplementary angles : When sum of two angles is 180°, they are said to be
supplementary angles. One angle is called the
supplement of the other angle.
(See Fig. 1.7.8)
Angle ABC and Angle CBD are
supplementary angles
Fig. 1.7.8

9. Vertex or apex of the angle : The point where two inclined lines meet.
(See Fig. 1.7.9)

ABC is the vertex or apex of the angle ABC

Fig. 1.7.9

12
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

1.8 LETTER PRINTING

We have just learnt in our previous paragraphs about the lines. We have also learnt about their uses. Now, let us learn about the
letters. Like lines the letters and numerals are standardized, so that the words written in one country may be understood by the
people of the other country where the drawing is used for production, repair or for general maintenance.

It is aptly said that, “Small things make perfection, but perfection is no small thing”.

Letter writing is one of the “small things” which make or mar the appearance and perhaps the usefulness of a drawing.

The foremost step in an engineering graphics of course is a good practice in free hand lettering and dimensioning. Insistence upon
reasonable accuracy and conformity to the standard then set in all subsequent exercises soon engenders the right attitude to this
important branch of the work. Without neat conventional letters and figures a drawing is offensive to a trained eye.

We can divide the letters broadly in two types. first is ‘Upper Case Letters’ and secondly into ‘Lower Case Letters’. We can also say
‘Capital’ and ‘Small letters’.

Similarly, the ratio of height and width bears some ratio. Generally it is 7:4 or 5:4, except for some letters such as ’l’, ‘j’, ‘M’, and ‘W’,
which is 5:1, 5:3 and 5:5 and 5:5 (or 7:1, ‘7:3, ‘7:5’ and ‘7:5). It is not always necessary to adhere to these ratios. According to the space
available the letters can be expanded or compressed. The writing of these letters may also vary from person to person. The letters are
written either by free hand or with the help of ‘Stencils’. Thus, we can say that process of writing the capital alphabets (A, B, C, D, .....Z),
small alphabets (a, b, c, d, .....z) and the Numerals (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, .....9) is known as Letter Printing.

Now, we shall learn about the correct formation of letters as are printed on the Engineering Graphics. We shall also learn about the
correct ratio between height and width of these letters.

Now, let us learn about the ‘Capital’ and ‘Small letters’ along with the ‘Numerals’. Before writing these letters we should be familiar
with the height, width and shape of these letters as used on the drawing. For main title we take height of main title as ‘6 mm’, for sub
title height may be ‘4 mm’ and for any other title or dimension it can be ‘2 mm’.

Generally, we use single stroke letters. The word single stroke should not be taken to mean that the letter should be made in one
stroke without lifting the pencil. It actually means that the thickness of the line of the letter should be such as is obtained in one
stroke of the pencil. (See Fig. 1.8.2 & 1.8.3)

13
 Engineering Graphics

It will be interesting to note that there are six fundamental strokes only. It is an
enough proof that single stroke gothic letters are very simple to write. These basic
strokes are as given below :

Six Fundamental Stroke

Fig. 1.8.1

The vertical letters look beautiful and easy to read. Therefore, we shall learn more about these letters here, later you can go for
slanting letters also. Slanting letters are written in the same fashion as the vertical letters, the only difference is the angle of slant,
which is 72°. These slanting letters are also called italics letters.
For writing ‘Capital’ or ‘Upper Case Letters’ divide the height into two equal halves and then write the required letters keeping in mind
the ratio of width to the height.
Before printing these alphabets, it will be of much use if we draw guide lines. For printing capital letters mainly two guide lines are
drawn. The lower line is called ‘base line’ and the upper line is called the ‘Cap line’ or ‘Capital line’. It will be much easier for us if a
‘middle line’ is also drawn for our convenience.
Before writing letters we must know about the RULE OF STABILITY:
In the construction of letters, the well known optical illusion in which a horizontal line drawn across the middle of a rectangle appears
to be below the middle must be provided for. In order to give the appearance of stability, such letters as B, E, K, S, X, and Z and the
figures 3 and 8 must be drawn smaller at the top than the bottom. To see the effect of this illusion turn a printed page upside down
and notice the appearance of the letters mentioned.
It will be interesting to note that these strokes are drawn from top to bottom and from left to right. It is also very important to note
that the first requirement in lettering is to hold the pencil correctly. The pencil should be held comfortably with the thumb, forefinger
and second finger on alternate flat sides and third and fourth fingers on the paper. Vertical slanting and curved strokes are drawn
with a steady, even, finger movement; horizontal strokes are made similarly but with some pivoting of the hand at the wrist. Exert
pressure, which is firm and uniform but not so heavy as to cut grooves in the paper. To keep the point symmetrical, form the habit of
rotating the pencil after every few strokes.

14
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

Vertical strokes are made entirely by finger moments Horizontal strokes are made by pivoting the whole hand at the wrist; fingers
Fig. 1.8.2 move slightly to keep the stroke perfectly horizontal
Fig. 1.8.3

The following capital letters are arranged in family groups. Study the shape of each letter, with the order and direction of the strokes
forming it and practice it until its form and construction are familiar to you.
Let us first take ‘I’, ‘H’, and ‘T’ group : The letter ‘I’ is the foundation stroke. We shall find it difficult to
keep the stems strokes vertical. If so draw direction lines lightly. The ‘H’ is nearly rectangular and the
cross bar is just in centre. The top of ‘T’ is drawn first to the full width and then the stem is drawn in the
middle vertically. (See Fig. 1.8.4)

Note the direction of fundamental

horizontal and vertical strokes
Fig. 1.8.4

Second group is of ‘L’, ‘E’ and ‘F’ group : The letter ‘L’ is made in two strokes The first two
strokes of ‘E’ are the same as for the letter ‘L’ and the third or upper stroke is slightly shorter
than the lowest stroke or may be drawn equal. The third stroke will be two third of the longest
stroke and drawn in the middle of the letter. The letter ‘F’ has the same proportions as for the
letter ‘E’ except the lowest line. (See Fig. 1.8.5)
Note the successive order of strokes
Fig. 1.8.5

15
 Engineering Graphics

The third group of letters consist of ‘N’, ‘Z’, ‘X’ and ‘Y’ : For drawing letter ‘N’
the parallel sides are drawn first and then the slanting line is drawn. For the
letter ‘Z’ top and bottom horizontal lines are drawn first and then the slanting
line is drawn. for drawing letter ‘X’ for beginners it will be better if four points
at the width of the boundary are marked and then joined diagonally. For
writing ‘Y’, draw half ‘X’ and the junction of the ‘Y’ stroke is at the centre. (See
Fig. 1.8.6)
Note that Z and X are smaller at the top than at the bottom, in accordance
with the rule of stability.
Fig. 1.8.6

The fourth group is of ‘V’, ‘A’ and ‘K’ : ‘V’ is of the same width as ‘A’. The ‘A’ bridge is one third up
from the bottom. The second stroke of ‘K’ strikes the stem one third up from the bottom, the
third stroke branches from it in a direction starting from top of the stem. (See Fig. 1.8.7)

The horizontal line of ‘A’ is one-third from the

bottom; the second and third strokes of ‘K’ are
perpendicular to each other.
Figure 1.8.7

The fourth group is of ‘M’ and ‘W’ : These two letters are the widest of all letters. ‘M’ may be
made in consecutive strokes or by drawing the two vertical strokes first, as with the ‘M’, ‘W’ is
formed of two narrow ‘Vs’, each two third in width of the letter. Note that with all the pointed
letters the width at the point is the width of the stroke. (See Fig. 1.8.8)

‘M’ and ‘W’ are wider than the other letters by one unit.
Fig. 1.8.8

The sixth group is ‘O’, ‘Q’ ‘C’ and ‘G’ group : In this group letters are mde as full
circles. The ‘O’ is made in two strokes, the left side is a longer arc than the right,
as the right side is harder to draw. Make the kern of the ‘Q’ straight. A large size
‘C’ and ‘G’ can be made more accurately with an extra stroke at the top. Whereas,
in smaller letters the curve is made in one stroke. Note that the middle bar in ‘G’
All these letters are based on the circle is halfway up and does not extend past the vertical stroke. (See Fig. 1.8.9)
Fig. 1.8.9

