3.

CONTROL TESTS FOR QUALITY CONCRETE

3.1 Introduction
The principal aim of conventional in-situ testing is to ensure that
proper materials are used in desired proportions and correct steps of
workmanship are followed. Recent trends are towards switch over to
the performance-oriented system approach and quality control where
a number of items and operations have to be controlled at the right
time and in the right measures. From this point of view, the testing of
representative concrete does not represent the quality of actual in-
place concrete, quality of control cannot be regarded as a mere testing
of three concrete cubes at 28 days. In fact, to avoid inferior concrete
being placed, the concrete is to be carried out much before any cubes
become available for testing. The cubes tests relate to the concrete
specimens specially prepared for testing. What is really needed is to
carry out tests on concrete in the structure, so that the influence or
workmanship in actual placing, compaction and curing are also
reflected. However, a complete switchover to performance-oriented
specifications has not been possible, because of difficulties involved in
defining what constitutes the satisfactory performance in the absence
of suitable tests.
For in-situ testing, the aims of investigation should be clearly
established at the outset to avoid misleading test results and
consequent future disputes over results. By carefully formulating the
test program, the uncertainties can often be minimized. Since in-situ
testing of existing structures involve engineering judgment, a
complete knowledge of the range of tests available, and their
limitations and the accuracy that can be achieved is important.
 There are three basic categories of concrete testing, namely,
1. Quality control: It is normally carried out by the contractor to
indicate adjustments necessary to ensure and acceptable
supplied material.
2. Compliance testing: It is performed by or for, the engineer
according to an agreed plan, to check compliance with the
specifications.
3. Secondary testing: This test is performed on the hardened
concrete in the situations where there is doubt about the
reliability of control and compliance results or they are
unavailable or inappropriate as in an old structure.

Quality control and compliance tests are normally performed on

standard hardened specimens from the sample of fresh concrete being
used in construction. However, these tests may misrepresent the true
quality of concrete actually used in structure. This is due to differences
of compaction, curing and general workmanship. The modern trend is
to perform compliance testing, using methods which are either non-
destructive or cause only limited damage. Such a test may be used as
a backup for conventional testing. The principal usage of in-situ test is,
nevertheless, as secondary testing for checking compliance with the
specification and in assessing the in-situ quality.
Satisfactory construction requires concrete possessing specific
properties. To assure that these properties are obtained, testing is an
indispensable part of the construction process. Past experience and
sound judgment must be relied on in evaluating tests and assessing
their significance in the ultimate performance of the concrete.
3.2 Classes of Tests
In general, specification for concrete and its component
materials give detailed requirements for limits of acceptability. The
requirements may affect (1) characteristics of the mixture, such as
maximum size of aggregate or minimum cement content; (2)
characteristics of the cement, water, aggregate, and admixtures; (3)
characteristics of the plastic or hardened concrete, such as
temperature, slump, air content, or compressive strength.
Portland cements are tested for their compliance with
established standards to avoid any abnormal performance such as
early setting, delayed setting, or low strengths in the concrete. [For
every 1000m3 of concrete production sampling and testing of cement
shall be made. The tests shall include but not limited to Fineness,
Compressive strength, Setting time and soundness. Any cement that
stored for more than 3 month shall be tested before use.]
Tests of aggregates have two major purposes: first are tests to
determine the suitability of the material itself for use in concrete,
including tests for abrasion, soundness, specific gravity, and
petrographic and chemical analysis, moisture control and gradation of
aggregates. Second are tests to assure uniformity, such as tests for
moisture control and gradation of aggregates. Some tests are used for
both purposes.
Tests of concrete can be similarly grouped. First are tests to
evaluate the performance of available materials and to establish mix
proportions. These usually are done in the laboratory and include tests
for density, strength, and workability. Second tests are used
principally for control and include those for slump, air content, density,
temperature, and strength. These are also used for materials
evaluation and mix proportioning.
3.3 Frequency of Testing
Frequency of testing is a significant factor in the effectiveness of
quality control of concrete. The frequency of testing aggregates and
concrete for typical batch plant procedures depends largely upon the
uniformity of materials, including the moisture content of the
aggregate. Initially, it may be advisable to make tests several times a
day, but as work progresses, the frequency often can be reduced.
Usually, moisture tests are made once or twice a day. The first
batch of sand in the morning is often overly wet since moisture will
migrate to the bottom of a bin. As sand is drawn form the bottom, the
moisture content should become stabilized at a lower level and the
first moisture test can be judged fairly accurately by sight and by feel.
Subsequent tests are usually necessary only when a change is readily
apparent.
Slump test are made at the jobsite on mix samples from which
test cylinders are made, air-content test should be made often enough
at the point of delivery to ensure proper air content if temperature and
aggregate grading change.
The number of strength tests made will depend on the job
specification and the occurrence of variations. EBCS 2 1995
recommends that the following:
1. In general, it is sufficient to make only one test specimen
from a single representative sample for each mix of
concrete. If more than one specimen is taken, the mix
shall be considered as being represented by the mean
value of the test results obtained from the various
specimens.
2. Each mix form a sample is taken shall be chosen at
random from among the possible mixes.
 3. The samples shall, where practicable, be taken at the point
of discharge form the mixer or, in the case of ready-mix
concrete, at a point of discharge form the delivery vehicle.
CSA Standard A23.1 specifies that for each class of concrete at
least one test consisting of two specimen must be made for each
100m3 of concrete, but not less than one test for each day’s work. The
average strength of two cylinders at the same age constitutes a single
strength test. Additional specimens may be required when high-
strength concrete is involved or where structural requirements are
critical. These specimens should be laboratory cured. Many
specifications required that additional specimen be made and field
cured, as nearly as practical in the same manner as the concrete in the
structure.

