IJSO Biology Module - 1

IJSO-BIOLOGY MODULE - (PART-1)
CONTENT
Sr. No. Topic Name Page No.
1. CELL CYCLE & CELL DIVISION 1 - 30
2. HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION 31 - 65
3. ECOLOGY 66 - 102
4. DIVERSITY OF LIVING ORGANISMS 103 - 135

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BIOLOGY- 1. CELL CYCLE & CELL DIVISION

In 1858, about 200 years after cells were first seen under the microscope, the German physiologist, Rudolf
Virchow proposed the third dictum in cell theory, ‘Omnis cellula e cellulae’ (all cells come from pre-
existing cells only).
Since then scientists have discovered that the formation of new cells includes both nuclear (karyokinesis)
and cytoplasmic processes (cytokinesis). Like life cycle of individuals, cells also have a life cycle called cell
cycle. As a multicellular organism, the cells also are formed, grows, divide; this type of cell cycle is
common.
The study of the cell cycle focuses on mechanisms that regulate the timing and frequency of DNA
duplication and cell division. As a biological concept, the cell life is defined as the period between the
successive divisions of a cell.
About 25 million cell divisions occur every second in our own body. As parts of cells life, some cells reach
their final form, & they stop dividing (cell cycle arrest- G0- phase) and enter an extended period of growth
during which they differentiate or undergo structural changes so as to be able to perform their special
function more efficiently and mature.
Some cells live for many years, even hundreds of years, but others have short cell life after they mature, for
example, RBCs of man lives for only 120 days.
A cell divides when it has grown to a certain maximum size which disturbs the karyoplasmic index (KI)/
Nucleoplasmic ratio (NP).
Two processes take place during cell reproduction.

Cell growth: (Period of synthesis and duplication of various components of cell).
Cell division: (Mature undifferentiated cell divides into two daughter cells).
Cell cycle: Howard and Pelc (1953) first time described the sequence of events which occur during cell
growth and cell division are collectively called as cell cycle. Cell cycle is completed in different phases.
PHASES OF CELL CYCLE
Growth Phase or Interphase is the period from the end of earlier cell division to the beginning of next cell
division with respect to that cell. It is also called resting phase or non-dividing phase. But, it is actually
highly metabolically active phase, in which cell prepares itself for next cell division. In case of human
beings it will take approximately 25 hours. Interphase is completed in three successive stages.
(a) G1 phase / Post mitotic / Pre-DNA synthetic phase / Gap-1 (gap-one): Metabolic changes in the newly
born cell increase the mass of total protoplasm & they prepare the cell for undergoing division.
At a certain point - the restriction point - the cell is committed to undergo cell division and moves into
the S phase. In general, G1 is the longest part of the cell cycle. It can last even for years. The cell
synthesizes proteins & RNA, prepares cytoplasmic structures & grows in size & total cytoplasmic mass.
If a cell undergoes cell cycle arrest it does not enter in G1, S and G2 phases and instead enters G0 phase
where it begin to different iate and mature as a specialized cell like nerve cell, epithelial, secretary cell
or so on.
1 PACE IIT & MEDICAL: Mumbai / Delhi & NCR / Goa / Akola / Kolkata / Nashik / Pune / Bokaro / Dubai
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The diagram of cell cycle showing different stages of events of cell life
(b) S-phase / Synthetic phase- ‘Making chromatin’ is the major task of this phase. ‘S’ stands for ‘synthesis
of DNA’ or DNA replication. During this phase, DNA molecules replicate into two identical daughter
DNA strands & changes into Chromosome and the period lasts for about 35-40 percent of the Interphase.
This length of synthesis phase is directly proportional to the length of the chromosome.
During the course of evolution up to amphibians the increase in the amount of genetic material also
increased the number of chromosomes. In mammals & birds the genetic material increased with decrease
in number of chromosomes in the nucleus. Therefore mammals have lesser number of chromosomes
which are longer & so synthesis phase lasts longer in them.
The main cytoplasmic activity during this phase is synthesis of proteins & RNA which are required for
DNA duplication.
(c) G2-phase / Pre mitotic / Post synthetic phase / gap-IInd- During this phase, nucleus increases in
volume, cell organelles are doubled, and spindles are formed for undergoing mitosis and Cytokinesis.
The synthesis of proteins & RNA will prepare the enzymes & cytoplasmic structures necessary for
oncoming cell division; because the chromosomes will undergo coiling & will become unavailable for
protein synthesis, once the mitosis begins.
Duration of cell cycle depends on the type of cell and external factors such as temperature, food and
oxygen. Time period for G1, S, G2 and M-phases is species specific under specific environmental
conditions. E.g. 20 minutes for bacterial cell, 8-10 hours for intestinal epithelial cell, and onion root tip
cells may take 20 hours.
Regulation of cell cycle:

The regulation of cell cycle is done at G1 phase; during which a cell may follow one of the three options.
It may start a new cell cycle, enter the S-phase and finally divide.[ ex.1 q.14]
It may be arrested at a specific point of G1 phase for a very long time & remain undifferentiated.
It may stop division and enter G0 / Quiescent stage. But when conditions change, some cells in G0 phase can
resume the growth and reenter the G1 phase.
NOTE: Some differentiated cells are not in terminally differentiated stages, and can be induced to re-enter
the cell cycle. For example, damage to the liver and kidneys can induce certain liver and kidney cells to re-
enter the cycle in order to replace those cells that have been destroyed (regeneration). Most cells in the
nervous system, especially the central nervous system (CNS) are terminally differentiated & cannot re-enter
cell cycle.
G0 or Differentiation Phase
What happens to the two daughter cells produced in one round of the cell cycle depends on what type of
cells they are. Some types of cells divide rapidly, and in these cases, the daughter cells may immediately
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undergo another round of cell division. For instance, many cell types in an early embryo divide rapidly, and
so do cells in a tumor.
Cells that do not proceed beyond G1 phase undergo differentiation and become a typical & specialized body
cell. Such cells are, therefore, said to be permanently in G0 phase or quiescent stage.
Thus these cells do not enter S phase as other cells in G1 phase are likely to do. After differentiation &
completion of cell cycle, the cells ultimately die, for example mature RBC, neurons and skeletal muscle.
Check Points
✓ During the cell cycle, the cell checks to see whether it is ready to proceed with mitosis or cell division.
They occur three times at G1, G2 and M phases.
✓ G1 checkpoint / Restriction point. This check point makes sure that the cell has achieved appropriate
size, has adequate energy reserves and undamaged DNA before it enters replication.
✓ G2 check point. After DNA replication in S phase the cell goes through the G2 check point where it is
seen if DNA has been accurately replicated.
✓ M check point/ Spindle check point: Occurs near the end of the metaphase stage of mitosis to
determine if sister chromatids are correctly attached to the mitotic spindle fibers.
✓ Cancer and the Cell Cycle
Cancer comprises many different diseases caused by a common mechanism: uncontrolled cell division
& growth. Despite the redundancy and overlapping levels of cell cycle control, errors do occur. One of
the critical processes monitored by the cell cycle checkpoint surveillance mechanism is the proper
replication of DNA during the S phase.
Even when all of the cell cycle controls are fully functional, a small percentage of replication errors
(mutations) will be passed on to the daughter cells. If changes to the DNA nucleotide sequence occur
within a coding portion of a gene and are not corrected, it results in a gene mutation. All cancers start
when a gene mutation gives rise to a faulty protein that plays a key role in cell reproduction. Even
minor mistakes, however, may allow subsequent mistakes to occur more readily.
Over and over, small uncorrected errors are passed from the parent cell to the daughter cells and
amplified as each generation of cells produces more non-functional proteins from uncorrected DNA
damage. Eventually, the pace of the cell cycle speeds up as the effectiveness of the control and repair
mechanisms becomes non-existent. Uncontrolled growth of the mutated cells outpaces the growth of
normal cells in the area, and a tumor (~oma) can result.
THE PHASES OF KARYOKINESIS or NUCLEAR DIVISION

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MITOTIC CELL DIVISION:
Amitosis / Direct Nuclear Division.

It is the most uncommon, primitive and simplest type of cell division. The nucleus starts elongating, thus a
constriction appears approximately in the middle. The constriction gradually deepens and eventually gives
rise to two daughter nuclei. The two daughter nuclei thus formed are not equal in size. This is said as direct
cell division.
Amitosis cell division is rare and, therefore, of little genetic importance. It is visible only in some unicellular
or acellular organisms like bacteria, yeast, amoeba, diatoms etc. It may also be seen in the higher plants but
in some very old cells which are degenerating. This may be regarded as a primitive form of mitosis.
Mitosis / Indirect Cell Division

M-phase / Dividing phase / Mitotic phase
In some single-celled organisms mitosis forms the basis of asexual reproduction. In diploid multicellular
organisms sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two haploid gametes to produce a diploid zygote.
Mitotic divisions of the zygote and daughter cells are then responsible for the subsequent growth and
development of the organism. In the adult organism, mitosis plays a role in cell replacement, wound healing
and even tumor formation.
Mitosis, although a continuous process, is conventionally divided into five stages: Prophase, Metaphase,
Anaphase and Telophase & Cytokinesis.
➢ Mitosis is a biological process of cell division which involves exact duplication of nuclear DNA
followed by its division into two daughter cells & division of cytoplasm so that the daughter cells
produced are genetically identical to each other & the mother cell.
➢ The process is used for formation of new body cells for growth & healing of the body.
➢ During cell differentiation some cells generally referred to as terminally differentiated undergo
formation of polyploid cells & hence they lose the ability of further cell division.
Prophase
▪ Prophase occupies over half of the period taken for mitosis by the cell.
▪ The nuclear membrane breaks down to form a number of small vesicles and the nucleolus also
disintegrates.
▪ A structure known as the centrosome duplicates itself to form two daughter centrosomes that migrate to
opposite ends of the cell.
The centrosomes organize the production of microtubules that form the spindle fibers that constitute the
mitotic spindle.
▪ The chromosomes condense into compact structures.
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▪ Each replicated chromosome can now be seen to consist of two identical chromatids (or sister
chromatids) held together by a structure known as the centromere.
Metaphase
o The chromosomes, led by their centromeres, migrate to the equatorial plane in the mid-line of the
cell - at right-angles to the axis formed by the centrosomes.
o This region of the mitotic spindle is known as the metaphase plate.
o The spindle fibers bind to a structure associated with the centromere of each chromosome called a
kinetochore.
o Individual spindle fibers bind to a kinetochore structure on each side of the centromere.
The chromosomes continue to condense.
o The chromosomes align themselves along the metaphase plate of the spindle apparatus.
Anaphase
o It is the shortest stage of mitosis.
The centromeres divide, and the sister chromatids of each chromosome are pulled apart - or 'disjoin' - and
move to the opposite ends of the cell, pulled by spindle fibers attached to the kinetochore regions.
o The separated sister chromatids are now referred to as daughter chromosomes. (It is the alignment
and separation in metaphase and anaphase that is important in ensuring that each daughter cell
receives a copy of every chromosome.)
Telophase
o The final stage of mitosis and a reversal of many of the processes observed during prophase
o The nuclear membrane reforms around the chromosomes grouped at either pole of the cell.
o The chromosomes uncoil and become diffuse, and the spindle fibers disappear.
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Cytokinesis: The final cellular division to form two new cells.
▪ In plants a cell plate forms along the line of the metaphase plate; in animals there is a constriction of the
cytoplasm.
▪ The cell then enters interphase - the interval between mitotic divisions.
▪ Significance of mitosis Results in formation of diploid & genetically identical daughter cells.
▪ Growth of the body takes place by mitosis.
▪ Cell repair and replace the worn out tissues.
▪ Maintenance of nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio.
▪ Vegetative reproduction in plants takes place by mitosis.
▪ Meiosis / Reduction Cell Division used for gamete formation.
Meiosis is the form of eukaryotic cell division that produces haploid sex cells or gametes (which contain a
single copy of each chromosome) from diploid cells (which contain two copies of each chromosome).
The process takes the form of one DNA replication followed by two successive nuclear and cellular
divisions (Meiosis I and Meiosis II).
As in mitosis, meiosis is preceded by a process of DNA replication that converts each chromosome into two
sister chromatid
Meiosis I: Meiosis I separates the pairs of homologous chromosomes. In Meiosis I a special cell division
reduces the cell from diploid to haploid number of chromosomes.
Prophase I: The homologous chromosomes pair to exchange DNA to form recombinant chromosomes.
Prophase I is divided into five phases that take place within in the intact nuclear membrane.
Leptotene: Chromosomes start to condense.
Zygotene: Homologous chromosomes become closely associated (synapsis) to form pairs of chromosomes
(bivalents) consisting of four chromatids (tetrads).
Pachytene: Crossing over between pairs of homologous chromosomes to form chiasmata (sing. chiasma).
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Diplotene: homologous chromosomes start to separate but remain attached by chiasmata.
Diakinesis: homologous chromosomes continue to separate, and chiasmata move to the ends of the
chromosomes, the phenomenon called Terminalisation.
Pro-metaphase I: Spindle apparatus formed, and chromosomes attached to spindle fibres by kinetochores,
the nuclear membrane disappears.
Metaphase I: Homologous pairs of chromosomes (bivalents) arranged as a double row along the metaphase
plate. The arrangement of the paired chromosomes with respect to the poles of the spindle apparatus is
random along the metaphase plate.
This is a source of genetic variation through random assortment, as the paternal and maternal chromosomes
in a homologous pair are similar but not identical. The number of possible arrangements is 2n, where n is the
number of chromosomes in a haploid set. Human beings have 23 different chromosomes, so the number of
possible combinations is over 8 million.)
Anaphase I: The homologous chromosomes in each bivalent are separated and move to the opposite poles
of the cell.
Telophase I: The chromosomes become diffuse and the nuclear membrane reforms.
Cytokinesis: The final cellular division to form two new cells is followed by Meiosis II. Meiosis I is a
reduction division: the original diploid cell had two copies of each chromosome; the newly formed haploid
cells have one copy of each chromosome.
Meiosis II: Meiosis II separates each chromosome into two chromatids.