16
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

The seventh group of letters is ‘D’, ‘U’ and ‘J’ is : The top and bottom strokes of ‘D’ must
be horizontal. Failure to observe this is a common fault with the beginners. Letter ‘U’ is
formed by two parallel strokes to which the bottom stroke is added, in smaller letters
it may be made in two strokes curved to meet at the bottom. ‘J’ has the same
construction as ‘U’ with the first stroke omitted. (See Fig. 1.8.10)

These are made with combinations of straight and curved strokes

Fig. 1.8.10

The eighth group is ‘P’, ‘R’ and ‘B’ group : With ‘P’, ‘R’ and ‘B’ the number of strokes
depends upon the size of the letter. For capital letters the horizontal lines are drawn
and the curves added, but for smaller letters only one stroke for each to be added.
The middle line of ‘P’ and ‘R’ are on the centre line. For ‘B’ observe the rule of stability.
(See Fig. 1.8.11)
Note the rule of stability with regard to R and B
Fig. 1.8.11

The ninth group consists of ‘S’, ‘8’ and ‘3’ group : This
group is closely related in form. The rule of stability may
be observed carefully. For capital ‘S’, three strokes are
used, for a smaller one, two strokes and for a very small
size one stroke only is best. The ‘8’ and ‘S’ are similar in
construction. These letters are made in three strokes. Or
in “head and body” in four strokes. A perfect ‘3’ can be
finished in ‘8’. (See Fig. 1.8.12)
A perfect S and 3 can be completed to a perfect 8.
Fig. 1.8.12

The tenth group consist of ‘0’, ‘6’ and ‘9’ : The numeral ‘O’ is five-sixth the width of the
letter, is an ellipse. The backbones of ‘6’ and ‘9’ have the same curve as of ‘0’ and the
lobes are slightly less than two-thirds the height of the letter. (See Fig. 1.8.13)

The width is bit lesser than the height

Fig. 1.8.13

17
 Engineering Graphics

The eleventh group consists of ‘2’, ‘5’ and ‘7’ ‘&’ 4,1. The secret in making the ‘2’ lies in getting the reverse curve to cross the centre of
the space. The bottom of ‘2’ and the top of ‘5’ and ‘7’ should be horizontal ; straight lines. The second stroke of ‘7’ terminates directly
below the middle of the top stroke. Its stiffness is relieved by curving it slightly at the lower end. The ampersand (&) is made in three
strokes for large letters and two for smaller ones and must be carefully balanced. The numeral (4) will be written by horizontal &
vertical stroke and numeral 1 will be written by vertical and slant stroke. (See Fig. 1.8.14)

Fig. 1.8.14

SOME EXAMPLES

VERTICAL ALPHABETS

Fig. 1.8.15

18
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

Fig. 1.8.16

Fig. 1.8.17

ITALICS ALPHABETS

Fig. 1.8.18

Fig. 1.8.19

19
 Engineering Graphics

Fig. 1.8.20

20
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

Fig. 1.8.21

Basic forms form lowercase letters. For standard letters,

Lowercase Letters the waist-line height is two-thirds of capital height; capital
Fig. 1.8.22 Line and drop line are therefore one-third above and
one-third below the body of the letter.
Fig. 1.8.23

The straight-line inclined lowercase letters. Note that the

center lines of the letters follow the slope angle. The loop letters. Note the graceful combination
Fig. 1.8.24 of elliptical body, ascenders and descenders.
Fig. 1.8.25

Form of curved-stroke inclined capital. The hook letters. They are combinations
The basic shape is elliptical. of ellipses and straight lines.
Fig. 1.8.26 Fig. 1.8.27

21
 Engineering Graphics

ITALICS LOWERCASE LETTERS

The ellipse letters. Their formation is basically elliptical.

Fig. 1.8.28
Fig. 1.8.29

Fig. 1.8.30
Fig. 1.8.31

Italic Vertical Letters Italics Letters

Fig. 1.8.32 Fig. 1.8.33

22
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

1.9 FOR LEFT HANDERS ONLY

The order and direction of strokes in the preceding alphabets were
designed for right handed persons. The principal reason that left hander
sometimes find lettering difficult is that whereas “the right hander Fig. 1.9.3
progresses away from the body, the left hander progresses toward the
body” consequently, the pencil and hand partially hide the work done
making it harder to join strokes and to preserve uniformity.
For the natural left hander, whose writing position is the same as a
right hander except reversed left for right, a change in the sequence
of strokes of some of the letters will obviate part of the difficulty
caused by interference with the line of sight. For example for letter

Fig. 1.9.1

Fig. 1.9.4

‘E’ the top bar is made before the bottom bar and ‘M’ is drawn from
left to right to avoid having strokes hidden by the pencil. Horizontal
portions of curves are easier to make from right to left, hence the
starting points for ‘O’, ‘Q’, ‘C’, ‘G’ and ‘U’ differ from the standard right
hand stroking. ‘S’ is the perfect letter for the left hander and is best
made in single smooth stroke. The figures ‘6’ and ‘9’ are difficult and
require extra practice. In lower case letters ‘a’, ‘d’, ‘g’ and ‘q’ it is better
to draw the straight line before the curve, even though it makes
Fig. 1.9.2 spacing a little hurdle. (See Fig. 1.9.1. to 1.9.4)

23
 Engineering Graphics

1.5.2 Essentials of good lettering :

1. Acquire a thorough knowledge of all types of letters, the general shape, proportion and design and direction of the strokes
used to produce it.
2. Learn to compose letter in formation of words and see that spacing is proper and uniform.
3. Practice consistently and conscientiously.
4. Lettering for titles and sub-titles should be written in guided lines.

1.5.3 Some important points which should be kept in mind while writing these letters and numerals :
1. These letters should be written by a single stroke of pencil and no sketching is done.
2. All letters should be uniform in shape, size, stroke, shade and spacing.
3. The shine and boldness of the letters and numerals should be the same.
4. The letters should be legible and uniform in height and width, except for the letters ‘I’, ‘J’ ‘M’ and ‘W’.
5. The letters can be written in the expanded or compressed form according to the space available for writing.
6. The space between two letters must be kept uniform and a gap equal to twice the thickness of the letter may be kept between
two except when writing : LT, AV, PA, LY, AT, TV, etc. Similarly, no gap is to be given while writing : AWA, ATA, PAT, AVA, AYA etc.
7. The space between two words may be equal to the width of one letter.
8. The line thickness for small and cepital alphabets shall be the same.
9. The guide lines should be drawn with ‘4H’ (Thin lines) and unnecessary lines may be rubbed off.

ACTIVITY
1. Write in capital letters on your notebook the following things :
(a) Your name
(b) Class
(c) Roll No.
(d) Subject and
(e) Name of the School
2. Write the following paragraph in ‘Capital’ and ‘Small’ letters :
“Your application for a job is your ambassador. It reaches before you reach a firm for a job. It discloses everything about your
personality. Therefore, always write in a good hand.”

24
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

TEST YOURSELF / ASSIGNMENT

1. How many types of ‘letters are there?
2. What do you understand by ‘letter printing’ ?
3. Write the following sentence into Capital and small letters :
“Engineering Graphics is the language of Engineers”.
4. Write the following letters and numerals in the single stroke gothic letters:
“The height of main title may be taken as 6 mm, subtitles as 4 mm and any other title or dimension in 2 mm”.
5. Write the name of guide lines as used for capital letters and for small letters.
6. What points should be kept in mind while writing single stroke gothic letters?
7. How we can write beautiful and legible letters ?
8. What is the ratio of height and width in capital letters ?
9. What is the ratio between height and width of small letters? How we should divide the height for small letters ?
10. How much gap between two letters and two words may be given ?
11. Explain the rule of spacing between the letters.
12. Write in capital and small letters the following lines :
“The letters and numerals are written with a conical blunt pencil, these consist of horizontal, vertical, inclined and curved
strokes to give the required letters.”

