Dr. M. Ahsan Akhtar Hasin, IPE, BUET.

Chapter 11
Job Design and Work Measurement
Dr. Md. Ahsan Akhtar Hasin
Professor, BUET

Job Design
Job design may be defined as the function of specifying the work activities of an individual,
or group. It should satisfy organizational objectives and job holder‟s personal requirements.
Job design (also referred to as work design or task design) is the specification of contents,
methods and relationship of jobs in order to satisfy technological and organizational
requirements as well as the social and personal requirements of the job holder. Its principles
are geared towards how the nature of a person's job affects their attitudes and behavior at
work, particularly relating to characteristics such as skill variety and autonomy.

A job design is a process which describes education, experience, skills, knowledge,

methodology required to perform a job. It is a very important aspect used by HR
professionals to communicate the desired people requirement (type of man power) in the
organization. Employers and managers know what kind of manpower would be required. The
newly appointed employees also know about what is expected from him/her and how.

It has very close relation with Human Resource Management (HRM). The terms used in
HRM, i.e. Job Analysis, Job Identification, Job Specifications and Job Description, are highly
aligned with Job Design. In Operations Management, this is studied with importance, because
productivity is directly related to effectiveness of Job Design. Appropriate job design helps in
increasing productivity. In case of necessity, the job may require re-design. Methodology of
performing the function may also be changed, or improved, which is known as Method
Study. Thus, this topic is very important in Operations Management too.

It basically involves decisions on the following items, in order to specify functions to be

performed.

What Who Where When Why How

Tasks Who Location Time Rational Method

to be should of work of day e for the
perfor perform areas job
med (person) (Reason)

Ultimate job structure

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Dr. M. Ahsan Akhtar Hasin, IPE, BUET.

Work Methods or work study

Work study emerged as a technique to judge the effectiveness and efficiency of a work or
function or task. Work study was the sequel to Taylor‟s famous scientific management.

Work Study is defined as the systematic examination of the methods of carrying on activities
so as to improve the effective use of resources and to set up standards of performance for the
activities being carried out. It is essential that all production related functions or any other
functions are analyzed carefully to know whether there is any scope to further improve the
performance in that function. Study of methods of work, i.e. the way a job/work is being
performed is useful.

There may be opportunities to improve performance in many ways. This gives an idea
whether current method is efficient, and whether it can be improved by changing current
method. This may also require modification of a work, or elimination of unnecessary
elements or operations, as a means of approaching the quickest and best method of
performing the work. If not the best, at least a better method is always desired. It also
includes formulation of incentive schemes, and improvement and standardization of
equipment, methods, operator training, working conditions, etc.

Work study has two major branches:

1. Method study (or Method Engineering)

2. Work measurement

Method Study
Method study is the process of subjecting work to systematic, critical scrutiny to make it
more effective and/or more efficient. It is one of the keys to achieving productivity
improvement.

It was originally designed for the analysis and improvement of repetitive manual work but it
can be used for all types of activity at all levels of an organization. Special attention should
be given to Bottlenecks, under utilized machines, poor quality, etc.

The process is often seen as a linear, described by its main steps of:

1) Select (the work to be studied);

2) Define (the scope of work and identify process ownership)
3) Record (all relevant information about that work);
4) Examine (the recorded information);
5) Develop (an improved way of doing things);
6) Install (the new method as standard practice);
7) Maintain (the new standard proactive for sustainability).

Although this linear representation shows the underlying simplicity of method study, in
practice, this is a cyclic process, which is much more one of repeated passes, requiring
significant time.

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Dr. M. Ahsan Akhtar Hasin, IPE, BUET.

1) Select

Work selected for method study may be an identified problem area or an identified
opportunity. It may be identified through a systematic review of available data, normal
monitoring or control processes, high levels of dissatisfaction and complaint or as part of a
change in management policy, practice, technology or location, and usually because it meets
certain conditions of urgency and/or priority.

2) Define

Before any method study investigation is begun, it is necessary to establish clear terms of
reference which define the aims and constraints of the investigation. This should also include
an identification of who "owns" the problem or task/function (i.e. process ownership).

3) Record

The Record stage of method study involves gathering sufficient data to act as the basis of
evaluation and examination. A wide range of techniques are available for recording. Many of
the techniques are statistical charts and diagrams.