3.5 Fresh Concrete Tests

 Sampling Fresh Concrete
The importance of obtaining truly representative samples of fresh
concrete for the purpose of control test cannot be overemphasized.
Unless the sample is representative, test results can be misleading.
Some specification requires that the sample be at least 0.030m 3.
Furthermore, the sample must be used with in 15 minutes from the
time it is taken from the batch and must be protected from sunlight,
wind, and other sources of rapid evaporation during this period.

 Test for Consistency

The slump cone must be filled in three layers of approximately
equal volume. The cone therefore, should be filled to a depth of about
65mm (after rodding) for the first layer, to about half the height of the
cone for the second layer, and overfilled for the third layer. Following
rodding, the slump cone is slowly removed. The slump, which is the
subsidence of the molded, truncated cone of concrete, is measured
against the height of the slump cone.

It is worth recalling that the object in controlling concrete

production is to produce a material that in its hardened state fulfills all
that is required of it. The properties in the fresh state are of
subsidiary, though still very great, importance. Therefore, it is not
sufficient to control workability alone without consideration of the
possible effects on the properties of the hardened concrete.

 Temperature Management
Because of the important influence of concrete temperature on the
properties of fresh and hardened concrete, many specifications place
limits on the temperature of fresh concrete. Although there is no
standard method for measuring temperature of fresh concrete, certain
simple precautions should be observed. The EBCS 2 1995 has put the
following article regarding temperature of fresh concrete.

Where the minimum dimension of concrete to be placed at

a single time greater than 600mm and especially where
the cement content is likely to be 400Kg/m 3 or more,
measures to reduce the temperature, such as the selection
of a cement type with a slower release of heat of hydration
shall be considered. In exceptional cases, other measures
to reduce the temperature or to remove evolved heat may
be necessary.

 Test for Density of Concrete

Despite the simplicity of the test for density of concrete, results
can be sufficiently accurate to determine the quantity of concrete
produced per batch. The test can give indication of air content. A
balance or scale sensitive to 0.05 Kg is required. Care must be taken
to consolidate the specimen adequately and to strike off the surface so
that the container is filled properly. The container should be calibrated
periodically.

 Tests for Cement Content

A rapid means is needed for accurately determining the strength
potential of fresh concrete that would avoid the time lag between
concrete placement and the evaluation of hardened concrete quality as
determining the water and cement content of fresh concrete. Since the
water-cement ratio is the primary influence upon strength and the
other desirable properties of concrete, test methods, if sufficiently
accurate and rapid, should be able to estimate strength potential prior
to the setting and hardening of the concrete.

 Test for Strength

The standard test specimen for compressive strength of concrete
with maximum aggregate size of 40mm or smaller is a cylinder
150mm in diameter by 300mm high for BS standard and 150mm cube
in case of ASTM standard. For larger aggregates, the diameter of the
cylinder should be at least three times the maximum size of the
aggregate, and the height should be twice the diameter. The mold
should be held on a smooth, level surface and filled carefully to avoid
distortion of their shape.

The strength of a specimen is greatly affected by disturbances,

changes in temperature, and exposure to drying, particularly within
the first 24 hours after casting. Thus, test cylinders should be cast in
locations where subsequent movement is unnecessary and where
protection is possible. Cylinders and test beams should be protected
form rough handling at all ages.
 Standard testing procedures require that specimens be cured
under controlled conditions, either in laboratory or in the field.
Controlled curing gives an indication of the quality of the concrete as
delivered. Specimens cured in the same manner as the structure they
represent (as contrasted to those subjected to controlled curing) may
give a more accurate in the structure at the time of testing; but they
give no indication of whether any deficiency is due to the quality of the
concrete as delivered or to improper handling and curing. On some
jobs field-cured specimens are made in addition to those given
controlled curing, especially when weather is unfavorable, to
determine when forms can be removed or when the structure can be
put into use.