The events of Meiosis II are analogous to those of a mitotic division, although the number of chromosomes
involved has been halved.
Meiosis generates genetic diversity through---

The exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during Meiosis I.
The random alignment of maternal and paternal chromosomes in Meiosis I.
The random alignment of the sister chromatids at Meiosis II.
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CELL CYLCLE AND CELL DIVISION
Interphase :  Reasting phase, but cell is preparing for cell division

 Cell undergoes cell growth and DNA replication
 Comprises of three stages, G1, S and G2
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 G1 Phase  (G  Gap /Growth): Cell metabolically active, continuously grows, no replication of

DNA
 S Phase  (Synthesis): DNA synthesis/ replication takes place. Amount of DNA per cell doubles.
New DNA formed is interwhined and tangled. No increase in chromosome number. Centrioles in
cytoplasm duplicates.
 G2 Phase  (G  Gap /Growth): Proteins are synthesized for mitosis Cells which do not divide,
(eg heart cells) exit G1  enter Go (Go  Quiescent stage  here, cell is metabolically active but
does not divide unless necessary
M Phase: M  Mitosis; phase when the actual cell division or mitosis occurs
Prophase:  Initiation of condensation of chromosomal material  It untangles  forms compact

mitotic chromosomes (here, each chromosome comprises of two sister chromatids)
 Centrioles begin to move towards opposite poles
 Inititation of assembly of mitotic spindles, microtubules and proteins in cytoplasm
 Nuclear envelope starts disappearing
Late Prophase  No nucleolus, no nuclear envelope, no ER, no Golgi
Metaphase:  Complete disintegration of Nuclear envelope marks the start of metaphase

 Chromosomes spread throughout the cell cytoplasm
 Chromosome condensation complete, so they can be seen clearly
 All chromosomes moved into position at the equator of cell, with each chromatid
attached by the spindle fibre at kinetochore from opposite poles  This plane of
alignment called  Metaphase Plate
Anaphase  Each chromosome split simultaneously at the centromere  two sister chromatids
separate
 Each daughter chromatid migrate towards opposite poles
 As each chromosome move, the centromere is towards pole, hence leading the edge
the arms of chromosome trailing behind
Telophase:  The chromosomes reach the opposite poles

 Once reached, they de-condense, and lose their individuality
 Nuclear envelope assembles around chromosome clusters
 Nucleus, Golgi, ER reform
Cytokinesis:  Actual separation of cell by division of cytoplasm  cell organelles get distributed
between the two cells equally
 In animal cells  furrow in plasma membrane occurs which deepens and separates
out the cytoplasm
 In plant cells  Cell plate/ middle lamella formed between two cells  herein, cell
wall begins forming from the centre and starts extending to the ends
 In some organisms, karyokinesis isn’t followed by cytokinesis  leads to
multinucleate condition  called Syncytium (eg. Liquid endosperm in coconut)
Importance:  Growth of multicellular organisms is by Mitosis.

 Normally, the cell grows and along with the cell, the cytoplasm grows in quantity,
however, nucleus doesn’t. So, the ratio is disturbed. Therefore, to maintain the ratio of
cytoplasm to nucleus, mitotic cell division is essential.
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 Essential for cell repair. Eg. The upper layer of epidermis, cells of lining of gut, blood
cells constantly need cell repair, and renewal
MEIOSIS
 Four Haploid gametes formed from one diploid mother cell. Fertilization restores
chromosome number to diploid
 Reductional division
 Used during gametogenesis, in sexually reproducing plants and animals.
 Chromosomes duplicate only once, but divide twice
 Occurance: In diploid germ cells of sex organs, like
>Primary Spermatocytes (2n) of testes  spermatozoa/sperm (n)
>Primary oocytes (2n) of ovaries  ova (n)
>Pollen mother cells(2n)  spores (n)
 Comprises Meiosis I and Meiosis II;
 Meiosis I begins with an Interphase; No Interphase before Meiosis II
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Interphase
 The cell chromosomes are duplicated by a round of DNA
replication, creating sister chromatids (comprises G1, S, G2
phase)
Meiosis I
Interphase
 Reductional division; forms two daughter cells with half chromosome number

Laptotene
 Karyokinesis-I: Ist division of nucleus

 Prophase I: Longest phase, longer than even mitosis
1) Laptotene: > Condensation of nuclear chromatin into
species specific no. of chromosomes
 Volume of nucleus increases
 Formation of ester(spindle fibres)
Zygotene
2) Zygotene: > Pairing (called Synapsis) of homologous

chromosomes to form
bivalents /tetrads
 Occurs due to forces of attraction between alleles on the homologous chromosomes
 No. of bivalents = ½ to total no. of chromosomes in diploid cells
 Each bivalent has 1 paternal, 1 maternal chromosome
 Further condensation, moving away of esters
 Under EM, (Electron Microscope), a filamentous ladder like nucleo-proteinous
complex  Synaptonemal Complex is observed between homologous chromosomes
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Pachytene
3) Pachytene: > Sometimes, exchange of genes/ crossing over

between two non-sister chromatids of homologous occurs at
Recombination nodules  Appear at intervals on
synaptonemal complex
 Crossing over regulated by Recombinase enzyme
 Further condensation of chromosomes

Diplotene
4) Diplotene: > Desynapsis (separation) of homologous chromosomes due to dissolution of

synaptonmemal complex (desynapsis is not complete)
 They remain attached at one or more
Chismata  ‘x’ shaped points where
recombination has occurred
 No. of chiasmata depends on length of
chromosome
 Chismata start moving towards ends of
chromosomes  Terminalisation
 Diplotene can last for months or years in oocytes of some vertebrates
Diakinesis
5) Diakinesis: > Terminalisation of chismata completed

 Non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes
are in contact with each other at or near their
telomers, so the bivalents appear ring like
 Complete disappearance of nuclear membrane
 Formation of spindle fibres
 Chromosomes are fully condensed
6) Metaphase-I: Bivalents arrange themselves in two parallel equatorial or metaphase plates

 Microtubules from opposite poles of the spindle attach to
the pair of homologous chromosomes
 Centromeres of homologous chromosomes lie
equidistant from equator and are directed towards the
poles, while arms generally lie horizontally on the
equator
 Each homologous chromosome has two kinetochores
and both the kinetochores of a chromosome are joined to
the spindle fibre of same side
 Inter zonal fibres develop between centromeres of homologous chromosomes.
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7) Anaphase-I: Separation of homologous chromosomes,

start moving towards opposite poles
 Each tetrad divided into two dyads
 Reduction of chromosome number / disjunction
8) Telophase-I: May or may not occur

 If it occurs, changes are opposite to Prophase
 At each pole, daughter nucleus with nuclear membrane and nucleolus is formed
 Disappearance of spindle fibres
 Chromosomes decondense
 Cytokinesis -I: May or may not be present

If occurs  through cell furrow (animals)/ cell plate (cell plate)
INTERKINESIS: Stage between two meiotic divisions (something sort of like an interval)
Meiosis-II:  Initiated immediately after cytokinesis I, before the chromosomes have fully
elongated  Resembles a normal Mitosis
Equational division: Comprises of
Karyokinesis -II: 2nd division of nucleus

Prophase-II: > Nuclear membrane disappears by the
end of Prophase II  Chromosomes again become
compact
Metaphase-II : > Chromosomes align at the equator

 Spindle fibres from the opposite poles of the
spindle get attache to the kinetochores of sister
chromatids
Anaphase-II: > Begins with splitting of the centromere

of each chromosome, allowing them to move toward
the opposite poles of the cell
Telophase-II:> The two groups of chromosomes once

again get enclosed by nuclear envelop
Cytokinesis-II:> Follows Telophase - II, results in the

formation of tetrad of cells, ie, four haploid daughter
cells
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Significance/ Importance of Meiosis

 Conservation of species specific chromosome number is achieved in sexually reproducing organisms
 Increases genetic variability in the population of organisms of one generation to the next
 Produces genetic mutations at times which are a source of useful variations which help in evolution
and improvement of race.
 Causes ‘multiplication’, as in Meiosis, each parent cell produces four haploid cells.
EXERCISE I
1. The replication of the DNA takes place during ____________phase in somatic cell division.
(a) Interphase (b) Prophase (c) Metaphase (d) Telophase
2. The events listed below take place during ___________stage of mitosis.
Spiralisation and Nuclear Envelope Centromeres

Condensation of DNA breaks down separate
(a) Interphase Interphase Metaphase
(b) Interphase Prophase Telophase
(c) Prophase Metaphase Anaphase
(d) Prophase Prophase Anaphase
3. Certain events occur during mitosis and /or meiosis. But __________ occurs only in during meiosis.
(a) Chromatid formation (b) Chromosome condensation
(c) Chromosome movement to poles (d) Chromosome pairing
4. The centromeres divide during ___________stage of meiosis.

(a) Prophase I (b) Telophase II (c) Metaphase I (d) Anaphase II
Ans. 1.a 2.d 3.d 4.a
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Diagram to show the Difference in Meiosis in male & female Gamete formation
In male each spermatocyte produces 4 spermatozoa, while in females each Oocyte results in formation of
only one fertile egg.
5. During cell division, the separated chromatids of the chromosomes move towards opposite poles due
to _________________.
(a) Microtubules contraction (b) Centrioles
(c) Cytoplasmic streaming (d) Phragmoplast
6. If total number of chromosomes in the diploid cell is given as 2n = 8, the total number of
chromatids in each daughter cell after meiosis-I will be _______________.
(a) Four (b) Sixteen (c) Two (d) Eight
7. During mitosis, nuclear membrane disappears at _____________ phase of cell division.

(a) Telophase (b) Prophase (c) Metaphase (d) Anaphase
8. Bouquet stage is observed in cells undergoing meiosis during ____________ of prophase-I.