4) Examine

The recorded data are subjected to examination and analysis; formalized versions of this
process are critical examination and systems analysis. If required, appropriate statistical
techniques can be used, depending upon nature of work. The aim is to identify, often through
a structured, questioning process, those points of the overall system of work that require
improvements or offer opportunity for beneficial change.

Examine step uses questioning technique. Each activity of the method under examination
subjected to systematic and progressive series of questions.

1. Purpose
What is being done ?
Why is it being done ?
What else could be done ?
What should be done ?

2. Place
Where is it being done ?
Why there ?
Where else could it be done ?
Where should it be done ?

3. Sequence
When is it done ?
Why then ?
When else could it be done ?
When should it be done ?

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Dr. M. Ahsan Akhtar Hasin, IPE, BUET.

4. Person
Who does it ?
Why that person ?
Who else might do it ?
Who should do it ?

5. Means
How is it done ?
Why that way ?
How else can it be done ?
How should it be done ?

5) Develop

The Examine stage merges into the Develop stage of the investigation as more thorough
analysis leads automatically to identify areas of change. The aim here is to identify possible
actions for improvement, or improved way of doing things. Simply to say, this identifies
possible solutions.

6) Install / Implement / Execute

The success of any method study project is realized when actual change is made 'on the
ground'. Thus, the Install phase is very important. Making theoretical change is easy; making
real change demands careful planning - and handling of the people involved in the situation
under review. They may need reassuring, retraining and supporting through the acquisition of
new skills through training. Install, in some cases, will require a parallel running of old and
new systems, in others.

7) Maintain

Some time after the introduction of new working methods, it is necessary to check that the
new method is working well, that it is being properly followed, and that it has brought about
the desired results. This is the Maintain phase. Method drift is common - when people either
revert to old ways of working, or introduce new changes. Some of these may be helpful and
should formally be incorporated; others may be inefficient or unsafe. A methods audit can be
used to formally compare practice with the defined method and identify such irregularities.

In contemporary industry, this responsibility may be given to a separate department called

Work Study Department. Interestingly, Method Study does not have any fixed and well stated
method. Officers performing this method study have to highly depend on “Observation” of
the task to be studied. While observing the task to be studied, careful attention has to be paid
regarding how it is being done currently. It is also suggested that a flow chart of the target
function or task is prepared first and then it is studied.

Motion Economy Principles

As an important part of method study, Frank Gilbreth and his wife Lillian Gilbreth, through
their various experiments, institutionalized motion and time study through their famous
motion economy principles.

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Dr. M. Ahsan Akhtar Hasin, IPE, BUET.

If one can study the motions and micro motions performed in carrying out an activity and
economize on them- try to reduce them, the time taken for the activity can be significantly
reduced.

For this, the movements are classified in 5 classes as given below:

 Class 1: Body members moved in this class are fingers and the pivot is knuckle.
 Class 2: Body members moved in this class are hands and fingers and the pivot is
wrist.
 Class 3: Body members moved in this class are forearms, hands and fingers and
the pivot is elbow.
 Class 4: Body members moved in this class are upper arms, forearms, hands and
fingers and the pivot is shoulder.
 Class 5: Body members moved in this class are torso, upper arms, forearms, hands
and fingers and the pivot is trunk.

Further, Gilbreth came out with the idea of conducting micro motion study. To facilitate it, a
set of fundamental motions required for a worker to perform a manual operation was defined.
The set consists of 18 elements, each describing a standardized activity. The set is called
“therblig” (read Gilbreth in reverse order and you get this term “therblig” with „th‟ treated as
one letter). These are listed below:

1) Search
2) Find
3) Select
4) Grasp
5) Hold
6) Position
7) Assemble
8) Use
9) Disassemble
10) Inspect
11) Transport loaded
12) Transport unloaded
13) Pre-position for next operation
14) Release load
15) Unavoidable delay
16) Avoidable delay
17) Plan
18) Rest to overcome fatigue

A classic example of early application of Motion and Time Study as Done by Gilbreth in his
Bricklaying Improvement yielded the following results:

Frank Gilbreth designed a special scaffold and a new brick laying procedure that reduced
the movements needed from 18 to 5 and in one case to 2. The worker‟s productivity
increased from laying 120 bricks per hour to laying 350 bricks per hour. The new
procedure also decreased fatigue.