 Accelerated Curing Tests

Accelerated strength tests can be used to expedite quality control of
concrete in the production process and for the acceptance of structural
concrete where adequate correlation data to the standard 28-day
compressive strength test is available.

3.6 Hardened Concrete Test

Concrete Core Test
The examination and compressive strength testing of cores
drilled from hardened concrete enable the visual inspection of interior
regions of the structural member along with estimation of actual
concrete strength. The cores are also frequently used to measure
density, water absorption, indirect tensile strength, and finally samples
for chemical analysis.

 Location
The choice of location is governed primarily by the basic purpose
of the testing, e.g., for serviceability assessment the cores should
normally be taken at the points where minimum strength and
maximum stress coincide. However, in a slender member core cutting
may impair future performance and hence cores should be taken at
the nearest non-critical locations. Aesthetic consideration concerning
appearance may also sometimes influence the choice of location. For
checking specification compliance, the cores should be located to avoid
unrepresentative concrete (normally occupying top 25%in case of
columns, walls or deep beams, and top thickness of slab). The
reinforcement bars should be avoided wherever possible.

 Size
For compression testing the standards require that the core
diameter be at least three times the nominal maximum size of
aggregate. The accuracy of results, generally, decreases as the ratio of
aggregate size to core diameter increases. Codes further require that a
minimum diameter of 100mm be used (75 mm in Australia). In case of
small-sized members where large holes would be unacceptable smaller
diameters are used. The choice of core diameter is also influenced by
the length of the core specimen which can be obtained. It is generally
accepted that the cores for compression testing should have a
length /diameter ratio of between 1.0 and 2.0. For reducing drilling
costs, damages, variability along length, and geometric influence on
testing, the cores should be kept as small as possible (l/d = 1.0-1.2).
However, the uncertainties in relating the core strength to cylinder or
cube strength are minimized if the core length/diameter ratio is close
to 2.0.

The core must be in a sufficient number to represent concrete

under examination as well as provide a strength estimate of
acceptable accuracy. Code requires that at least three standard cores
be used in testing.
  Drilling
The cores are usually cut by means of portable equipment
having rotary cutting tool with diamond bits, and water supply to
lubricate the cutter. Care must to take to prevent lateral movement
which will result in a distorted or broken core and to ensure uniformity
of pressure. Once a sufficient depth had been drilled, the core is
removed by using drill or tongs and the hole is filled by ramming a
dry, low shrinkage concrete into the hole or by wedging a cast cylinder
of suitable size into the hole with cement grout or epoxy resin. Each
core must be clearly labeled for identification.

3.7 Testing of Concrete by Nondestructive Methods

There is no standard definition of nondestructive tests (NDT) as
applied to concrete. For some people, they are tests that do not alter
the concrete. For some people, tests that do not impair the function of
the structure, in which case the drilling core is considered to be NDT
test.

Various NDT are used in the strength and durability evaluation of

hardened concrete. The most widely used are rebound, penetration,
pullout, and dynamic or vibration tests. Relative new methods being
developed for testing the properties of concrete include the use of X-
ray and gamma radiography, neutron moisture gauges, magnetic
cover meters, electrical methods, microwave absorption, and acoustic
emissions techniques. Each method has definite limitations, and
caution should be exercised against acceptance of nondestructive test
results as having a constant correlation to the traditional 28-day
compression test.
3.7.1 Rebound Hammer
In 1948, Ernst Schmidt, a Swiss engineer, developed a device
for testing concrete based upon the rebound principle. When concrete
is struck by a hammer, the degree of rebound is an indicator of the
hardness of concrete.

To perform the test, the plunger is extended form the body of

the instrument, which case the latch mechanism to grab hold of the
hammer (Figure 3.1a). The body of the instrument is then pushed
towards the concrete surface, which stretches the spring attached to
the hammer and the body (Figure 3.1b). When the body is pushed to
the limit, the latch is released and the hammer is propelled toward the
concrete by a combination of gravity and spring force (Figure 3.1a).
The hammer strikes the shoulder of the plunger and it rebounds. The
rebound distance is measured on a scale by a slide indicator. The
rebound distance is expressed as a rebound number, which is the
percentage of the initial extension of the spring.
 Figure 3.1 Schematic cross section of rebound hammer showing principle
operation.