(a) Leptotene (b) Zygotene (c) Diplotene (d) Pachytene
9. The property or phenomenon of _____________ is seenbetween the homologous chromosomes

during zygotene of Meiosis-I.
(a) Cohesion (b) Synapsis (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) Adhesion
5.a 6.d 7.b 8.a 9.c
10. Identify the incorrect statement.

(a) Pairing of paternal and maternal chromosomes during zygotene is called synapse.
(b) Chiasmata are the site for crossing over of genetic material.
(c) Terminalisation occurs during diplotene.
(d) Prophase I is the most complicated and longest stage of meiosis.
11. At _____________stage of meiosis I, the homologous chromosomes are pulled away & separated by
the centrioles of the centrosomes to opposite poles.
(a) Anaphase I (b) Metaphase I (c) Prophase I (d) Telophase I
12. The ____________, extract of rhizome of Gloriosa plant, serves as a poison & prevent the formation
of mitotic spindle.
(a) Ca++ (b) Mg++ (c) Tubulin (d) Colchicine
13. Select the incorrect statement.

(a) Pairing of chromosomes during meiosis constitutes the synaptonemal complex
(b) Crossing over between sister chromatids takes place during zygotene
(c) Synaptonemal complex are observed during zygotene
(d) Bivalent chromosomes are seen in Pachytene
14. ____________ is the shortest phase in the cell cycle of cells undergoing mitosis.
(a) Anaphase (b) Metaphase (c) Prophase (d) Telophase
15. Cell would normally proceed to mitosis without interruption ______________.

(a) Once it has entered the S phase (b) Once it has entered the G2 phase
(c) At any time during cell division activity (d) None of the above
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16. True statement for mitosis is ____________.

(a) Cells formed as a result of mitosis have different genetic characters.
(b) Cells formed by it have half the number chromosomes than that of parent cell.
(c) The cell formed by it do restore nucleo-plasmic ratio.
(d) Two cells formed as a result of this division are identical in all respects.
17. Which of the following is true?

(a) Cytokinesis and karyokinesis occur together
(b) Cytokinesis and karyokinesis are random
(c) Karyokinesis precedes cytokinesis
(d) Cytokinesis precedes karyokinesis
18. Cellular structures, which always disappear during mitosis, are ____________.
(a) Plastids and mitochondria (b) Nuclear envelope and nucleolus
(c) Cell wall and plasmalemma (d) Cell wall and nucleolus
19. The correct sequence of the given stages in meiosis
(a) A, C, D, E, B (b) A, B, C, D, E (c) C, A, D, B, E (d) D, B, E, C, A,
Ans. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.
a a d b b a d c b c
20. During G1 phase of the cell cycle of somatic cells, ______________.

(a) Cell is metabolically active (b) Continuously grows
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) Replicates its DNA
21. ____________ is the shortest phase in the interphase of cell cycle.

(a) G1 Phase (b) S-Phase (c) G2 Phase (d) G0 Phase
22. The complex formed by a pair of synapsed homologous chromosomes is called _________.
(a) Kinetochore (b) Bivalent chromosomes (c) Axoneme (d) Equatorial plate
23. In this micro- slide of onion root tip prepared for study of stages of Mitosis the phases of mitosis will
come in the sequence of _________________.
(a) A, B, C, D, E (b) C, A, B, D, E (c) C, A, B, E, D (d) A, C, B, D, E
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24. In ____________ phase of mitosis chromosomes arrange on equatorial plate.

(a) Prophase (b) Metaphase (c) Anaphase (d) Telophase
25. In ____________ stage of meiotic prophase I, chromosomes become thread-like and visible.
(a) Diakinesis (b) Leptotene (c) Zygotene (d) Pachytene
26. Synaptonemal complex is formed during _____________ phase of Prophase-I of Meiosis-I.

(a) Pachytene (b) Leptotene (c) Zygotene (d) Diakinesis
27. Select the correct option with respect to mitosis.

(a) Chromatids start moving towards opposite poles in telophase.
(b) Golgi complex and endoplasmic reticulum are still visible at the end of prophase
(c) Chromosomes move to the spindle equator and get aligned along equatorial plate in metaphase
(d) Chromatids separate, but remains in the center of the cell in anaphase
28. New Chromatid formation takes place in _____________ of the cell cycle.
(a) S phase (b) Metaphase (c) G1 phase (d) G2 phase
29. Select the matched ones.

I. S phase — DNA replication takes place
II. Zygotene — Synapsis formation begins
III. Diakinesis — Crossing Over takes place
IV. Meiosis — produces both haploid and diploid cells at the end
V. G2 phase — Quiescent stage with no protein or RNA synthesis
(a) I and II (b) III and IV (c) III and V (d) I, III and V
30. Colchicine arrests spindle formation at _______________.

(a) Anaphase (b) Prophase (c) Telophase (d) Metaphase
Ans. 20.c 21.c 22.b 23.b 24.b 26.c 27.c 28.a 29.a 30.d
IJSO BIOLOGY
EXERCISE. II
1. Longest phase of meiosis takes places, is _______________.

(a) Prophase I (b) Prophase II (c) Anaphase II (d) Metaphase II
2. Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between ____________.

(a) Chromatids of non-homologous chromosomes
(b) Non-sister chromatids of the homologous chromosomes
(c) Sister chromatids of the homologous chromosome
(d) The genes those are completely linked
3. During mitosis ER and nucleolus begin to disappear at ______________.

(a) Early prophase (b) Late prophase (c) Early metaphase (d) Late metaphase
4. The stages of mitotic cell division in the figures A and B represent respectively are _____________.
(a) Prophase, Anaphase (b) Metaphase,Telophase

(c) Telophase, Metaphase (d) Late anaphase, Prophase
5. In _________ phase, DNA content will be doubled within the cell undergoing mitotic cell division.
(a) Interphase (b) Anaphase (c) Prophase (d) Telophase
6. Synapsis, a well-known phenomenon occurs between the _______________.

(a) A male and a female gamete (b) mRNA and ribosomes
(c) Spindle fibres and centromere (d) Two homologous chromosomes
7. In meiosis, division is described to be ___________.

(a) I Reductional and II equational (b) I Equational and II reductional
(c) Both reductional (d) Both equational
8. A cell plate is laid down during ______________ in plant cells.

(a) Cytokinesis (b) Karyokinesis (c) Interphase (d) None of these
9. The events that occur during G1 phase is _____________.

(a) DNA replication (b) Growth and normal function of cell
(c) Mutation (d) Fertilization
Ans. 1.a 2.b 3..a 4.d 5.a 6.d 7.a 8.a 9.b
10. In mitosis, the number of chromosomes in the parent and progeny cells is same, therefore also called
as ____________.
(a) Equational division (b) Reductional division
(c) May be (a) or (b) (d) None of the above
IJSO BIOLOGY
11. The stage during which cell decides to get specialized is _____________.
(a) S phase (b) M phase (c) G1 phase (d) G2 phase
12. Pick out the correct statements.

Mitosis takes place in the somatic cells and meiosis takes place in the germ cells.
During mitosis, the DNA replicates once for one cell division and in meiosis it divides twice.
Mitosis and meiosis occur both in sexually and asexually reproducing organisms.
(a) I only (b) II only (c) III only (d) I and II only
13. To enter the cell cycle a cell needs stimulation from outside in form of a bio-molecule _____.
(a) Cyclins (b) Cyclin-dependent kinases
(c) Cytokines and growth factors (d) Tyrosine
[Cyclins are a family of proteins that control the progression of cells through the cell cycle by
activating cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) enzymes.]
14. The DNA will undergo duplication / DNA replication during _______ phase of the cell cycle.
(a) G1 phase (b) S phase (c) G2 phase (d) M phase
[The purpose of the cell cycle is to accurately duplicate each organism's DNA and delay or halt the cell
cycle in G1, arrest occurs through several mechanisms & check points; similar to S phase, DNA damage
checkpoint is during G2 phase.]
15. The process of ____________ occurs during meiosis but is non-existent during mitosis.
(a) Attachment of spindle fibres to the kinetochore.
(b) Pairing of homologous chromosomes at the metaphase plate.
(c) Replication of DNA prior to the start of cell division.
(d) Separation of sister chromatids at anaphase.
[The kinetochore, the protein complex assembled at each centromere, serves as the attachment site for
spindle fibres or microtubules and the site at which forces are generated to power chromosomal movement
during Anaphase.
Kinetochores that are not yet attached to chromatids also generate the signal for the mitotic checkpoint,
which arrests mitosis until all kinetochores have correctly attached to spindle microtubules, thereby
representing the major cell cycle control mechanism protecting against loss of a chromosome or
aneuploidy.]
16. The cellular organelles that are involved in the initiation of the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis is ___.
(a) Endoplasmic reticulum (b) Mitochondria (c) Peroxisomes (d) Ribosomes
17. Apoptosis is a natural phenomenon observed in the body of living organisms. It simply means ____.
(a) Beginning of Chromosome duplication (b) Replacement of dead cells by mitosis
(c) Initiation of cell division (d) Genetically “Programmed” cell death
18. Stage in which daughter chromosomes move toward the poles of the spindle is __________.
Ans. 10.a 11.c 12.d 13.a 14.b 15.b 16.b 17.d 18.a
IJSO BIOLOGY
19. The phenomenon of Apoptosis is shown in cells during which the cytoplasm shrinks due to a
complex mechanism & ultimately the cell dies. This phenomenon is obviously seen during ______.
(a) Death of RBCs & WBCs (b) During embryonic development
(c) Formation of polar bodies (d) All of above
The phenomenon of Apoptosis is shown in cells during which the cytoplasm shrinks due to a
complex mechanism & ultimately the cell dies. This phenomenon is obviously seen during ______.
(a) Formation of polar bodies
(b) Death of RBCs & WBCs
(c) During embryonic development
(d) All of above
[In neighboring picture the phenomenon of Apoptosis is shown in pancreatic cells that results into
D. mellitus.]
20. At _________ cell cycle checkpoint is the cell cycle halted if the cell's DNA is damaged.
(a) G1 - S (b) S - G2 (c) G2 - M (d) G1 - G0
21. Numbers of chromatids, in each human-daughter cell, produced by mitotic cell division is / are ____.
(a) 58 (b) 52 (c) Not equal (d) Equal to mother cell.
22. The non-sister chromatids twist around each other and exchange chromosomal segments with each
other during ________________ of the Meiosis I.
(a) Diakinesis (b) Diplotene (c) Leptotene (d) Pachytene
23. Synapsis occurs between _______________.
(a) Male and a female gamete (b) m RNA and ribosomes
(c) Spindle fibers and centromere (d) The homologous chromosomes
24. In the laboratory you want to count the chromosomes present in onion with cells of root-tips of
onion; you should look into ____________.
25. During G0 phase of cell cycle, the cells _______________.
(a) Enter cell cycle & carry out life processes (b) Exit cell cycle & carry out life processes
(c) Temporarily suspend cell cycle (d) Terminate cell cycle
26. In the specialized somatic cell during their cell cycle______________.

(a) A short interphase is followed by a long mitotic phase
(b) DNA replication takes place in S-phase
(c) G2 phase follows mitotic phase
(d) In G1 phase DNA content will indulge in protein synthesis to carry out life processes.
Ans. 19.d 20.c 21.d 22.b 23.d 24.b 25.b 26.d
IJSO BIOLOGY
EXERCISE. III
1. During Diplotene stage of prophase I of meiosis, the main event takes place is _____________.
(a) Compaction of chromosomes (b) Dissolution of synaptonemal complex
(c) Formation of recombination nodules (d) Formation of synaptonemal complexes
2. The major event that occurs during the anaphase of mitosis, which brings about the equal distribution
of chromosomes, is called as _______________.
(a) A splitting of the centromeres (b) Condensation of the chromatin
(c) Replication of the genetic material (d) Splitting of the chromatids
3. The phenomenon of _________________ is unique to mitosis and not a part of meiosis.