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Dr. M. Ahsan Akhtar Hasin, IPE, BUET.

Process Flow Chart

Normally, Process Flow Charts are useful in Method study, because, this shows relationships
among different tasks. A Process Chart is a graphical view of work flows, along with time
required.

- Symbols used in process chart :

- Operation; - Transportation; - Inspection

- Temporary waiting, delay before next step; - Storage

An example of process chart:

Process Chart
Subject: Requisition of a small tool Date:

Dept. : Research Laboratory In Charge:

Developed by : Approved by :

Distance Time Symbols Description

(meters) (minutes)
30 Requisition written by supervisor

180 Waiting on supervisor‟s desk

65 2 Cary it to supervisor‟s secretary

Work Measurement and Standards

Work measurement is the application of techniques designed to establish the time for a
qualified worker to carry out a task at a defined rate of working or at a defined level of
performance.

It measures the time taken in performance of an operation or a series of operations and in can
separate out ineffective time from effective time. Thus ineffective time can be studied and by
way of method study described in earlier paragraphs, the ineffective operations can be
reduced or eliminated.

The fundamental purpose of work measurement is to set time standards for a job.

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Dr. M. Ahsan Akhtar Hasin, IPE, BUET.

Such standards are necessary for many purposes –

1. For scheduling and capacity planning

2. Measuring performance of workers for incentive planning, promotion, etc.
3. Provide benchmark for improvement
4. Setting due date for customer
5. Etc.

Work Measurement Techniques

There are many techniques of work measurement, three important are –

1. Time study (using stop watch)

2. Work Sampling
3. Predetermined Motion Time System (PMTS)

Time Study (Stopwatch method)

Highly repetitive work usually calls for time study. In this method, times of individual work
elements are measured (known as „Observed time‟, or „Average actual cycle time‟), and then
later on summed up, after a number of repetitions. However, this observed time is operator-
dependent. To make this operator‟s time usable for all workers, a measure of speed or
performance rating must be included to normalize the job. This gives Normal Time.

Normal Time = (Observed time) x (Performance rating)

[e.g. in case a worker is 20% faster than a normal worker (100 BSI), then his/her rating is
1.20].

Standard time is derived by adding to normal time allowances for personal needs (e.g.
washroom and coffee breaks), unavoidable delays (e.g. shortage of material, minor setups,
etc.), worker fatigue (physical and mental), etc.

There are two equations to measure standard time :

Standard Time = Normal time (1 + Allowance factor) Eq. (1)

Normal Time
Standard time  Eq. (2)
1  Allowance factor

In this course, we will use Equation no. (2).

Some important strategic issues need to be kept in mind, while performing time study:

 If a measured value is exceptionally high or low, then it should be discarded.

 If a work is performed by more than one person with different rating, then average
rating should be used.

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Dr. M. Ahsan Akhtar Hasin, IPE, BUET.

Example
A person needs 2 minutes to perform a task. He is 20% faster than a standard worker.
Allowance for personal needs is 15%. Calculate the standard time for this work.

Normal time = (2 min) x 1.20 = 2.4 minutes

2.4
S tan dard Time   2.82 min utes
1  0.15

Work Sampling
Work sampling is a work measurement technique, based on statistical analysis. It basically
focuses on determining the proportion of time the worker remains idle and proportion of time
the worker spends busy in manufacturing. It is as important as all other statistical techniques
because it permits quick analysis, recognition, and enhancement of job responsibilities, tasks,
performance competencies, and organizational work flows. Other names used for it are
'activity sampling', 'occurrence sampling', and 'ratio delay study'.

In a work sampling study, a large number of observations are made of the workers over an
extended period of time. For statistical accuracy, the observations must be taken at random
times during the period of study, and the period must be representative of the types of
activities performed by the subjects.

One important usage of the work sampling technique is the determination of the standard
time for a manual manufacturing task. In this case, Normal Time is calculated as follows:

Example:

A Work-sample study was conducted over 80 hours (or, 4800 minutes) of a 2-week period. In
this period, 225 parts were produced by an operator, who was of 100% rating. The operator‟s
idle time was 20%, and the total allowance for this task, given by the company is 25%. Find
out the standard time for this task.

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