25
 Engineering Graphics

1.10 LIST OF DRAWING EQUIPMENTS AND MATERIALS

We have seen that mason uses different materials and tools to construct a house. A carpenter uses different types of wood and tools
to make furniture etc. Similarly, Engineers use different materials and tools for drawing Engg. graphics.
A person generating a drawing needs particular type of materials and equipments to draw drawing neatly, conveniently and with
less labour. Thus, he saves a lot of energy and time. The quality of drawing produced is also of good quality.
These instruments and material may be purchased under the guidance of your Engineering Graphics teacher or from, a standard
stationery shop to ensure quality and usefulness.
List of Materials and Equipments required at this stage of learning.
1. Drawing Board of half imperial size. (24” × 15”) or (615 mm × 39 mm)
2. Drawing sheets of imperial size and of good quality. These can be cut into half imperial size by thread or a paper cutter.
3. ¼ Imperial size Sketch Book.
4. Pencils : ‘HB’, ‘2H’ and ‘4H’, (later a single mechanical pencil using leads of ‘0.3 mm’ or ‘0.5 mm’ can be used, a pencil lead box filled
with leads is also needed).
5. A non-dust rubber of good quality. 5 (a) Erasing Shield
6. Scales of ‘150 mm’ and ‘300 mm’.
7. Two compasses with the facility of bending arms. One compass for holding ‘B’ and other for ‘2H’ pencil leads.
8. One divider with needles at two ends.
9. Set squares having angles of 45°, 90° and 45° of 135 mm in length (length of hypotenuse) and 30°, 90° amd 60° of 175 mm in
length, made up of good quality cellouse.
10. Drawing board clamps, clips, pins or cello tape for fixing the drawing sheet.
11. One protector of semicircular shape of 50 mm radius made of plastic.
12. A piece of 0° sand paper or a fine file or emery paper for sharpening the pencil lead.
13. A pencil cutter, sharpener or pencil machine cutter.
14. A small paper knife or some stitching thread to cut the drawing sheets etc.
15. A handkerchief or clean duster or a clean hand Towel to clean the instruments or remove dust from the drawing sheet or for
removing the rubber dust .
16. Pencil leads of ‘B’ and ‘2H’ for fixing in the compasses.

26
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

17. Drawing file of half imperial size or a round plastic box or a shuttle cock box for keeping drawing sheets.
18. A small circle plate or circle master for drawing curves and small circles.
19. Tee-Square, Roller drafter or a Mini-Drafter for using on a half imperial size drawing board.

1.11 DRAWING BOARD

Drawing board is a rectangular smooth surface made of some soft wood strips such as : Yellow Pine, white Pine, Oak, Linden, Red
Cedar, Kail or Basswood. These wooden strips are cleated at the bottom and two rectangular wooden battens are screwed to check
wrapping. A working edge made of ebony wood is provided on the left edge of the board. The T-square slides along this edge. For
more smoothness of the working surface of the drawing board may be laminated. (See Fig. 1.11.1 & 1.11.2 below)

Fig. 1.11.1 Fig. 1.11.2

Uses
(a) On the flat surface of the drawing board the drawing sheet is fixed.
(b) If mini drafter is used than it can be fitted on the upper left hand corner.
(c) The Tee-square can be used by tightly sliding butt against the left hand ebony edge of the drawing board and blade can be
used to support set-squares or for drawing horizontal lines.

27
 Engineering Graphics

These are used to draw the graphics on them. Generally a half imperial size drawing sheet is enough to be used at this stage. The
half imperial size of drawing sheet is 420 mm × 594 mm in size. White sheets are used where the appearance is given more
consideration. The drawing sheet has two sides one is rough side and the other is smooth side. We generally use rough side so
that pencil may give good impression. The drawing sheet should possess the uniform thickness and of such a quality that the
erasing effect should not be there.
Uses :
(a) It is used to draw the final layout of the drawing.
(b) The prepared drawing lay outs can be stored for future use.
1.12 QUARTER ¼ IMPERIAL SIZE SKETCH BOOK
This Sketch book may be used as rough note book for Engineering Graphics work. The class notes of Graphics may be made in this
Sketch Book. It will be much useful at the time of examination as we have not to look in other note books about the important
Graphics or notes etc. made previously. On the more, this note book keep a tab on what we have learnt in the class or elsewhere.
1.13 PENCILS/MICRO TIP PENCIL / MECHANICAL PENCIL OR CLUTCH PENCIL
It is rightly said that a good quality pencil can produce a good quality drawing. It will be much better if all the pencils are of the same
manufacturer. We have noticed that at one end of the pencil HB, 2H or any other number is written. We should know that the numeral
denotes the degree of softness or hardness. ‘H’ stands for hardness and ‘B’ for blackness. Thus ‘HB’ stands for hard black pencil. These
pencils are available from ‘9H’ to ‘7B’ grades. There are two medium grade pencil ‘HB and ‘F’ also available in the market. These pencils
are sharpened in the ‘Conical’ or ‘Chisel’ shape according to the necessity of the drawing. Then the use of mechanical penal/clutch
pencil would be introduced. (See Fig. 1.13.1 to 1.13.4)

Drafting Pencil
Fig. 1.13.2

Common Pencil Points

Fig. 1.13.4
Sharpening and cleaning the lead of the Pencil
Fig. 1.13.1 Mechanical Pencil
Fig. 1.13.3

28
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

Different shades of graphite Pencils EXTRA INFORMATION

Fig. 1.13.5 (a) Fig. 1.13.5 (b)

29
 Engineering Graphics

1.14 RUBBER
Rubbers or erasers are available in different types of hardness and abrasiveness.
For us a good quality soft rubber will serve the purpose. (See Fig. 1.14.1 & 2)

Erasing Rubber Erasing the lines

Fig. 1.14.1 Fig. 1.14.2

1.15 ERASING SHIELD

Erasing is done on an engineering drawing by placing any suitable opening in the erasing
shielf over the work to be erased and rubbing with an eraser. Excessive pressure should not
be applied to the eraser to prevent the damage of the drawing. Care should be taken to hold
the erasing shield tightly to prevent it from slipping. (See Fig. 1.15.1)

1.16 SCALES Erasing Shield

Fig. 1.15.1
Scales are good for drawing work. These are transparent and scales of 150 mm and 300 mm in length
are enough. These are used for measuring sizes, lengths as the relative dimensions of the object are
transferred to the drawing. (See Fig. 1.16.1 to 1.16.3)

300 mm scale Architect Scales

150 mm scale
Fig. 1.16.1 Fig. 1.16.3
Fig. 1.16.2

30
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

1.17 COMPASSES
Compasses are made up of two hinged legs. A needle is fitted in one leg and a pencil/lead in the other. Some compasses have
detachable pencil and ink point. The needle and lead legs have knee joints from where the legs can be bent. For drawing large arcs
or circles the legs are bent about the knee joint in such a way that their lower limbs are perpendicular to the drawing board or
drawing sheet. Leads of ‘2H’ and ‘B’ are fixed in two different compasses for use for drawing light and bold lines. One thing is very
important for drawing a good arc or circle is that the pencil lead to give a margin for needle which pricks the sheet a little bit. A lead
of one grade softer may be used in the compass just for compensating the pressure on the pencil while drawing a straight line. (See
Fig. 1. 17.1)

B. Sharpen on outside

Slight
angle
Slight
angle

Sandpaper

A. Point Lengths C. Bevel Point

Use of Compass

Needle Point Lead Point

Fig. 1.17.1

31
 Engineering Graphics

Bow Compass : It is used to draw small arcs and circles. It is suitable for drawing circles or arcs from 2 mm to 60 mm diameter. (See Fig.
1.17.2 a & b)

Fig. 1.17.2 (a) Fig. 1.17.2 (b)

METHOD OF USING COMPASSES

1. Open the legs of compass and measure the radius of the arc or circle from the scale.
2. Place the needle “at the exact intersection of the centre lines” and prick the drawing sheet by the needle.
3. Rotate the compass in the clockwise direction such that the pencil lead touches the drawing sheet.
4. Draw a crisp arc or required circle. We have to keep in mind that the thickness and darkness of line should be uniform throughout
your drawing.