(a) Chromatids are separated during anaphase
(b) Homologous chromosomes pair for banquet formation.
(c) Homologous chromosomes crossover
(d) Homologous chromosomes pair during Metaphase
4. Bacteria divide through a process called binary fission by _________________.

(a) Replication & separation of their Chromosomes (b) Separation of their DNA in diploid state
(c) Separation of their DNA by amitosis (d) Replication & separation of their single DNA
5. Arrange the following events of meiosis in the correct order of their occurrence.
I. Terminalisation II. Crossing over III. Synapsis IV. Disjunction of genomes
(a) I, IV, III, II, (b) II, I, IV, III, (c) III, II, I, IV, (d) IV, III, II, I.
6. Chiasmata are first seen during the ______________ prophase I of Meiosis.

(a) Diplotene (b) Leptotene (c) Pachytene (d) Zygotene
7. Protein subunit found within microtubules is known as __________.

(a) Collagen (b) DNA (c) Myosin (d) Tubulin
8. Cell plate grows from ______________, at the end of cell division in plant cells.
(a) Centre to wall (b) One wall to another (c) Simultaneously (d) Wall to center
[During Telophase, membrane-enclosed vesicles derived from the Golgi apparatus migrate to the center of
the cell where the metaphase plate would be formed and fuse to form a cell plate. Eventually, the growing
cell plate fuses with the existing plasma membrane from middle lamella of the cell towards the wall,
separating two daughter cells, each with its own plasma membrane.]
9. The cellular structures which surely disappear during mitosis and meiosis are ___________.
(a) Nucleolus and nuclear envelope (b) Plasma membrane
(c) Plastids (d) None of these
10. The terms & the structure that is not related to mitosis is _____________
(a) Chromosomes (b) DNA replication (c) Gametes (d) Somatic cells
11. The phase of mitosis during which the chromosome arrangement & alignment changes & they begin
to change in to euchromatin material within the cell ___________.
(a) Anaphase (b) Cytokinesis (c) Prophase (d) Telophase
Ans. 1.d 2.d 3.a 4.d 5.c 6.a 7.d 8.a 9.a 10.c 11.b
IJSO BIOLOGY
12. The phase of mitosis, characterized by reformation of the nuclear envelope is ___________.
13. During cell division, the organelle forming the network of protein cables is _______.
(a) Aster / Centriole (b) Centromere (c) Kinetochore (d) Spindle
14. Select the odd sentence- true amongst the false or only false statement in all true.
(a) Chromosome replication takes place during interphase.
(b) Cytokinesis takes place during metaphase.
(c) Following the Telophase in animal cells, a cell plate begins to form.
(d) Normal human cells can go on dividing indefinitely.
15. Select the odd sentence- true amongst the false or only false statement in all true.
(a) A series of checkpoints decide the time of cell division.
(b) After a certain length of time the cell divides.
(c) The cell cycle is controlled in most cells, as a cell reaches a certain size, it divides.
(d) The completion of one phase, triggers the beginning of the next.
RAPID ROUND
No. Statement (a) (b) (c) (d)

16 Centromere is a Chromosome ER Mitochondrion Ribosome
constituent of
17. Chiasma formation Diplotene Leptotene Pachytene Zygotene
occurs during
18. Crossing-over results in Diplotene Leptotene Pachytene Zygotene
19. Crossing over can be Diplotene Leptotene Pachytene Zygotene
observed during
20. Terminalisation takes Diplotene Leptotene Pachytene Zygotene
place during
21. Cytoplasmic division of Cell plate Cytokinesis Mitotic cell Synapsis
a plant cell is called formation division
22. Phase chromatin Cytokinesis Interphase Metaphase Prophase
condenses to form
chromosomes
23. Stage not included in Anaphase Interphase Metaphase Prophase
the stages before
Meiosis II
24. Another name of DNA Chromatin Chromosomes Deoxyribonucleic Genetic
acid Material
25. Name of the a nitrogen Anaphase Guanine Deoxy Ribose Uric acid
base in DNA
26. The chromosomes Diplotene Leptotene Pachytene Zygotene
appears as long thin
threads in
27. Number of mitotic 7 9 12 16
divisions required to
produce 128 cells from
a single cell is
Ans. 12.d 13.a 14.aT 15.aF 16.a 17.d 18.c 19.a 20.a
21.b 22.d 23.b 24.c 25.b 26.b 27.a
IJSO BIOLOGY
EXERCISE. IV
1. Assertion: Phase of cell division is also known as formative phase.

Reason: In formative phase new cells are produced from pre-existing cells through meiotic division.
(a) Assertion is true, but Reason is false.
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are false.
(c) Both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is the correct explanation of the Assertion.
(d) Both Assertion and Reason are true but the Reason is not the correct explanations of Assertion.
2. From the following, identify the two correct statements with reference to meiotic cell division.
I. Bead like structure are absent on chromosomes during prophase
II. Displacement of chiasmata occurs in Diakinesis.
III. No division of centromere takes place.
IV. Separation of two basic sets of chromosomes takes place
(a) I, III (b) II, III (c) II, IV (d) III, IV
3. In order to enter the cell cycle a cell must be stimulated from outside by a type of molecule called
_______________. (They are the peptides produced by nearby cells)
(a) Cyclin-dependent kinases (b) Cyclins
(c) Cytokines and growth factors (d) Tyrosine kinases
4. The entire process of the cell cycle is controlled by certain protein molecules called kinases; they act
by phosphorylation & activation of various proteins or enzymes at appropriate times. These protein
kinases are called as ________________.
(a) Cdk activating kinases (b) Cyclin-dependent kinases
(c) Cyclins (d) Tyrosine kinases
(Sugar kinases first discovered for their role in regulating the cell cycle. They are also involved in
regulating transcription, mRNA processing, and the differentiation; CDKs are relatively small proteins, with
molecular weights ranging from 34 to 40 kDa,)
Ans. 1.b 2.b 3.c 4.b
IJSO BIOLOGY
5. In the cell's whose DNA is structurally damaged, its progression in the cell cycle will be arrested at
______________checkpoint.
(a) G1 - S (b) S - G2 (c) G2 - M (d) G1 - G0
6. The cell organelles involved in the initiation of the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis or preprogramed
cell death, is ________________.
(a) Golgi body (b) Lysosomes (c) Mitochondria (d) Peroxisomes
7. The phase of the cell cycle that has inactive, condensed DNA; unable to transcribe messenger RNA
is ________________.
(a) G1 phase. (b) G2 phase. (c) M phase (d) S phase
✓ Irreversible injury to cells as a result of noxious stimuli leads to cell death.

Infection by bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites; oxygen deprivation or hypoxia,
and extreme environmental conditions such as heat, radiation, or exposure to
ultraviolet irradiation may be the various causes of cell necrosis.
✓ The Necrosis is a term distinguishes the phenomenon from the other major
consequence of irreversible injury, known as cell death by apoptosis.
✓ Apoptosis is a programmed or organized cell death resulting due to

physiological or pathological reasons. Necrosis as a form of cell death is
associated with a pathological process.
✓ When cells die by necrosis, they exhibit two major types of microscopic
appearance. The first is liquefactive necrosis, also known as colligative
necrosis, is characterized by partial or complete dissolution of dead tissue and
transformation into a liquid, viscous mass.
✓ The cell enlarges in size by absorption of water resulting into swelling &
enlargement of each & every cell organelle & they just burst open. This is
followed by the phagocytosis of the debris by WBCs.
✓ In coagulative necrosis, the normal architecture of necrotic tissue is maintained

even after the cell death.
✓ Liquefaction is caused due to the activities of hydrolytic enzymes which causes

dissolution of cellular organelles in a cell undergoing necrosis. The enzymes
responsible for liquefaction are derived from either bacterial hydrolytic
enzymes or lysosomal hydrolytic enzymes.
8. In the situations like ___________ cells would die by necrosis, not apoptosis.
(a) Removal of cells with damaged DNA that cannot be repaired.
(b) Removal of developing neurons that fails to make profitable connections with other cells.
(c) Removal of heart muscle cells damaged by oxygen depletion following cardiac infarction.
(d) Removal of virus infected cells.
IJSO BIOLOGY
9. The passage through ______________checkpoint commits the cell to proceed through to mitosis and
cell division.
(a) G1 to S (b) S to G2 (c) G2 to M (d) M to G1
Ans. 5.c 6.c 7.c 8.a 9.b
10. Amitosis is ________________.

(a) A division in which chromosome bridge are formed
(b) A division in which chromosomes are unequally distributed
(c) A division in which spindles are formed
(d) Cleavage of nucleus without recognizable chromosomes
11. The pair of Homologous chromosomes includes _______________.

(a) Chromosome having genes for same characters from each parent
(b) One complete and one incomplete chromosome
(c) One smaller and one bigger chromosome
(d) None of the above
12. The number of series of mitotic divisions will be needed in the cells of the root tip to form 128
daughter cells is ______________.
(a) 6 (b) 7 (c) 8 (d) 64
13. The minimum number of meiotic division undergone to produce 164 pollen grains of wheat is _____.
(a) 25 (b) 41 (c) 82 (d) 64
14. The minimum number of meiotic division undergone to produce 164 fertile egg or ovum cells of
wheat is _____________.
(a) 25 (b) 41 (c) 82 (d) 164
15. Interkinesis is a period between ___________________, when cell proceed through the next cell
division after a small gap.
(a) Anaphase I and Telophase I (b) Meiosis I and Meiosis II
(c) Metaphase I and Anaphase I (d) Prophase I and Metaphase I
Ans. 10.b 11.a 12.b 13.b 14.d 15.b
IJSO BIOLOGY
16. Chromosome exhibit minimum coiling during ________________.

17. Down syndrome is caused due to nondisjunction of chromosomes at ______________.
(a) Anaphase I or Anaphase II of meiosis (b) Anaphase of mitosis
(c) Metaphase I or Metaphase II of meiosis (d) Telophase I or Telophase II of meiosis
18. Cell cycle progression from one phase to another is primarily controlled by _____________.
(a) Dephosphorylation of cyclin (b) Phosphorylation of cdk inhibiters
(c) Proteolysis of cdks (d) Proteolysis of cyclin
Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) are the catalytic subunits of a family of mammalian

heterodimeric serine/threonine kinases that have been found to be in the control of cell-cycle
progression, transcription and neuronal function. Recent genetic evidence obtained with
gene-targeted mice has shown that Cdk4 and Cdk6 are not needed for entry into the cell cycle
after mitogenic stimuli and organogenesis; however, they are essential for the proliferation of
some endocrine and hematopoietic cells. Cdk2 is also dispensable for the mitotic cell cycle.
Indeed, mice without Cdk2 are normal except for their complete sterility: unexpectedly, Cdk2 is
crucial for the first meiotic division of male and female germ cells. These findings have
important implications both for our current understanding of the role of Cdks in regulating the
mammalian cell cycle and for their potential use as therapeutic targets in cancer.
In vertebrates and diploid yeasts, cells in G1 have a diploid number of chromosomes (2n), one
inherited from each parent. In haploid yeasts, cells in G1 have one of each chromosome (1n).
Rapidly replicating human cells progress through the full cell cycle in about 24
hours: mitosis takes ≈30 minutes; G1, 9 hours; the S phase, 10 hours; and G2, 4.5 hours.
In contrast, the full cycle takes only ≈90 minutes in rapidly growing yeast cells.
19. The Mendelian law of independent assortment is due to the arrangement of chromosome during ___.
(a) Anaphase I (b) Anaphase II (c) Cytokinesis (d) S phase
20. The kind of aneuploid gametes (gametes missing or added certain chromosomes from haploid set)
will be produced, if meiotic non-disjunction occurs at first division (n represents the haploid
number of chromosomes)
(a) Both n+1 and n-1 (b) Either n+1 or n-1 (c) Only n+1 and n (d) Only n-1 and n
Ans. 16.d 17.a 18.b 19.a 20.a
21. DNA sequence responsible for chromatid separation is present in___________________.