A calibration curve relating the compressive strength of the

concrete with the rebound number is shown in the Figure 3.2.The test
is suitable for the concrete having strength in the range of 20-60MPa.
The reading is very sensitive to the local variations in the concrete,
especially to the aggregate particles near to the surface. The hammer
may strike on aggregate particle, thereby giving a misleading result. It
is therefore, to take several readings at each test location, and to
determine their average. Normally grid is used to locate impacts points
not less than 20mm apart from each other. The British Code BS-128,
part 2002 recommends 12 readings taken over an area exceeding
300mm square. The surface must be smooth, clean and dry loose
material shall be ground off.
 Figure 3.2 Relationship b/n rebound number of test hammer and
compressive strength

3.7.2 Ultrasonic Tests for Hardened Concrete

The ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) method basically involves the
measurement of velocity of electronic pulses passing through concrete
form a transmitting transducer to a receiving transducer. The method
is based on the principle that the pulse velocity passing concrete is
primarily dependent upon the elastic properties of the materials and is
independent of geometry. The pulse velocity ranges form about 3 to
5Km/s.The methods employ pulses in the frequency range of 15-175
kHz, generated and recorded by electronic circuits.

The research made in US has provided tentative classification of

concrete condition based pulse velocity. The classification was
established for normal concrete having a density about 2400Kg/m 3
 Pulse velocity Condition
Above 4570 Excellent
3660 to 4570 Generally good
3050 to 3660 Questionable
2130 to 3050 Generally poor
Below 2130 Very poor

Table 3.1 Classification of concrete condition based on pulse velocity.

The UPV method is relatively simple test to perform on site

provided that it is possible to gain access to both sides of member.
While tests can be performed with transducers placed on the same
surface, the result are not easy to interpret and this method is not
recommended. Other important factors, besides concrete strength that
can be considered are discussed in ACI committee 288[ACI
288.1R.1995]. These include:

 Moisture content – an increase in moisture content increase the

pulse velocity.
 Presence of reinforcement oriented parallel to the pulse
propagation direction – the pulse may propagate through the
bars and result is apparent pulse velocity that is higher than that
propagate through the concrete.
 Present of cracks and voids – these can increase the length of
the travel path and result in longer travel time:
Because of these reasons, the UPV should be used by experienced
individuals.

3.7.3 Probe Penetration

The probe penetration method involves a gun to drive a
hardened steel rod, or probe, into a concrete and measuring the
expressed level of the probe length also increases; by means of
suitable correlation, the exposed level can be used to estimate
compressive strength.

The report of ACI committee 228 [ACI 228.1R, 1995] provides

an explanation of the factors effecting probe penetration into concrete,
Figure 3.3 is the schematic of the failure zone produced during probe
penetration. The probe penetrates until the kinetic energy is absorbed
by friction and the fracture of the mortar and aggregate. Hence the
strength properties of the aggregate affect the penetration depth. As a
result, the strength relationship is dependent on the aggregate type.
For equal concrete strength probe penetration would be deeper in a
concrete with a soft aggregate than in a concrete with a hard
aggregate.

Figure 3.3 Schematic of conical failure zone during probe penetration test.

Both the rebound hammer and the probe damage the concrete
surface to some extent. The rebound hammer leaves and indentation
on the surface; the probe leaves a small hole and may cause minor
cracking and small craters similar to pop outs on the surface.

3.7.4 Pullout Tests

A pull out tests involve the determination of the force required to
pull a steel insert out of the concrete in which it was embedded during
casting. A suitable apparatus for this purpose is described in ASTM
(see Figure 3.4). Assuming that the failure is a frustum, the pull out
strength, fp can be calculated by

F
fp  [Eq. 3.1]
A

Where fp is the force on the ram at failure

And the area of the frustum:


A ( d 3  d 2)[4h 2  (d 3  d 2) 2 ]1 / 2 [Eq.
4
3.2]

Essentially, this provides a measure of the shear strength of the

concrete which can then be correlated with the compressive strength
(Figure 3.4 (b)). The test is economical, although it does leave a hole
in the concrete which must be repaired. Using this method a greater
depth and volume of concrete are tested.
 Figure 3.4 Pull-out test: (a) Assembly for pull-out test (B) correlation b/n
pull-out strength and compressive strength (91-day test results)

The big disadvantage is that test must be planned in advance and the
assembly embedded in the concrete during casting. Therefore, it cannot be used to
evaluate existing structures where the quality of the concrete is suspected.

3.7.5 Other tests

The use of X–rays for testing concrete properties is limited due
to the costly land dangerous high-voltage equipment. Other than a
research tool in the laboratory, X-radiography offers little scope or use
in the field.

Gamma-radiography equipment can be used in the field to

determine the location of reinforcement, density, and perhaps
honeycomb in structural concrete units.

The use of a nuclear method to measure some properties of

concrete is very recent. The technique is reported to have been used
to determine moisture content and cement content of concrete.

Battery-operated magnetic detection devices like the

pachometer are available to measure the depth of cover over
reinforcement in concrete and to detect the position of the rebar.
Electrical-resistively equipment is being developed to estimate the
thickness of concrete pavement slabs.

A microwave- absorption method has been developed to

determine the moisture content of porous building materials such as
concrete. Acoustic-emission techniques are in their infancy. They hold
promise for studying load levels in structures and locating the origin of
cracking.