Measuring distances Adjusting the Dividers or Compass Use of Dividers or Compass

Fig. 1.17.3 Fig. 1.17.4 Fig. 1.17.5

32
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

1.18 DIVIDER
Divider consists of two lega hinged together at the upper end. Two
needles are there at two ends of legs. (See Fig. 1.18.1)
Uses :
1. It is used to divide a length into any number of equal parts.
2. It is used to transfer the distance from one place to another on the
drawing sheet.
Fig. 1.18.1

Bow Divider : It is used for dividing small

circles or arcs or a line segment into number
of equal distances. (See Fig. 1.18.2 & 1.18.3)

Fig. 1.18.2 Fig. 1.18.3

1.19 SET-SQUARES
A pair of set-squares is made up of cellouse of 45°, 90°, 45° and 30°, 90°, 60° are needed for drawing purpose. Small set squares may be
preferred over large ones for using with mini-drafter. (See Fig. 1.19.1)

Fig. 1.19.1

33
 Engineering Graphics

Uses :
1. The set-squares are used to draw vertical or
parallel lines along with the use of mini-
drafter.
2. A pair of set-squares can be used to draw
angles of 15°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 75°, 90°, 105°, 120°,
135°, 150°, 165° and 180° (See Fig. 1.19.2)

Fig. 1.19.2

1.20 DRAWING CLAMPS OR CLIPS, CELLO-TAPE, PINS/THUMB TACK OR STAPLERS ETC.

These clamps, pins, cello tape etc, is used to

hold the drawing sheet on the drawing
board. (See Fig. 1.20.1)

Fig. 1.20.1

34
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

1.21 PROTRACTOR

A protractor can be used for making and measuring

such angles which cannot be drawn with set-squares.
It is semi circular in shape and made up of cellouse. It is
a good choice to draw angles correct up to one degree.
A protractor can be read from both the ends. The
circumferential edge of a protractor is graduated to ½°
or 1° division, which is numbered at every 10 intervals.
(See Fig. 1.21.1)

Fig. 1.21.1

1.22 SAND PAPER OF 0° OR EMERY PAPER

An emery or sand paper of 0° is used to sharpen the pencil lead into a

conical or chisel shape. A precuation may be taken that the lead powder
does not fall on the drawing sheet and spoil the drawing. Similarly, lead
powder should be cleaned from hands also before commencing the
preparation of drawing sheet. These precautions are very necessary to be
kept in mind to save the drawing sheet from smudging. (See Fig. 1.22.1)
Pull and roll at the
some time

Fig. 1.22.1

35
 Engineering Graphics

1.23 PAPER KNIFE OR STITCHING THREAD

Paper knife or ordinary stitching thread can be used to pair the drawing sheet neatly and cleanly. (See Fig. 1.23.1)

Paper Cutting Knife Drawing Sheet Cutter Clothes Stiching Thread

Fig. 1.23.1

1.24 LEAD SHARPNING MACHENICAL MACHINE

It is available in the market by different names but the purpose is the same to
sharpen the lead. The only advantage is that it does not break the lead and
wooden peeling are collected in a box below the machine. Thus keeping the
place clean. (See Fig. 1.24.1)

Fig. 1.24.1

36
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

1.25 A HANDKERCHIEF OR CLEAN DUSTER/HAND TOWEL

It is used to clean the dust from the instruments and erased rubber crumbs from the drawing
sheet, also for wiping the hands. It will prevent drawing from smudging. (See Fig. 1.25.1)

Fig. 1.25.1

1.26 PENCIL LEADS OF ‘B’ AND HB

These pencil leads of ‘B’ and ‘2H’ are used to be fixed in the compasses to get the same shine and colour as got by straight lines drawn
by using ‘HB’ or ‘4H’ pencils. These leads are needed to be fixed in the compasses. If the leads are not available in the market then the
same may be obtained from the pencils of the required grade by peeling the pencils.
1.27 SMALL CIRCLE PLATE/CIRCLE MASTER
A circular plate made of cellouse or a rectangular plate made of celluloid having circles of different size diameters is available in the
market. It is used to draw circles of small diameters easily and cleanly. The circles of standard diameters are also drawn quickly,
uniformly and cleanly. (See Fig. 1.27.1)

Circle Master Circle Stencil or Template Use of Circle Template

Fig. 1.27.1

37
 Engineering Graphics

1.28 TEE-SQUARE, ROLLER OR MINI-DRAFTER

Tee-Square : As the name itself suggest that it is made in a ‘T’ form. A thick wood or plastic butt is fitted on one end and a long
wooden or plastic blade on the other. It is used to draw horizontal lines and also for supporting the set squares for drawing vertical
or parallel lines on the drawing sheets. (See Fig. 1.28.1 to 1.28.7)

Fig. 1.28.1 Fig. 1.28.2 Fig. 1.28.3 Fig. 1.28.4

(a) Move T-squre and Triangle to line up with AB (b) Slide Triangle along T-square (c) Draw required line parallel to AB
Fig. 1.28.5 Fig. 1.28.6 Fig. 1.28.7

To draw a parallel line to a given line.

1.29 ROLLER
It is made of plastic or cellouse and available in 150 mm and 300
mm sizes. With its help parallel lines at any angle can be drawn
along with horizontal and vertical lines. It can be said that it is all in
one. It is very convenient to carry and use. Thus, it is gaining
popularity with Engineers and architects. (See Fig. 1.29.1)

Roller
Fig. 1.29.1

38
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

1.30 MINI-DRAFTER

It is made of steel having a screw at one end to fix it

with the drawing board and two arms fixed with
cellouse scales, which are at right angles. These scales
are tightened with a screw at any inclination, generally
parallel with the drawing board’s edges. The set squares
slide on these right angled scales for drawing parallel
or inclined lines. It obviates the use of a separate Tee-
square, protractor, set-squares and scale. Thus, saving a
Drafting machine or mini drafter Drawing Sheet
Fig.1.30.1 lot of energy and time in drawing good graphics. “Always Fig.1.30.2

keep in mind that the zero of the adjustable circular disc marking should coincide when its scales are in horizontal and vertical
position. The fixed end should tightly fit with the edge of the drawing board and should not move with the movements of the scales.
(See Fig. 1.30.1 & 2)

1.31 INSTRUMENT BOX

Instrument Box
Figure 1.30.1

39
 Engineering Graphics

1.32 HOW TO KEEP DRAWING SHEET CLEAN

1. Always clean your hands and instruments before fixing the drawing sheet.
2. Hands should be frequently wiped with clean handkerchief or with a clean piece of cloth during the drawing work.
3. The set squares may be lightly moved with the finger nails while using.
4. Clean pencil smudge with a clean cloth
5. The rubbed powder of pencil is removed away from drawing sheet just to save the drawing from smudging.
6. Drawing sheet should be erased with a soft rubber only when it is very necessary to rub off the extra lines.
7. Remove rubber dust with a clean piece of cloth or with a clean handkerchief, never wipe them off with hands.
8. A clean piece of cloth or paper may be used as a hand rest, while printing or lettering.
9. Do not keep anything or article on the drawing sheet especially utencils or containers etc.
10. While not using the drawing sheet, may be covered with a cotton cloth or wide paper.
11. Avoid unnecessary rubbing of lines.
12. Do not touch drawing sheet with direct hand.

1.33 ACTIVITY
1. For getting good results from your drawing board, cover it with a drawing sheet or with a thick sheet of paper. Use cello tape or
drawing pins to fix it on the drawing board. By doing this we avoid the drawing pencil to move in the drawing board’s wooden
grooves and will give smooth lines.
2. Take a line AB=50 mm long. Now with the help of protractor draw angles of 72” at both the ends.
3. Construct a regular hexagon of 60 mm side with the help of set squares.
4. Divide a straight line AB = 100 mm into ten equal parts by measuring 10 mm in your compass. Try the same activity with the
help of a divider also.