(a) Centromere (b) Kinetochore (c) Satellite (d) Telomere
22. If cell has 46 chromosomes present at the beginning of mitosis, then at anaphase there would be a
total of________________.
(a) 23 chromatids (b) 46 chromatids (c) 46 chromosomes (d) 92 chromatids
23. The event(s) that does not occur during interphase is/are _______________.
(a) Chromatin condensation (b) DNA replication
(c) Organelles replication (d) Protein Synthesis
24. In prokaryotes, just before the cell divides by binary fission, the two daughter genomes are attached
side by side to the __________________________.
(a) Cell membrane (b) Centromeres (c) Equatorial plate (d) Replication origin
IJSO BIOLOGY
Ans. 21.a 22.d 23.a 24.a
The binary fission of bacterial cell begins with the attachment of the DNA to the
mesosome, an inward fold of the plasma membrane.
This point of the DNA is known as point of origin.
Mesosome organizes the enzymes - DNA Helicase, Single strand binding proteins, DNA
Gyrase, DNA polymerase (Pol I, Pol II, Pol III), RNA polymerase for priming & DNA
Ligase.
The mesosome divides & moves apart so that as the DNA strands duplicate they
simultaneously separate & move apart.
Along with it the cell also elongates & the process does not allow the entangling of the
DNA.
After completion of duplication & separation of the DNA, the division furrow appears.
EXERCISE. V
1. A complete set of chromosomes inherited as a unit from one parent is known as __________.
(a) Gene pool (b) Genome (c) Genotype (d) Karyotype
2. During cell division, sometimes there will be a failure of separation of sister chromatids. This event
is called as_________________.
(a) Genocide (b) Hybridization (c) Anomalies (d) Non disjunction
3. A cell divides every one minute. At this rate of division it can fill a 100 ml of beaker in one hour.
How much time will it take to fill a 50 ml beaker?
(a) 30 minutes (b) 60 minutes (c) 59 minutes (d) 60 seconds
4. In how many cells the meiotic division began to take place, if the total number of spermatids
produced is 72?
(a) 14 (b) 16 (c) 18 (d) 36
5. Zygotic meiosis occurs in____________________.
(a) Chlamydomonas (Monera) (b) Marchantia (Liverwort)
(c) Pteris (Fern) (d) Puccinia (Fungus)
IJSO BIOLOGY
6. Daughter cells formed as a result of meiosis are not similar to that of parent cell because__________.
(a) Due to Crossing over & chromosome number is halved
(b) Meiosis is completed in two stages
(c) Nucleus size increases in daughter cells
(d) Prophase brings some changes
Ans. 1.b 2.d 3.c 4.c 5.a 6.a
7. The disease one gets when body cells lose the ability to control division is ______________.
(a) Cancer (b) Flu (c) Food poisoning (d) Tetanus
8. Number of chromosomes a human sex cells or gametes have________________.

(a) 16 (b) 23 (c) 46 (d) 92
9. Name the phase in which the cleavage furrow start to appear_________________.

(a) Anaphase (b) Interphase (c) Prophase (d) Telophase
10. The beginning of Mitosis is controlled at the _____________ checkpoint.

(a) G1 (b) G2 (c) M (d) S
11. In prokaryotes, just before the cell divides, the two daughter genomes are attached side by side to the
________________.
(a) Cell membrane (b) Centromeres (c) Kinetochore (d) Replication origin
12. The condensation of the chromosome portion containing the rRNA genes causes the disappearance
of the_________________ during cell cycle.
(a) Aster (b) Centriole (c) Nucleolus (d) Nuclear membrane
13. The Diagram below is the representation of a certain event during cell division taking place in that
order. Identify the phase.
(a) Anaphase of both mitosis & Meiosis (b) Both prophase and metaphase of mitosis
(c) Prophase I during meiosis (d) Telophase II during meiosis
14. Study the following lists and select the correct match from the option given below.
Column-I Column -II
A. Action of endonuclease I. Anaphase - I
B. Initiation of spindle fibres II. Prophase
C. Movement of chromatids towards opposite poles III. S phase
D. Synthesis of RNA, Protein, cell organelles IV. G1 phase
(a) A - I, B - III, C - V, D - IV (b) A - II, B - III, C - IV, D - V
(c) A - III, B - II, C - I, D - IV (d) A - V, B - III, C - I, D – II
Ans. 7.a 8.b 9.d 10.b 11.a 12.c 13.a 14.c
IJSO BIOLOGY
15. In ___________ phase of the cell cycle, the chromosomes are inactive, condensed, and do not
transcribe to messenger RNA.
(a) G1 phase. (b) S phase. (c) M phase. (d) G2 phase.
16. In the life cycle of a human cell, each chromosome contains two chromatids by the end of the
_____________ phase.
(a) G1 (b) G2 (c) M (d) S
17. Figures A and B respectively represent ______________stages of cell division.
(a) A. Prophase B. Anaphase (b) A. Metaphase B. Telophase

(c) A. Telophase B. Metaphase (d) A. Anaphase B. Prophase
18. During oogenesis the cell stage ______________, is fertilized by a sperm to become a zygote.
(a) Primary oocyte (b) Primary spermatocyte
(c) Secondary oocyte (d) Secondary spermatocyte
19. A bivalent chromosome consists of _________________.

(a) Four chromatids and four centromeres (b) Four chromatids and two centromeres
(c) Two chromatids and one centromere (d) Two chromatids and two centromeres
20. A change in the amount of yolk and its distribution in the egg will affect the ____________.
(a) Fertilization time (b) Formation of zygote
(c) Number of blastomeres produced (d) Pattern of cleavage
21. Extrinsic apoptosis pathway or death receptors pathway is meant for _____________.
(a) Cells with damaged DNA.
(b) Irradiated cells.
(c) Developing nerve cells that fail to make profitable connections.
(d) Virus infected cells.
22. Passage through which checkpoint is the step which commits the cell to proceed through to mitosis
and cell division?
(a) G1 to S. (b) S to G2. (c) G2 to M. (d) M to G1.
23. The cell is not allowed to pass the cell cycle restriction point if DNA damage is detected. Which of
the following proteins are involved in detection of DNA damage and inhibition of the cycle at the
restriction point? Please select all that apply.
(a) Replication protein A (RPA). (b) ATM (ataxia telangiectasia mutated) protein.
(c) Cyclin D. (d) p 53.
IJSO BIOLOGY
24. At the end of each phase of the cell cycle Cyclins activating Cdks in that phase are inactivated
irreversibly by which of the following mechanisms?
(a) Multiple phosphorylations. (b) Dephosphorylation.
(c) Ubiquitinylation. (d) Destruction by proteolysis in a proteasome.
Ans. 15.c 16.d 17.d 18.c 19.b 20.d 21.d 22.a 23.b,d 24.b
25. Damaged cells die by apoptosis. Although S-phase is independent of growth factors, massive DNA
damage or deprivation of nucleotides forces a cell division to be arrested in S-phase, but such arrest
is usually accompanied by cell death due to necrosis. It is caused by ___________.
(a) Exposure Pb (NO3)2 & other heavy metals (b) Exposure to radiation
(c) Medications used to control cell growth. (d) All of the above.
26. The plant formed by using colchicine is in the process of development of raphano-brassica is called as __.
(a) Allotetraploid (b) Autotetraploid (c) Haploid (d) Triploid
Ans. 25.d 26.a
➢ In the embryos of Eutherian ( having true uterus- marsupials are not included) mammals,
pluropotency, or the ability of cell to differentiate into any kind of body cell, emerges
within the inner cell mass of the blastocyst and persists until organogenesis/ somatogenesis
or organ determination.
➢ Over this period, lasting 4-5 days in mouse and approximately two weeks in human
embryos, cells in the pluripotent tissue, the epiblast or embryonic cells, alter their cellular
properties and undergo structural transformations by transcription of specific gene and by
epigenomic modifications, reversible modifications on a cell’s DNA or histones that affect
gene expression without altering the DNA sequence features i. e. by not allowing certain
genes to produce their proteins (by keeping then in coiled heterochromatin state) & some
others to do it. Resulting into differential signalling and metabolism.
Causes of Extrinsic Apopstasis : 21 of Ex. V

a) Occurs in response to several external "death" signals
b) FAS ligand binding the FAS death receptor (CD95)
c) CD95 mediates a cascade of caspase activation via FADD, a death domain-containing
adapter protein
d) Also mediated by TNF which acts in a similar fashion to FAS
e) Killer CD8 T-cells kill virally infected cells
f) Release perforin and granzyme B which damage the cell membrane and activate caspases
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BIOLOGY- 2. Heredity and Evolution

Definition: “Genetics is the study and understanding of the phenomena of heredity and variation”. The term
genetics was first coined by Bateson in 1906. In Latin, it means genesis or origination of organisms.
Heredity is the transmission of characters from one generation to the next, i.e., from parents to their
offspring. Variations are visible difference between the parents and the offspring, or between two offsprings
of the same parents.
 An offspring receives all the characters from its parents and yet, an offspring is never an exact copy of
its parents, Similarly no two offsprings of the same parents is are identical (exception: identical twins)
Gregor Mendel
 Gregor Johann Mendel was born on July 22, 1822 in Moravia, Austria.
 He had his early education in a monastery in Brunn, Austria (now Brno in Czechoslovakia) and later
studied science and mathematics at the University of Vienna. He graduate in 1840.
 Mendel returned to the monastery in Brno as a monk.
 Mendel carried out his legendary experiments on garden pea plants in the monastery garden from 1857
to 1865
 He published his research paper containing his observations and conclusions is 1866 on the annual
proceedings of the Natural History Society of Brunn. These conclusion are now known as Mendel’s
Laws. This work is a classic in biology for its elegance and simplify and ranks amongst the most
outstanding biological contributions of all times
 But unfortunately, this work failed to attract the attention of the biologists of that time.
 One of the possible reasons for such neglect was the inability of the biologists of that time to
understand and appreciate the statistical approach adapted by Mendel.
 Thus, Mendel was left bitterly disappointed, and died an unrecognized death in 1884.
 Sixteen year after Mendel’s death, in 1900, Huge de Vries (Holland), Karl Cornens (Germany) and
Von Tschermark (Asutria) independently arrived at similar conclusions as those of Mendel.
 De Vries rediscovered the research paper of Mendel and it was published again in 1901.
 Hence, Mendel is called The father of Genetics.
Terminology Used
1. Factor: A particle or unit in the organism which is responsible for the inheritance and expression of a
particular character.
2. Gene: Mendel’s factor is now known as gene. A gene is a particular segment of DNA molecule which
determines the inheritance and expression of a particular character.
3. Alleles or Allelomorphs: Two or more alternative forms of gene are called alleles or allelomorphs.
For example in pea, the gene or producing seed shape may occur in two alternative forms round (R)
and wrinkled (r). Round and wrinkled forms of the gene are alleles of each other. Alleles occupy same
locus on homologous chromosomes.
4. Dominant: Of the two alternative forms (allomorphs) of a trait, one which appears in the F1 hybrid is
called the dominant trait (Dominant Allele)
5. Recessive: Of the two alternating allomorphs of a trait, one which is suppressed (does not appear) in
the F1 hybrid is called the recessive trait (recessive Allele)
6. Genotype: The genetic make-up or genic constitution of an individual (which he/she inherits from the
parents) is called the genotype, e.g., the genotype of pure round seeded parent will be ‘RR.
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7. Phenotype: The external (morphological) appearance of an individual for ant trait or trails is called the
phenotype, e.g. for seeds, round shape or wrinkled shape is the phenotype.
8. Homozygous: An individual possessing (receiving from parents) identical alleles for a trait is said to
be homozygous or pure for that trait, e.g. plant with RR alleles is homozygous for the seed shape. A
homozygous always breeds true for that trait.
9. Heterozygous: An individual receiving dissimilar alleles for a trait is said to be heterozygous or
impure for that trait, e.g. a plant with Rr alleles is heterozygous for the seed shape. Heterozygous is
also called a hybrid.
10. Parent generations: The parents used for the first cross represents the parent (or P1) generation.
11. F1 generation: The progeny or produced from a cross between two parents (P1) is called first filial or
F1 generation.
12. Inbreeding: When the individual of a property (e.g. F1 generation) are allowed to cross with each
other, it is called inbreeding.
13. F2 generation: The resulting from self hybridization or inbreeding of F1 individuals is called Second
Fillal or F2 generation.
14. Monohybrid cross: The cross between two parents differing in a single pair of contrasting character is
called monohybrid cross and the F1 offspring as the hybrid (heterozygous for one trait only).
15. Monohybrid ratio: The phenotypic ratio of 3 dominants: 1 recessive obtained in the F2 generation
from the monohybrid cross is called monohybrid ratio.
16. Dihybrid cross: The cross between two parents which two pairs of contrasting characters are studied
simultaneously for the inheritance pattern. The F1 offspring is described as dihybrid or double
heterozygous. (i.e. with dissimilar alleles for two characters.)
17. Gene which controls more that one character is called as pleiotrophic gene.
MONOHYBRID CROSS
When we consider the inheritance of one character at a time in a cross this is called monohybrid cross. First
of all, Mendel selected tall and dwarf plants.
Parent
Tall Dwarf
(Pure) (Pure)
F1 - Generation- All tail (impure)

Self Pollination
Tall Dwarf (Phenotypic ratio or basic ratio or Mendellian ratio)

F2 - Generation- 3 1
1 tall (Pure) 2 tall (impure) 1 dwarf (pure)

(Selling) (Selling) (Selling)
F2 -Generation- All tall 3 tall : 1 dwarf All dwarf
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Checker Board Method

 First time, it was used by Reginald. C. Punnett (1875-1967)
 The representation of generations to analyse in the form of symbols of squares. Male gemets lie
horizontally and female gamets lie vertically.
Tt F1 - generation
T t
T TT Tt
+
t Tt tt
+
TT = Tall (dominant homozygous),
Tt = Tall (dominant heterozygous),
tt = Dwarf (recessive homozygous).
 The ratio of characters (trails) appear / visible morphologically is phenotypic ratio. It is 3 : 1. Genetic
constitution is called Genotype [using symbols for genes] it is 1 : 2 : 1
Conclusions (results) of Monohybrid Cross

Ist Conclusion (Postulate of paired factors)
 According to Mendel each genetic character is controlled by a pair of unit factor. It is known as
conclusion of paired factor or unit factor.
IInd Conclusion (Postulate of Dominance)

 This conclusion is based of F1  generation. When two different unit factors are present in single
individual, only one unit factor is able to express itself and known as dominant unit factor. Another
unit factor fails to express is the recessive factor. In the presence of dominant unit factor unit factor
recessive unit factor can not express and it is known as conclusion of dominance.
Tall Dwarf
TT tt
F1 - generation Tt All tall

 There are two exceptions of law of dominance. [A] Incomplete dominance, (B) Co- dominance,
IIIrd Conclusion (Law of segregation)

 During gamete formation; the unit factor of a pair segregate randomly and transfer inside different
gamete. Each gamete receives only one factor of a pair; so gamete are pure for a particular trait. It is
known as conclusion of purity of gametes or segregation.
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Tt
gametogenesis
T t
gamete gamete
 There is no exception of law of segregation. The segretion is essential during the meiotic division in all
sexually reproducing organisms. (Nondisjuction may be exception of this law)
DIHYBRID CROSS
 A cross in which study of inheritance of two pairs of constrasting traits.
 Mendel wanted to observe the effect of one pair of heterozygous on other pair.
Mendel selected traits for dihybrid cross for his experiment as follow:
(1) Colour of cotyledons  Yello (Y) & Green (y)
(2) Seed form  Round (R) and Wrinkled (r)
 Yellow and round characters are dominant and green and wrinkled are recessive characters.
 Mendel crossed, yellow and round seeded plants with green and wrinkled seeded plants.
Mendel selected traits for dihybrid cross for his experiment as follow:
(1) Colour of cotyledons  Yellow (Y) & Green (y)
(2) Seed form  Round (R) and Wrinkled (r)
 Yellow and round character are dominant and green and wrinkled are recessive characters.
 Mendel crossed, yellow and round seeded plants with green and wrinkled seeded plants.
 All the plants in F1  generation had yellow and seeds.
 When F1 plants were self pollinated to produce four kinds of plants in F2 generation such as yellow
round, yellow-wrinkled, green round and green wrinkled, there were in the ratio of 9 : 3 : 3 : 1. This
ratio is known as dihybrid ratio.
Round - Yellow Wrinkled - Green
F1 - Generation All round - yellow

selfing
F2 - Generation
Round Yellow Round Green Wrinkled Yellow Wrinkled Green

9 3 3 1
F2  Generation 
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Demonstration by checker board method

Round - Yellow Green Wrinkled
Parent YY RR yy rr
Gametes YR yr
Yy Rr
F1 - Generation
Self pollination
F2  Generation 
YR Yr yR yr
YR YYRR YYRr YyRR TyRr
Yr YYRr YYrr YyRr Yyrr
yR YyRr YyRr yyRR yyRr
yr YyRr Yyrr yyRr yyrr
Phenotype: Yellow Round = 9/16
Yellow Wrinkled = 3/16
Green Round = 3/16
Green Wrinkled = 1/16
Thus, Phenotypic Ratio = 9 : 3 : 3 : 1
Genotype
Homozygous yellow & Homozygous Round – YY RR = 1
Homozygous yellow & Heterozygous Round – YY Rr = 2
Heterozygous yellow & Homozygous Round – Yy RR = 2
Homozygous yellow & Homozygous Round – Yy Rr = 4
Homozygous yellow & Homozygous wrinkled – YY rr = 1
Heterozygous green & Homozygous wrinkled – Yyrr = 2
Homozygous green & Homozygous Round – yy RR = 1
Homozygous green & Heterozygous Round – yy Rr = 2
Homozygous green & Homozygous wrinkled – yy rr = 1
Thus, Genotypic Ratio = 1:2:2:4:1:2:1:2:1
Type of gemete / phenotypic category = 2n

n = No of hybrid character of heterozygous pair.
Type of genotype = 3n
eg in dihybrid cross  32  9 genotype
No.of zygote produced byseiling of a genotype  4n
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Conclusion (Law of Independent Assortment)

 The F2 generation plant produce two new phenotypes, so inheritance of seed colour is independent
from the inheritance of shape of seed. Otherwise it cannot be possible to obtain yellow wrinkled and
green round type of seeds.
 This observation leads to the Mendel’s conclusion that different type of characters present in plants
assorted independently during inheritance.
 This is known as Conclusion of Independent Assortment. It is based on F2 - generation of dihybrid
cross.
 The non homologus chromosome show random distribution during anaphase – I of meosis.
Explaination
 A pure yellow and round seeded plant crossed with green and wrinkled seeded which are having
genotype YYRR and yyrr to produced F1 generation having YyRr genotype.
 Both the character recombine independently from each other during gamete formation in F1
generation. Factor (R) of pair factor (Rr) is having change to (Y) factor or (y) factor of gametes
during recombination to form two type of gametes (YR) and (yr).
 Similarly (r) factor also having equal chance with (Y) factor or (y) factor of gametes to form a two
type gametes – (Yr) and (yr).
 Thus, total four types of gametes – (YR), (yR), (Yr) and (yr) are formed.
 Therefore, during the gametes formation in F1 generation, independent recombination is possible.
 The law of independent assortment is most critised. Linkage is the exception of this.
GENE INTERACTION
(1) Incomplete dominance: According to Mendel’s law of dominance, dominant character must be
present in F1 generation. But in some organisms, F1 generation is different from the both parents.
Both factors such as dominant and recessive are present in incomplete dominance but dominant factor
is unable to express its character completely, resulting intermediate type of generation which is
different from the both parents.
 Flower colour in Mirabilis jalapa: Incomplete dominance was first discovered by Cornens in
Miabilis jalapa. This plant is called as ‘4 O’ clock ‘or’ Gul-e-Bancs’. Three different types of plant are
found in mirabilis on the basis of flower colour, such as red, white and pink.
(2) Co-dominance: In this phenomenon, both the genes are expressed for a particular character in F1
hybrid progeny. There is no blending of characters, whereas both the characters are expressed equally.
Examples: Co-dominance is seen in animals for coat colour.
(3) Multiple allele: More than 2 alternative forms of same gene are called as multiple allele. Multiple
allele is formed due to mutation. Multiple allele are located on same locus of homologous
chromosome. A diploid individual contains two alleles and gamete contains one allele for a character.
Ex. Blood group – 3 alleles, Coat colour in rabbit – 4 alleles
Example of multiple allele

(1) ABO blood group  ABO blood groups are determined by allele0020 I A , allele I B , allele IO
IA  dominant
IB  dominant
IO  recessive
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Possible phenotypes – A, B, AB, O

Blood type Red Blood Cell Antibody Present in
Genotype
(Phenotype) Antigen Blood Plasma
A I A IA , I Ai A anti-B
B I B I B , I Bi B anti-A
AB IA IB AB neither
O ii neither A nor B anti-A and anti-B
(4) Lethal gene: Gene which causes death of individual in early stage when it comes in homozygous
condition is called lethal gene. May be dominant or recessive both, but mostly recessive for lethality.
Many of these genes which do not cause definite lethality are called semilethals. In semilethals gene
death occurs in late stage.
 Lethal gene was discovered by L. Cuenot in coat colour of mice.
 Yellow body colour(Y) was dominant over normal brown colour(y).
 Gene of yellow body colour is lethal.
 So homozygous yellow mice are never obtained in population. It dies in embryonal stage.
 When yellow mice were crossed among themselves segregation for yellow and brown body colour was
obtained in 2 : 1 ratio.
Yy X Yy
Y y
Y YY Yy
y Yy yy
YY – death in embryonal stage modified ratio = 2 : 1
(1) Sickle cell anemia in human: In human, gene of sickle cell anaemia HBs is the example of lethal
gene. When two carrier individuals of sickle cell anaemia are crossed then offsprings are obtained in 2
: 1 ratio.
Sublethal gene but ratio 2 : 1
(5) Pleiotropic gene: Gene which controls more that one character is called pleitropic gene. This gene
shows multiple phenotypic effect.
For example:
Seed coat colour
(1) In Pea plant: Single gene incluence Red spot on leaf
Flower colour
(a) Sickel cell anaemia- Gene HBs provide a classical example of pleitrophy. It does not only cause
haemolytic anaemia but also result in increased resistance to one type of malaria that caused by the
parasite Plasmodium falciparum. The sickle cell Sbs allele also has pleitropic effect on the
development of many tissue and organs such as bone, lungs, kidney, spleen, heart.
(b) Cystic fibrosis: Hereditary metabolic disorder that is controlled by a singleaoutosomal recessive gene.
 The gene specifies an enzyme that produces a unique glycoprotein.
 This glycoprotein results in the production of mucus.
 More mucus interfere with the normal functioning of several exocrine glands including those in the
skin, lungs, liver and pancreas.