40
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

1.34 TEST YOURSELF

1. Why drawing instruments are needed for drawing ?

2. What is a mini drafter?

3. Write the important drawing instruments and their uses in drawing ?

4. What precautions may be taken for drawing a clean and neat drawing?

5. What are the common grades of pencil available in the market? What do the letters on them indicate ?

6. What we mean by ‘H’, HB or ‘B’ pencil ?

7. What angles can be drawn with a pair of set-squares?

8. What grade of pencil may be used in compass for a particular grade used for drawing straight line to get the same shine and
brightness?

9. How parallel lines can be drawn with a pair of set squares? Draw parallel lines at a distance of 25 mm.

10. Where a divider is used ?

11. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words :-

(instruments, horizontal, eraser, protractor, vertical-horizontal and inclined lines), (vertical, Parallel and inclined lines), (Compass),
(Divider), (Tee-square, Protractor and a scale)
(a) To remove unnecessary lines we use ..........

(b) To make an accurate drawing we use ..........

(c) To measure angle/angles on a drawing we use .............

(d) We use Tee-square for drawing ............lines

41
 Engineering Graphics

(e) The mini drafter can be used for drawing ................

(f ) We use a pair of set squares to draw......

(g) We use ......... for drawing circles and arcs.

(h) We use ......... for transferring distances, marking a line into equal distances.

(i) A mini-drafter obviates the use of ............

12. Match the following from the list ‘A’ with ‘B’.
Table - A Table - B
(a) Straight lines can be drawn with its help (a) Using a scale
(b) The two parts of the Tee-square are (b) Using a divider
(c) The distance are measured in millimeters by (c) Butt and blade
(d) Lines of different thickness are drawn by using (d) Set squares
(e) Equal distances can be drawn on the drawing sheet by (e) Pencils
(f ) For measuring any angle we use (f ) Protractor
(g) We can draw angles in multiple of 15° with this (g) Tee-square
Answer
(a) (g)
(b) (c)
(c) (a)
(d) (e)
(e) (b)
(f ) (f )
(g) (d)

42
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

1.35 DIMENSIONING
We all wear clothes. These are either readymade or specially stitched by a tailor for us. When we visit a tailor shop for getting our
clothes stitched. The tailor measures our cloth with a measuring cloth tape and also takes our body measurements. After few days, he
delivers our stitched clothes, which are fully made according to our need and body measurements. Nowadays, we also see that new
buildings are coming up but they are made up to a specific height. These buildings are made on an alloted piece of land. Rooms,
shops furniture and engineering products are made according to some map, which is nothing but a blue print of a future structure
made according to some measurements. Dimensioning is a must for the technician who is making it. Similarly, all things are produced
by some measurements according to the need and purpose.
This measurement is done according to some system. In most of the countries the ‘Metric System’ of measurements is used. But in
some countries ‘FPS System’ is followed. So, it becomes very necessary for us to know about the conversion of one unit in to another.
Here we will learn about the units of ‘Metric System’ and later we shall learn about the conversion of ‘FPS System’ into the ‘Metric
System’.
METRIC SYSTEM

10 Millimeters (mm) = 1 Centimeter (cm)

10 Centimeters (cm) = 1 Decimeter (dm)
10 Decimeters (dm) = 1 Meter (m)
10 Meters (m) = 1 Decameter (dam)
10 Decameters (dam) = 1 Hectometer (hm)
10 Hectometers (hm) = 1 Kilometer (km)
Also ‘1 km’ = 1000 m

CONVERSION
1 Inch = 25.40 mm
12 Inches = 1 Foot = 30.48 cm = 304.8 mm
36 Inches = 3 Feet = 1 Yard = 0.91 Meters
1760 Yards = 8 Furlongs = 1 Mile
1 Mile = 1.61 km

43
 Engineering Graphics

After learning the units of measurement, we shall learn about the ways of dimensioning the objects. We know very well that when
we have to get anything made according to our need we have to give some specific dimensions to suit our need. Similarly, drawings
are exchanged from one country to another or we can say that sometime the drawing is made in one country and the product is
manufactured in another country. This makes it a necessity to specify the dimensions on the drewing. Thus we can say that dimensiong
is a numerical value expressed in appropriate units (here it is millimeters) of measurement and indicated graphically on technical
drawings with lines, symbols and notes.

1.36 ELEMENTS OF DIMENSIONING

Now, we shall learn about the elements of dimensioning. These include projection lines, Dimension lines, leader lines, dimension line
termination, the origin indication and the dimension itself.
(a) Dimension lines : These are thin continuous thin lines. These are terminated by arrowheads touching the outlines, extension
lines or centre lines.
(b) Leader lines : A leader or a pointer is a thin continuous line, connecting a note or a dimension figure with the feature to which
it applies. One end of the leader terminates either in an arrowhead or a dot. The arrowhead touches the outline, while the dot
is placed within the outline of the object. The other end of the leader line is terminated in a horizontal line at the bottom level
of the first or the last letter of the note. The leader is never drawn vertical or horizontal or curved. It is drawn at a convenient
angle of not less than 30° to a line to which it touches. When pointing to a circle or an arc it is drawn radially. Use of common
leader line for more than one feature should never be made.
(c) Extension lines/Projection lines : These lines are thin continous lines drawn in extension of an outline. These lines extend by
about 3 mm beyond the dimension line.
1.37 ARROW HEADS
An arrowhead is placed at each end of dimension line. There are various type of arrow heads. The pointed end of the arrowhead
should touch an outline or an extension line or a centre line. It is drawn free hand with two strokes made in the direction of its
pointed end.
Note : There are two types of dimensions one is size dimensions and another is location dimensions. It is shown in this figure.

44
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

1.38 ARROWS
Arrows of any shape and size are acceptable according to new guide lines. Some examples are given in Figure 1.38.1.

Fig. 1.38.1

1.39 SYMBOLS
We use some symbols in dimensioning which are given below :-

1. To show radius of a circle or an arc R

2. To show diameter of a circle Ø
3. To show a square or sq.
4. To show a sphere The word SPHERE or ‘S’ should precede ‘R’ or ‘Ø’ or
‘S R’ or ‘S Ø’.

NOTE :
The above indications are used with dimensions to show applicable shape identification and to improve drawing interpretation. The
diameter and square symbols may be omitted where the shape is clearly indicated. The applicable symbol precedes the value for the
dimension.

45
 Engineering Graphics

1.40 ARRANGEMENT AND INDICATION OF DIMENSIONING

There are many arrangements of dimensioning, but following are the main arrangements :
(a)

CHAIN DIMENSIONING :
In this chains of single dimension are done as shown in Fig. 1.40.1

Fig. 1.40.1

(b) DIMENSIONING FROM A COMMON FEATURE :

Dimension are given from a common origin as shown in Fig. 1.40.2

Fig. 1.40.2

46
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

(c) PARALLEL DIMENSIONING :

It is the placement of a number of single dimension lines parallel to one another and
spaced out so that the dimensional value can easily be added in Fig. 1.40.3

Fig. 1.40.3

(d) SUPERIMPOSED RUNNING

DIMENSIONING :
It is simplified parallel dimensioning
and may be used where there are
space limitations and where legibility
problems would occur. (See Fig.
1.40.4 & 5)
Fig. 1.40.4 Fig. 1.40.5

(e) COMBINED DIMENSIONING :

In this system the combination of chain dimensioning and parallel
dimensioning are used together. (See Fig. 1.40.6)

Fig. 1.40.6

47
 Engineering Graphics

(f ) PROGRESSIVE DIMENSIONING :
In this arrangement, one datum point is selected which reads as zero :
(See Fig. 1.40.7)

Fig. 1.40.7

1.41 SYSTEM OF PLACING DIMENSION

According to SP46-2003, there are two recommended systems of placing dimensions.
1.41.1 ALIGNED SYSTEM :

According to this system all dimensions are so placed so that they may be read from the bottom
of the drawing and vertical dimensions from the right hand side. The dimensions values should
be placed parallel to their dimension lines and preferably near the middle and above and clear
of the dimension line. This system is generally used for small drawings. (See Fig. 1.41.1.a)

Fig. 1.41.1.a

1.41.2 UNIDIRECTIONAL SYSTEM :

In this system all dimensions are so placed in such a way that they may be read from bottom
of the sheet. This system is useful for large drawings. (See Fig. 1.41.2.a)