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CHROMOSOMAL THEORY OF INHERITANCE

 This theory was proposed by Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri (1902). Following are the points of
this theory.
1. Gametes serve as the bridge between two successive generations.
2. Male and Female gametes play an equal role in contributing heredity components of future generation.
3. Only the nucleus of sperm combines with ovum. Thus, the hereditary information is contained in the
nucleus.
4. Chromatin in the nucleus is associated with the cell division in the form of chromosomes.
5. Any type of deletion or addition in the chromosomes can cause structural and functional changes in
living beings.
6. A sort of parallelism is observed between Mendelian factors and chromosomes.
7. A number of gebes or Mendelian factors are found in each chromosomes
8. Determination of sex in most of the animals and plants is affected by specific chromosomes. These
chromosomes are called sex chromosomes.
Parallelism Between Gene and Chromosomes

1. Chromosomes are also transferred from one generation to the next as in the case of genes (Memdelian
factors).
2. The number of chromosomes is fixed in each living species. These are found as homologus pairs in
diploid cells. One chromosome from father and the other contributed by the mother constitute a
homologus pair.
3. Before cell division, each chromosome as a whole and the alleles of genes get replicated and are
separated during mitotic division.
4. Meiosis takes place during gamete formation. Homologus chromosomes form synapses during
prophase-I stage which in later course get separated and transferred to daughter cells. Each gamete or a
haploid cell has only one allele of each gene present in the chromosome.
5. A characteristic diploid number is again established by the union of the two haploid gametes.
6. Both chromosomes and the alleles (Mendelian factors) behave in accordance to Mendel’s law of
segregation.
LINKAGE
 Collective inheritance of character is called linkage. Linkage was first time seen by Basteson and
Punnett in Lathyrus odaratus. But they did not explain the phenomenon of linkage. Sex linkage was
first discovered by Morgan in Drosophila & coined the term linkage. Her proposed the theory of
linkage.
Theory of linkage
1. Linked genes are linearly located on same chromosome. They get separated if exchange (crossing
over), takes place between them.
2. Strength of linkage  1/displace between the genes. It means, if the distance between two genes is
increased then strength of linkage is reduced and it proves that greater is the distance between genes,
the greater is the probability of their crossing over.
Crossing over obviously disturbs or degenerates linkage. Linked genes can be separated by crossing
over.
SEX LINKAGE
 When the genes are present on sex-chromosome. The inheritance of x-linked gene and such
phenomenon is known as sex-linkage. Two –types of sex linkage.
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1. X-linkage
 Genes of somatic characters are foundation x-chromosome. The inheritance of x-linked character may
be through the males and females
 e.g. Haemophila, colour blindness
2. Y-linkage – The genes of somatic characters are located on Y – chromosome. The inheritance of such
type of character is only through the males. Such type of character is called Holandric character. These
characters found only in male.
 e.g. (1) Gene which forms TDF / sry-gene
(2) Hypertichosis (excessive hair on ear pinna)
 Gene which is located on differential region of Y-chromosome is known as Holandric gene.
Example of X-Sex linkage

(i) Haemophila
 Haemophila is also called “Bleeder’s disease” and first discovered by John Otto (1803). The gene of
haemophila is recessive and x-linked lethal gene.
 On the basis of x-linked, following types of genotype are found.
X h X  Carrier female
X h X h  Affected female
X h Y  Affected male.
 But, X h X h type of female dies during embryo stage because in homozygous condition, this gene
becomes lethal and caused death.
 Haemophilia - A  due to lack of factor – VIII (Anthaemophilic globulin AHG)
 Haemophilia B or Cristmas disease – due to lack of factor – IX (Plasma thrombolastin component)
 Haemophilia – C (Antosomal disorder)  due to lack of factor – IX (Plasma thromboplastin
antecedent)
(ii) Colour Blindness: The in heritance of colour –blindness is like as haemophila, but it is not a lethal
disease so it is found in male and female. (discovered by Horner)
Sex Determination
 Establishment of sex through differential development in an individual at an early stage of life, is
called sex determination.
ORIGIN OF LIFE
 Origin of life means the appearance of simplest primordial life from nonliving matter.
 Evolution of life means the gradual formation of complex organism from simpier ones.
MODERN OF LIFE
 Evoluation of life means the gradual formation of complex organisms from simpier ones.
MODERN OF LIFE
 Evolution of life means the gradual formation of complex organisms from simpier ones.
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MODERN THEORY OF ORIGIN OF LIFE

 Life might have first originated on earth through a series of combinations of chemical substance in
the distant past and it all happened in water. Chemical Evolution or Naturalistic theory or
Chemosynthetic theory of origin of life proposed by A. I. Oparin and J.B.S. Haldane.
 The earth originated about 5 billion years ago.
 It was initiallymade up of hot gases and vapours chemicals.
 Gradually it cooled down and a solid crust was formed.
 The early atmosphere contained ammonia  NH 3  , water vapour  H 2 O  , hydrogen  H 2  , methane
 CH 4 
 At the time there was no free oxygen so first life was anaerobic. This sort of atmosphere (with
methane, ammonia and hydrogen) is still found on Jupiter and Satum.
 Heavy rains fell on hot surface of earth, and over a very very long period the water bodies appeared
that still contained hot water.
 Methane and ammonia from the atmosphere dissolved in the water of the seas.
 In this water, chemical reactions occurred and gave rise to amino acids, nitrogenous base, sugars and
fatty acids etc. which further reacted and combined to give large molecules of life such as proteins
and nuclear acids.
 Stanley Miller and Harold C. Urey in 1953 set up an experiment with an air-tight apparatus in which
four gases  NH 4 , CH 4 , H 2 and H 2O  were inoculated through an electric discharge for one week. On
analyzing the liquid, they found a variety of organic substances in it, such as amino acids, urea,
acetic acid, lactic acid, etc.
 It was observed in the laboratory experiments that when such complexes reached a certain size they
separated from the surrounding solution in the form of what were termed “coacervate” of
microscopic size moving in the liquid with a definite boundary (coacervate means “heap” referring to
the combining together of the molecules.)
 Coacervates like aggregates were probably the precursors of the first living cells.
 Early atmosphere of earth had no free oxygen, the forms until then could be at best only when they
are “anaerobic”. Chlorophyll being bearing organisms later released free oxygen which gave
possibilities for life to evolve.
Imp. Unit of evolution is population.
 The first organisms that originated on earth was anaerobic chemoheterotrophs
Origin of protocells [Eobiont]

 The first living form named protocell originated in the primitive oceans.
 The protocell were clusters of nucleoproteins which formed by composition of nuclei acids and
enzymatic proteins. Nucleoproteins had the property of self duplication. Nucleoproteins were first
sign of life.
The protocell represented the beginning of life.
 From protocells or eobionts few core of nucleoproteins gets separated free in oceans and became
inactive but when they enter in another eobionts they become active so virus like structures were
formed.
 Origin of virus like structure is an example of retrogressive evolution (complex to simple). While
evolution which inhibits earth surface was progressive means simple to complex.
Organic evolution
 They theory of organic evolution states that “All living things on earth are here as a result of descent,
with modification from a common ancestor”.
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Evidences of organic evolution

The evidences supporting organic evolution are derived from a number of field of biology. Those discussed
here are
(1) Morphological and anatomical evidences
(2) Embryological evidences
(3) Paleontological evidences
(4) Paleontological evidences
Evidence from morphology

Though organisms of different species and groups are quite different from each other still they retain certain
common features. Morphological evidences for evolution are derived from:
(i) Homologous and analogous organs
(ii) Vestigal organs
(iii) Connecting links
Homologous Organs
Homologous organs are the organs which are similar in structure and origin but may look very different and
perform different functions.
Example of homologous organs

 Fore limbs of mammals (horse, bat, whale, seal and man)
 Legs of invertebrates (cockroach and honey bee).
 Mouth parts of insect (cockroach honey bee and mosquito).
Divergent evolution (adaptive divergence / adaptive radiation)

 Homology found in different animals indicate their evolution from common ancestors. Species
which have diverged after origin from common ancestor giving rise to new species adapted to new
habitats and ways of life is called adaptive radiation, exhibit large number of homologous organs.
Homology shows divergent evolution.
 For example: adaptive radiation gave rise to variety of marsupials in Australia.
Analogous organs
The structure which are functionally similar but structurally different are called analogous organs.
Example of analogous organs.
 Wing of an insect, and that of a bird or bat.
 Pelvic fins of fish and flipper of seal.
 Potato and sweet potato.
 Hand of man and trunk of elephant.
Convergent evolution (adaptive convergence / parallel evolution)

 Development of similar adaptive functional structures in unrelated groups of organisms is called
convergent evolution. For example: Some of the marsupials of Australia resemble equivalent
placental mammals that live in similar habitat of other continents.
 When adaptive convergence is found in closely related species, it is called parallel evolution.
Vestigial Organs
 Vestigial organ is any small degenerate or imperfectly developed (non-functional) organ or part
which may have been complete and functional in some ancestor.
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 Eg. – Nictitating membrane, – Nipples in male

– Vermiform appendix,
– Ear pinna, – Coccyx
– Body hairs,
– Third molars (wisdom teeth)
Connecting Links
 The animals or plants which possess characters of two different groups organisms are known as
connecting links. The connecting links establish continuity in the series of organisms by proving that
one group has evolved from the other. A good example is that of a fossil bird Archaeopteryx, which
was a connecting link between reptiles and birds.
Other examples:
(i) Virus : Between living and nonliving
(ii) Neolilina: Between molluca and annelid
(iii) Peripatus: Between annelid and arthopoda.
(iv) Platypus: Between reptiles and mammals
(v) Euglena: Between plants and animals
(vi) Balanoglossus: Between non chordates and chordates
Evidence from Atavism (Reversion)

 Sometimes in some individuals such characters suddenly appears which were supposed to be present
in their ancestors but were lost during the course of development.
 This phenomenon is known as atavism or reversion. Atavism proves that animals developing
atavistic structure have evolved from such ancestors in which these structures were fully developed.
1. Human baby with tail
2. Large and thick body hair reflect our relationship with apes.
3. Extra nipples (more that two)
Evidences from biogeographical distribution –

 The study of geographical distribution of animal and plant species in different parts of earth is called
Biogeography.
 Darwin’s finches – Darwin studied Fauna and Flora of Galapagos island situated near South America
(consisted 22 island). Here he saw nearly 20 types of finches (birds).
Evidence from embryology

 Embryology is the study of development of an organism. The aspects of embryology which support
the doctrine of organic evolution are:
 Similar stages of early development (morula, blastula or gastrula) in all the animals.
 The embryos of all vertebrates are similar in shape and structure in their early stages. This was
explained by Muller in “Recapituation Theory’ which states that “Ontogency recapitulate
phylogeny”.
 Ernst Haeckal explained it in detail and gave the name “Biogenetic law”.
 All the vertebrates start their life from a single cell, the zygote.
 All of them during their life history, pass through two-layered blastula and three layered gastrula
stage and then through fish like stage gill-slits.
Evidence from paleontology

Paleontology is the study of fossils. Fossils are the remains or traces of animal and plant life of the past,
found embedded in rock either as petrified hard parts or such moulds, casts or tracks. The fossils discoverd
provide the ancetral history individual.
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By studying fossils following facts about organic evolution are evident

1. Fossils found in older rocks are of simple type and those found in newer rocks are of complex types.
2. Some fossils represents connecting links between two groups
3. Angiosperms among plants, and mammals among animals are highly developed modern organism.
4. By fossils, we can study the evolutionary pedigree of an animal, like stages in evolution of horse,
elephant and man etc.
Archaeopteryx-
 Fossil connective link between birds and reptiles.
“Dating of fossils” or “The clock of the Rock”

 The fossils give valuate information about the history of organic evoluation by giving information
about the organism which existed in the past. This is possible only if the correct age of the fossil can
be determined.
 Rocks have been found to contain certain radioactive elements which lose their radioactivity and
change into other nonradioactive isotopes at a fixed rate irrespective of the environmental conditions
prevailing at different of radioactive isotopes at a fixed rate irrespective of the environmental
conditions prevailing at different times. If the rate of this loss of radioactivity of an element is
known, the relative proportions of the quantities of radioactive and nonradioactive element in a given
rock will enable us to find out the age of the rock. This method is called absolute dating.
Molecular evidence of evolution