Fig. 1.41.2.a

48
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

1.41.3 METHOD OF SHOWING DIMENSIONS

First draw extension lines at right angle to the boundary or outline of the object, so that these touch the outline at the other end.
These lines extend at least 3 mm beyond the dimension line. Then dimension line is drawn parallel to the outline to be dimensioned
which is terminated by arrow heads at the ends. The numerical value is written in the middle at right angle above the dimension line
with a dark pencil. Also the dimension lines or numerals should not be drawn for written too close. They can be staggered, if many
dimensions lie near to each other. The dimension for an inclined line may be written parallel to it, to make it legible. The dimensions
in some cases may be written at some angle to be more legible and readable. For clarity sake, a distance of 8 mm from the outline or
from another dimension may be maintained. Also a smaller dimension may be written first and a bigger dimension afterwards.
The following steps will be useful, while writing dimensioning :-
1. Divide the object into elementary parts.
2. Dimension each elementary part (size dimension), individually.
3. Determine locating axes, surfaces, centre lines etc. separately.
4. Locate the parts (location dimensions), individually.
5. Add the overall dimensions.
6. Complete the dimensioning by adding the necessary notes.

49
 Engineering Graphics

1.43 DIMENSIONING ANGLES

Angles and
chords are
dimensioned in
degrees on the
arc swing from
vertex. (See Fig.
1.43.1)
Fig. 1.43.1

1.44 DIMENSIONING CIRCLES

Circles are shown by the diameters
and symbol ‘Ø’ is used as a prefix,
to denote diameter. While
dimensioning circles it is better, if
extension lines are drawn
perpendicular to the centre lines
and dimension lines parallel to
the axes. Similarly concentric
circles may be dimensioned in the
Fig. 1.44.1
same way as for a single circle.
The symbol ‘Ø’ or ‘R’ may be used before the numeral value, just to show diameter or radius of the circle. (See Fig.1.44.1)
1.45 DIMENSIONING ARCS
An arc is dimensioned by its radius, which is preferably shown outside the line of the object.
Radius is denoted by ‘R’ and it is prefixed before the numeral indicating radius of the arc. For
dimensioning arcs : Leader lines may be drawn and prefix ‘R’ may be written before the numeral
value. (See Fig. 1.45.1)

Fig. 1.45.1

50
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

1.46 DIMENSIONING HOLES

The holes are dimensioned as shown in Fig. 1.46.1

φ 10-4 Holes

Fig. 1.46.1

1.47 DIMENSIONING TAPERS

The taper on a part is indicated along the centre line and is accompanied by one or both the end sizes. (See Fig. 1.47.1)

Fig. 1.47.1

51
 Engineering Graphics

1.48 DIMENSIONING CHAMFERS

The chamfers are dimensioned as in Figure 1.48.1

Fig. 1.48.1

1.49 DIMENSIONING COUNTERSINKS :

These are dimensioned by showing either the required diametric dimension at the surface and the included angle, or the depth and
the included angle. (See Fig. 1.49.1)

Fig. 1.49.1

52
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

1.50 VALUES SHOWN ON OBLIQUE DIMENSION LINES

Values shall be indicated so that they can be read from the bottom or from the right hand side of the drawing. (See Fig. 1.50.1)

Fig. 1.50.1

1.51 DIMENSIONING NARROW SPACE

We use ‘dots’, oblique lines or inverted arrows for indicating dimensioning in the narrow space. Also a leader line may be used. (See
Fig. 1.51.1)

Fig. 1.51.1

53
 Engineering Graphics

1.52 LEADER LINE

With or without any dot or arrow head, if it ends

A dot, if it ends within outlines of an object. An arrow head, if it ends on the outline of an object. on a dimension line.
Fig. 1.52.1 Fig. 1.52.2 Fig. 1.52.3

NOTE : A leader line is used to refer a feature as shown in Figure 1.52.1, 1.52.2 & 1.52.3

1.53 DIMENSIONING IN THE HATCHING :

Generally we do not show dimensioning in the hatching. When it is not possible to avoid it than we show it as follows (See Figure1.53.1)

Fig. 1.53.1

54
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

1.54 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DIMENSIOING

According to IS:SP 46-2003, the following principles of dimensioning are recommended :
1. Avoid the unnecessary dimensioning; every dimension should be given in one view only. Avoid repeating the same dimension
in another view.
2. Each feature is dimensioned and positioned, where its shape shows clearly.
3. Each feature is dimensioned and positioned once.
4. As far as possible all dimensions should be given outside the view. Only where it is not possible to show outside than and then
only a dimension may be shown inside the object.
5. All the necessary dimensions of the parts must be written on drawing sheet to show the correct functioning of each part.
6. Mutual crossing of dimension lines should be avoided; it should be placed in such a way that they do not cross each other.
7. Dimension should be given in the view which shows relative feature more clearly.
8. Dimensions should not be placed too close to each other.
9. A centre line should not be used as dimension line.
10. Dimensions lines are placed outside the view.
11. Each drawing shall use the same unit (mm) for all dimensions.
12. Avoid the crossing of dimension lines and extension lines.
13. The function dimension should be placed directly on drawing.
14. Dimensioning for narrow space may be shown by reverse arrows, dots or by an inclined line at the extreme of the dimension
line.
15. Avoid dimensioning to hidden lines wherever possible.
16. Production and inspection methods should not be specified on the drawing, unless they are essential.
17. Dimensioning to a centre line should be avoided except when the centre line passes through the centre of a hole.
18. Dimensioning should be done so completely that further calculations or assumptions of any dimension or a direct measurement
from the drawing is not necessary.

55
 Engineering Graphics

1.55 CORRECT AND INCORRECT METHODS OF DIMENSIONING

Fig. 1.55.1

56
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

ASSIGNMENT
1. What is a leader line ?
2. Draw first angle projection symbol?
3. Dimension a circle, concentric circle and an arc of 50 mm radius.
4. Dimension an acute, obtuse and a right angled triangle.
5. Explain the necessity of dimensioning?
6. What is the difference between ‘Aligned’ and ‘Uni-directional’ system ?
7. What are two systems of dimensioning?
8. What system is adopted to dimension a drawing of large size such as a ship drawing?
9. How a narrow space is dimensioned?
10. How dimension is written for an oblique line ?
11. What type of extension and dimension line is? Show them on an equilateral triangle ?
12. Dimension a rectangle according to aligned system.
13. Dimension a rectangle according to the uni-directional system.
14. Fill in the blanks with suitable word/words :-
(a) Two recommended systems of placing a dimension on the drawing are......... and .......... (Aligned, Uni-directional)
(b) Dimension lines should be drawn at least 8 mm away from the ........ and from ............. (Outline, each other)
(c) The two main types of dimensions used on a drawing are...................... (location, size)
(d) Projection line, dimension line, leader line and dimension itself on a drawing are
called......... of ........................ (Element, dimensioning)
(e) The hatching lines are continuous .......... Lines, and are drawn at an ............ of .............. an
outline of the section. (thin, angle, 45)

57
 Engineering Graphics

(f ) A dimension is a numerical value expressed in appropriate units of measurement and

indicated graphically on a technical drawing with............., .............. and ................ (Line, symbol, note)
(g) All dimensions on the single drawing should be expressed in the ............ units. (Same)
(h) All dimensions are shown from a common base line in............ dimensioning. (Progressive or parallel dimensioning)
(i) No dimension should be written twice on a drawing until unless it is ................. (Unavoidable)
(j) A dimension given for information only is written as a ................ (note)
(k) Two principal requirements of engineering graphics are to specify ............. and .......... (Shape, size)
(l) Dimension of cylinder should never be given as a ............... (R)
(m) Generally we prefer a single unit of measurement is in ................... (Millimeter)
(n) A leader line end on a dimension line without a ............................. (Arrowhead)
(o) A leader line end on a surface of an object in an ............................... (Arrowhead)
(p) A leader line end inside an object in a ............................... (Dot)
(q) An ...................... or ........................ should never be used as a dimension line. (Outline, axis)
(r) When a number of parallel dimensions are to be shown near each other, the dimensions
should be ............................................ (Staggered)

58
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

ACTIVITY
The dimensioned drawings of blocks are given below. Copy them and you are supposed to correct them as per BIS conventions-
2003.
QUESTIONS ANSWERS

1.

2.

3.

59
 Engineering Graphics

ASSIGNMENT ON LINES AND ANGLES

1. To divide a straight line AB = 78 mm into two equal parts.

2. To divide a straight line AB = 78 into four equal parts with compasses.

3. On a line MN = 80 mm draw angles of (a) 72° (b) 36° & (c) 18° (without using protractor)

4. Draw a line ‘MN’ parallel to a given line ‘OP’ at a distance of 57 mm, with the help of (a) compasses (b) set squares.

5. To divide a straight line MN = 86 mm into six equal parts.

6. With the help of compasses draw the following angles :

(a) 60° (b) 30° (c) 15° (d) 90° (e) 45° (f) 75°, 120° (g) 135° (h) 150°

7. Geometrically draw an angle equal to the difference of two given angles of 74° and 35°.

8. Geometrically draw an angle equal to the sum of two given angles of 74° and 35°.

9. To divide an angle of 70° into two equal parts with the help of compasses.

10. Two converging lines ‘MN’ and ‘OP’, converging at an angle of 67°. Draw an angle bisector of these converging lines without
producing them to meet.

11. Two points O, P are given outside a line MN. Find a point ‘C’ on the line MN such that OC = PC.

12. A point ‘O’ is given outside the line ‘MN’. Draw a perpendicular line from it without producing the line ‘MN’.

❖❖❖❖❖❖❖❖

60
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

1.56 RECTILINEAR FIGURES

Let us look around and observe the shapes of the objects around us. We shall find that a large number of these objects are the
combination of various geometrical figures. Again, most of them will be madeup of line segments. The common and simpler ones
will be triangular, rectangular, square, rhombus, parallelogram, pentagon, hexagon etc. in shape. A combination of all these will be
found in rangoli and murals. In this chapter, we are going to learn how to construct all these rectilinear figures, when their parameters
dimensions (data) are given to us. Some of them will be very simple and a few will be based on their geometrical truths.
Can you name any three of them ?
1.57 CONSTRUCTION OF TRIANGLES

A triangle is a plane figure bounded by three sides.

Triangles are classified into two categories according to
its sides and angles Fig. 1.57.1

Fig. 1.57.1

61
 Engineering Graphics

Example 1.57.1 Construct an equilateral triangle given the length of the side = 50 mm
Solution
Method I (Using Compass)
Step 1: Draw a line AB of 50 mm length (Refer Fig. 1.57.2)
Step 2 : With centres A and B and radius equal to 50 mm draw arcs intersecting each other at C.
Step 3 : Draw lines joining C with A and B. ABC is the required equilateral triangle.
Fig. 1.57.2

Method II (Using set squares)

Step 1: Draw a line segment AB of 50 mm length (Refer Fig. 1.57.3)
Step 2 : Draw a line through A, making 60° angle with AB
Step 3 : Similarly through B, draw a line making the same angle with AB.
Step 4 : Intersecting point is C. ABC is the required triangle.

Fig. 1.57.3

Example 1.57.2 Construct a triangle given the altitude = 55 mm and two base angles = 40° and 65°.
Solution Let ∠A and ∠B are the given base angles and CD be the attitude.
STEPS INVOLVED
(i) Draw a base line of any convenient length Fig. 1.57.4
(ii) Draw a ⊥ at a point D
(iii) Make CD equal to the given altitude = 55 mm
(iv) Through C, draw a line EF || to AB.
(v) Make ∠ECA = 40°, ∠FCB = 65°. ABC is the required triangle. Fig. 1.57.4

62
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

ASSIGNMENT ON TRIANGLES
1. To construct an isoceles triangle MNO such that its base angle is twice the vertical angle (a) with protractor (b) with compass (c)
by dividing a semicircle.
2. To construct a right angle triangle, MNO, having its altitude, MO = 45 mm and the vertical angle ∠MON = 30°
3. To construct a right angle triangle MNO, having its base MN = 50 mm and its altitude MO = 55 mm
4. To construct a right angle triangle, MNO, having its altitude MO = 40 mm and its hypotenuse ON = 60 mm.
5. A median of triangle MNO is 50 mm and it makes an angle of 50° with its base, 55° with the side of the triangle.
6. Construct a right angle Δ MNO, having its base edge = 55 mm and the base angle ∠MNO = 30°.
7. Construct a right angle Δ MNO, having its hypotenuse ON = 60 mm, and the distance of the hypotenuse from the right angle =
25 mm.
8. Construct a right angle Δ MNO, having its hypotenuse ON = 65 mm and the median from the angular point O, making the angle,
∠ODN with the hypotenuse = 40°.
9. Construct a right angle Δ MNO, having its hypotenuse ON=70 mm and the difference of its hypotenuse and one side = 30 mm.
10. Construct an isoceles triangle MNO having its base MN = 40 mm and each of its sides = 60 mm.
11. Construct a right angle Δ MNO, having its hypotenus ON = 70 mm and the difference of the sides = 22 mm.
12. Construct a right angle Δ MNO, having its altitude ON = 47 mm and the sum of the hypotenuse and its base = 70 mm.
13. Construct an isoceles Δ MNO, having each of its sides = 60 mm and each of its base angle = 50°.
14. Construct a right angle triangle MNO, having hypotenuse, ON = 60 mm and the sum of its base and its altitude = 55 mm.
15. Construct an isoceles Δ MNO, having its altitude OD = 45 mm and each of its base angle = 50°.
16. Construct an isoceles Δ MNO, having its base MN = 40 mm and its altitude AD = 50 mm
17. Construct an isoceles Δ MNO, having its vertical angle = 40° and the base MN = 50 mm
18. Construct an isoceles Δ MNO, having its altitude OD = 45 mm, and its vertical angle = 45°
19. Construct an isoceles Δ MNO, having its side = 60 mm and its vertical angle = 1/3 of base angle.

63
 Engineering Graphics

20. Construct an isoceles Δ MNO, having its perimeter = 70 mm and its altitude OD = 30 mm
21. Construct an isoceles right angle Δ MNO, having its perimeter = 70 mm
22. Construct an isoceles Δ MNO, having its base MN = 40 mm and each of its base angle twice of the vertical angle.
23. Construct an isoceles right angle Δ MNO, having the sum of its hypotenuse and one side = 60 mm
24. Construct an isoceles Δ MNO, having its base MN = 50 mm and the sum of its altitude and one side = 60 mm
25. Construct a triangle MNO, having given its base MN = 70 mm altitude OM = 40 mm and side OD 55 mm
26. Construct a triangle MNO, having its base MN = 55 mm, side ON = 45 mm and side NM = 55 mm
27. Construct a triangle MNO, having its altitude OD = 40 mm, side ON = 50 mm and side OM = 45 mm
28. Construct a Δ MNO, having its altitude OD = 40 mm, side ON = 50 mm and side OM = 45 mm
29. Construct a triangle MNO, having its base MN = 70 mm, the side ON = 45 mm and included angle = 60°
30. Construct a Δ MNO, having its base MN = 55 mm and its angle are in the ratio of 4 : 6 : 8
31. Construct a Δ MNO, having its perimeter = 100 mm and its sides in the ratio of 3 : 5 : 4
32. Construct a Δ MNO, having its base MN = 50 mm, the difference of the other two side = 15 mm and the base angle = 60°
33. Construct a Δ MNO having its perimeter = 70 mm and its angles in the ratio of 5 : 6 : 7

64
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

1.58 CONSTRUCTION OF QUADRILATERIALS

Recall that, we have drawn Square, Rectangle, Rhombus, & Trapezium in Previous Classes and we are familiar with there shapes.
– A square has all the four sides equal and all the four angles are right angles (90°). The diagonals are equal and bisect each other
at right angles.
– A rectangle has opposite sides equal and all the four angles of right angles.
– A rhombus has all the 4 sides equal but none of them is 90° angles.
– A trapezium has two opposite sides parallel.

Example 1.58.1 Construct a square ABCD with AB = 60 mm

Solution
STEPS INVOLVED
(i) Draw a line segment AB of 60 mm Fig. 1.58.1
(ii) At A, draw a perpendicular at B also.
(iii) With A as centre, 60 mm as radius draw an and to intersect the ⊥, to get the point D.
(iv) With B as centre, 60 mm as radius draw an arc to intersect the ⊥ through B, to get the point C.
Example 1.58.2 Construct a rectangle PQRS when PQ = 70 mm, QR = 50 mm Fig. 1.58.1

Solution
STEPS INVOLVED
(i) Draw a line segment PQ of 70 mm long. Fig. 1.58.2
(ii) At P and Q erect perpendiculars.
(iii) With P as centre, 50 mm as radius draw an arc, to cut the ⊥ at the point S.
(iv) With Q as centre, 50 mm as radius draw an arc, to cut the ⊥ at the point R.
(v) Join R with S.
Fig. 1.58.2 PQRS is the required rectangle.

65
 Engineering Graphics

Example 1.58.3 Construct a rhombus ABCD, having its side equal to 40 mm and base angle at B of 105°
Solution - Let us use the properties of rhombus here. ‘All sides of a rhombus are equal.
STEPS OF CONTRUCTION
(i) Draw a line segment AB of 40 mm length (Refer Fig. 1.58.3)
(ii) At B, draw a line BX at an angle of 105°
(iii) B as centre 40 mm as radius draw an arc to cut the line BX. Intersection point is C.
(iv) With A and C as centres, 40 mm as radius draw arcs, intersecting point is D.
(v) Join A with D and C with D
ABCD is the required rhombus.

Fig. 1.58.3

Example 1.58.4 Construct a rhombus PQRS with diagonals 46 mm and QS = 60

mm
Solution - We know that, the diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right
angles.
STEPS INVOLVED
(i) Draw a line segment QS of 60 mm length. (Refer Fig. 1.58.4)
(ii) Draw a ⊥ bisector of QS which passes through the point O.
(iii) With O as centre, 1/2 PR (23 mm) as radius draw arcs above and below to
cut the ⊥ bisector. Intersection points are P & R.
(iv) Draw lines joining P with Q & S, R with Q & S. PQRS is the required rhombus.

66
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

Example 1.58.5 Construct a quadrilateral with AB = 45 mm, BC = 55 mm, CD = 40 mm, AD = 60 mm, AC = 70 mm

Solution From our earlier classes, we learnt that, to draw a quadrilateral, minimum five dimensions are required. Let us now draw
this quadrilateral.
STEPS INVOLVED
(i) Draw AB of 45 mm length
(ii) With B as centre, 55 mm as radius draw an arc. See fig.1.58.5
(iii) With A as centre, 70 mm as radius draw an arc to cut the previous arc at the point C.
(iv) With C as centre, 40 mm as radius draw an arc.
(v) With A as centre, 60 mm as radius, cut the previous arc to get the intersection point D.
(vi) Draw lines joining D with C and A.
ABCD is the required quadrilateral.
Fig. 1.58.5

Example 1.58.6 Construct a trapezium ABCD, having its sides AD = 30 mm, DC = 25 mm, CB = 35 mm and the difference of parallel
sides is 20 mm.
Solution
STEPS INVOLVED
(i) Draw a line segment AB of 45 mm, difference between parallel sides = 20 mm
(20 + 25 = 45 mm)
(ii) With A as centre and 30 mm as radius draw an arc. See fig.1.58.6
(iii) With E as centre 35 mm as radius draw an arc to cut the previous arc. [∴ ED||BC]
(iv) Intersecting point is D. D as centre 25 mm as radius draw an arc.
(v) With B as centre, 35 mm as radius cut the previous arc. Intersection point is C.
(vi) Draw lines joining A with D, D with C and C with B.
Fig. 1.58.6 ABCD is the required trapezium.

67
 Engineering Graphics

TRY THESE

1. Construct a square with side = 65 mm

2. Construct a rhombus whose diagonals are 55 mm and 70 mm.

3. Construct a quadrilateral MORE with MO = 60 mm, OR = 45 mm, ∠M = 60°, ∠O = 105° and ∠R = 105°

4. Construct a parallelogram ABCD with AB=50 mm, BC=60 mm and ∠D = 85°

ASSIGNMENT ON QUADRILATERALS
1. Construct a rectangle MNOP, having its base MN = 60 mm and its sides NO = 40 mm

2. Construct a rectangle MNOP, having its diagonal MO = 70 mm and the difference of its sides = 25 mm.

3. Construct a parallelogram MNOP having its diagonal MO = 50 mm, and the diagonal NP = 40 mm and the included angle OQN = 60°

4. Construct a rectangle MNOP having each of its diagonals = 70 mm and the included angle between them = 45°.

5. Construct a rhombus MNOP having its one side = 50 mm and the included angle ∠PMN = 60°

6. Construct a trapezium MNOP having MO, the difference of its diagonal = 30 mm.

7. Construct a trapezium MNOP, having its sides MP = 40 mm and side, PO = 30 mm and side ON = 40 mm and the difference of the
parallel side = 25 mm.

❖❖❖❖❖❖❖❖

68
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

1.59 CONSTRUCTION OF POLYGONS

A polygon is a plane figure bounded by many sides Fig. 5.11 shows some of the regular polygons. We recall the fact that when all the
sides and angles in a polygon are equal, it is called a regular polygon. (See Fig. 1.59.1)

Fig. 1.59.1
– A pentagon has five sides
– A hexagon has six sides
– An octagon has eight sides

1.60 CONSTRUCTION OF PENTAGON

To construct a regular pentagon given the length of its side as 40 mm.
Solution
STEPS INVOLVED
(i) Draw a line segment AB of 40 mm length. Fig. 1.60.1
(ii) At B, draw a perpendicular BK such that BK = AB. Join A with K.

69
 Engineering Graphics

(iii) With B as centre, AB as radius draw an arc i.e. arc AK.

(iv) Draw a perpendicular bisector of AB.
(v) Mark the point of intersection of perpendicular with line AK as 4 and arc AK as
6.
(vi) Mark a point 5 which is the midpoint of 4-6 obtained by bisecting it.
(vii) With 5 as centre and 5A as radius draw a circle.
(viii) With B as centre and radius = AB draw an arc to cut the circle at C.
(ix) In a similar way, set off the measurement of side along the circle to get the
points D and E.
(x) Draw lines joining B with C, C with D, D with E and E with A.
ABCDE is the required pentagon.
NOTE :
The same method can be used to draw any other regular polygon.
If we have to draw a hexagon, the centre to be taken as the point ‘6’ which lies Fig. 1.60.1
on the arc AK.
Similarly ‘4’ is the centre for drawing square
‘8’ would be the centre for drawing an Octagon and so on.

1.61 CONSTRUCTION OF PENTAGON BY THE ALTERNATE METHOD

To construct a regular pentagon, given the length of its side as 40 mm.

Solution The interior angle (Θ) in a polygon is calculated by using the formula Θ =
in a polygon.
( )
n _2
n
× 180° where n is the number of sides

To construct a pentagon, Θ =
( )5 _2
5
108° Θ = × 180°

70
 Lines, Angles, Letters, Dimensioning and Rectiliner Figures

Fig. 1.61.1 shows, a pentagon is drawn with protractor.

The included angle/interior angle is calculated to be 108°, for a pentagon.
NOTE :The method given above is useful in drawing ‘Θ’ for hexagon
which is 120° a hexagon & an Octagon also.
‘θ’ for Octagon is 135°

GROUP ACTIVITY
Fig. 1.61.1
There are many other methods available to construct a regular polygon.
* Make a group of 5 students
* Find out from your school library the five different methods of construction of regular polygons.
* Discuss, which method is the most accurate one.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Construct a regular pentagon of side 25 mm
2. Construct a regular hexagon of side 30 mm
3. Construct a regular Octagon of side 25 mm

❖❖❖❖❖❖❖❖

71