 All organisms have cell as the basic unit of life. The cell is made of biomolecules common to all
organisms.
 Robosomes, the cellular organelles are of universal occurrence in organisms.
 DNA is the hereditary material of all organisms (except some virus).
 ATP is the molecule which stores and releases energy fir biological processes.
 The same 22 amino acids form the constituents of proteins of almost all organisms.
Mechanism of evolution
 Various theories about the mechanism of evolution have been proposed; some of them such as
Lamarck’s theory of “Inheritance of acquired characters”.
 During the life time of an organism new characters develop due to internal vital forces, effect of
environment, new needs and use and disuse of organs.
 These acquired characters are inherited from one generation to another. By continuous inheritance
through many generation these acquired characters tend to make new generation quite different from
its ancestors resulting in the formation of new species.
 De Vries’ theory of ‘mutation’ are now of historical importance only.
 Darwin’s theory of Natural selection still holds ground but was modified with progress in genetics
and developed into the Modern synthetic theory which is regarded as the most valid theory of
evolution
Darwin’s theory of natural selection

 An English Scientist, Charles Darwin (1809-1882) explained the mechanism of evolution through his
theory of natural selection.
 Darwin performed a five year voyage in his ship H. M. S. Beagle from 27 Dec 1831 to 2 Oct, 1836.
 He his still regarded as ‘the father of evolution’ because of two very significant contributions. He
suggested
(i) That all king of organisms are related through ancestry
(ii) He suggested a mechanism for evolution and named it natural selection.
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 According to Darwin, organisms produce more offsprings so as to withstand the harsh environmental
conditions.
 During struggle for existence, organisms with advantageous variations are protected and allowed to
reproduce while the disadvantageous variants are eliminated from nature. This is what was termed
natural selection by Darwin.
 Creation of new species according to Darwin: As the environment charges, new adaptations get
selected in nature into a new one (origin of species).
Criticism of Darwinism
 Darwin does not explain the development of vestigial organs.
 This theory has no satisfactory explanation for the cause, origin and inheritance of variation.
 Darwin is unable to explain why in a population only a few individuals develop useful variation and
others have harmful variations.
 This theory only explain the survival of fittest but unable to explain arrival of fittest.
 The main drawback of Darvinism was lack of the knowledge of heredity.
Neo-Darwinism or modern synthetic theory

 The heritable genetic changed appearing in the individuals of a population are the basis of evolution.
 The heritable changes or variations occur due to small mutations in the gene or in the chromosomes
and their recombinations.
 Natural selection selects the variations which helps in adapting to the environment.
 A change in the genetic constitution of a population selected by a natural selection is responsible for
evolution of a new species.
 More offspring with favourable genetic changes are born. This is called ‘differential reproduction’.
Reproductive isolation helps in keeping species distinct.
 An isolated population of a species independently develops different types of mutations. They latter
accumulate in its gene pool. After several generations the isolated population becomes genetically
and reproductively different from others so as to constitute a new species.
 The unit of evolution is population.
 Many examples of natural. Selection in action are available now. Given below are three such
examples.
Example 1: DDT resistant mosquitoes

 About 50 years back, the mosquito population had been checked with the help of DDT. Thereafter, it
was found that mosquitoes could not be killed with DDT any longer. There appeared DDT restaurant
mosquitoes.
 While DDT killed other mosquitoes those with the gene mutation survived and slowly within a few
generations replaced the DDT-sensitive mosquitoes. In othe words, the DDT resistant mosquitoes
‘reproduced differently’ by the action of natural selection.
Example 2: Industrial melanism

 A commonly quoted example selection in action is that of the peppered moth, Biston betularia. The
mothe with its light coloured wings dotted with spots blended well with the lichens growing on the
houses and trees on which it rested. Once in a while if a mutated form of the moth which was black
in colour, it was eaten up by birds as it was conspicuous because of its black wings. This was
observed in the British Isels before the industrial revolution.
 After the industrial revolution, the genes for black wings proved favourable on the soot covered
liches growing on the walls of houses. Natural selection acted through the agency of the birds which
now ate up the conspicuous light coloured winged peppered moth which were therefore, soon
replaced by the variety.
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Elemental forces of organic evoluation

 Evolution is caused by action of natural selection on variation. Reproductive isolation also has a role
to play. Variation may arise by
1. Mutation, which is a sudden genetic change. Mutation may be change in a single gene (genic
mutation or point mutation) or effect many genes (chromosomal mutation).
2. Genetic recombination, which occurs in sexually reproducing organism at every reproduction. The
chromosomes and thus genes of the parents mix at random during zygote formation. That is why
offspring of same parents are different as they have different combinations of parental genes.
Variation is also brought about when gametes are formed after meiosis.
3. Gene flow is when there is chance for mixing of genes of closely related species through sexual
reproduction.
4. Genetic drift occurs in small populations when it breaks off from a large population only
representative genes of the large population is also known as founder effect are present which
undergo change and the small population may evolve as a result.
Speciation
 The evolution of new species is termed speciation. Speciation occurs in the following ways and is
termed accordingly.
 Allopatric speciation takes when a part of the population becomes geographically separated
(geographical isolation) from the parental population.
 Sympatric speciation: Sometimes a genetic barrier (reproductive barrier) prevents reproduction
between a section of a population of a species with other members. Such a section of population
usually arises in plants because of polyploidy.
 Polyploidy is mutationin which the normal diploid number of chromosomes become doubled or
tripled (2n becomes 3n, 4n, 5n etc) in a section of the population of species due to certain
ieegularities during cell division.
Human Evolution: Some important points

 Chimpanzee is closet ape to human
 Australopithecus firstly showed bipedal locomotion
 Homohabilis is also known as handy man or the tool maker man
 Java man firstly used fire
 Neaderthal man was man two believed in “immortality of soul”.
 Cromangnon man was a painter and regarded as the direct ancestor of modern man
 Homo speciens saplens is the man of today.
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EXERCISE
1. Which of the following is non-heritable :
(a) Point mutation (b) Chromosomal mutation
(c) Gene mutation (d) Somatic mutation
2. During breeding the removal of anthers from a flower is called

(a) Anthesis (b) Pollination (c) Emasculation (d) Vasectomy
3. When a heterozygous tall pea plant of F1 generation upon self fertilization produces tall and dwarf
phenotypes it proves the principle of
(a) Dominance (b) Segregation
(c) Independent assortment (d) Inheritance and purity of gametes
4. Mendelian monohybrid phenotypic ratio is

(a) 1: 2 : 1 (b) 3 : 1 (c) 9 : 3 : 1 (d) 9 : 3 : 4
5. A cross between AaBB X aa BB yields a genotypic ratio of

(a) 1 AaBB : 1 aaBB (b) 1 AaBB : 3 aaBB (c) 3 AaBB : 1 aaBB (d) All AaBb
6. In monohybrid cross what is the ratio of homozygous dominant and homozygous recessive
individual in F2-generation
(a) 1 : 2 : 1 (b) 2 : 1 / 1 : 2 (c) 3 : 1 / 1 : 2 (d) 1 : 1
7. How many types and in what ratio the gametes are produced by a dihybrid heterozygous ?
(a) 4 types in the ratio of 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 (b) 2 types in the ratio of 3 : 1
(c) 3 types in the ratio of 1 : 2 : 1 (d) 4 types in the ratio of 1 : 1 : 1 : 1
8. Which genotype represents a true dihybrid condition ?

(a) tt rr (b) Tt rr (c) Tt Rr (d) TT Rr
9. Mendelian ratio 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 is due to

(a) Law of segregation (b) Law of purity of gametes
(c) Law of independent assortment (d) Law of unit characters
10. In a cross between a pure tall plant with green pod and a pure short plant with yellow pod. How
many short plants are produced in F2 generation out of 16 ?
(a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 9
11. Ina dihybrid cross between AABB aabb the ratio of AABB, AABb, aaBb, aabb in F2 generation is
(a) 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 (b) 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 (c) 1 : 2 : 2 : 1 (d) 1 : 1 : 2 : 2
12. AABbCc genotype forms how many types of gametes

(a) 4 (b) 8 (c) 2 (d) 6
13. Crossing AABB and aabb, the ratio of AaBb would be in F2 generation
(a) 1/16 (b) 2/16 (c) 8/16 (d) 4/16
14. On crossing red and white flowered plants the ration of red and white flowered plant in F2 generation
was 60 : 20, then on selfing the heterozygous red flowered plants, the offsprings would be
(a) 72 : 24 (b) 40 : 60 (c) 52 : 48 (d) 84 : 16
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15. 120 plants are produced on crossing pure red and pure white flowered pea plants, these ratio is
(a) 90 Red : 30 White (b) 30 Red : 90 White (c) 60 Red : 60 White (d) All Red
16. Two allelic genes are located on

(a) The same chromosome (b) Two homologous chromosomes
(c) Two non-homologous chromosomes (d) Any two chromosomes
17. Mendel’s law of segregation is based on separation of alleles during

(a) Gamete formation (b) Seed formation (c) Pollination (d) Embryonic development
18. First geneticist was

(a) Devries (b) Mendel (c) Darwin (d) Morgan
19. An organism with two identical alleles is

(a) Dominant (b) Hybrid (c) Heterozygous (d) Homozygous
20. Gametes of AaBb individual can be

(a) Aa, Bb (b) AB, ab (c) AB, ab, aB (d) AB, Ab, ab
21. Mendel did not propose

(a) Dominance (b) Incomplete dominance
(c) Segregation (d) Independent assortment
22. Which technique is used by Mendel for hybridization ?

(a) Emasculation (b) Bagging (c) Protoplast fusion (d) 1 and 2 both
23. The word “Genetics” coined by

(a) Mendel (b) Johansen (c) Bateson (d) Morgan
24. When flowers are unisexual then emasculation is done in

(a) Female (b) Male (c) (a) & (b) both (d) None of these
25. How many plants are dihybrid in F2gemeration of dihybrid cross

(a) One (b) Two (c) Four (d) Sixteen
26. When a plant have two alleles of contrasting characters it is called

(a) Hormozygous (b) Dioecious (c) Heterozygous (d) Monoecious
27. Phenotypic ratio 3 : 1 proves

(a) Dominance (b) Segregation (c) Crossing over (d) Independent assortment
28. What is the ratio of one pair of contrasting characters in F2 of a dihybrid cross ?
(a) 5 : 3 (b) 3 : 1
(c) 9 : 3: 3: 1 (d) 1: 2 : 2 : 4 : 1: 2 : 1 : 2 : 1
29. From a single ear of corn, a farmer planted 200 kernels which produced 140 tall and 40 short plants.
The genotypes of these offsprings are most likely
(a) TT, Tt and Tt (b) TT and tt (c) TT and Tt (d) Tt and tt
30. A useful process for determining whether an individual is homozygous or heterozygous is

(a) Cross-breeding (b) Self pollination (c) Back-crossing (d) Test cross
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31. Genetic recombination occur through

(a) Mitosis and fertilization (b) Mitosis and meiosis
(c) Meiosis and fertilization (d) None of the above
32. Heterozygous tall plants were crossed with dwarf plants. What will be the ratio of dwaf plants in the
progeny
(a) 50% (b) 25% (c) 75& (d) 100%
33. Which of the following is the unit of inheritance ?

(a) Phenotype (b) Genotype (c) Gene (d)None of these
34. If the cell of an organism heterozygous for two pairs of genes represented by Aa, Bb, undergoes
meiosis, then the possible genotypic combination of gametes will be
(a) AB, Ab, aB, ab (b) AB, ab (c) Aa, Bb (d) A, a, B, b
35. Types of genotypes in F2 generation of dihybrid cross

(a) 4 (b) 16 (c) 8 (d) 9
36. Cross AABv X aaBb yields AaBB : AaBv : Aabb : aabb offspiring in the ratio of
(a) 0 : 3 : 1 : 1 (b) 1 : 2 : 1 : 0 (c) 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 (d) 1 : 2 : 1 : 2
37. Genetic constitution of an individual is represented by

(a) Genome (b) Genotype (c) Phenotype (d) Karyotype
38. “Like begets like” an important and universal phenomenon of life, is due to
(a) Eugenics (b) Inheritance (c) Dominance (d) Crossing over
39. How many types of gametes are expected from the organism with genotype AABBCC
(a) One (b) Two (c) Four (d) Eight
40. One of the following did not constitute the seven contrasting pairs of characters noticed by Mendel
(a) Height of the plants (b) Shape of the leaves (c) Shape of pod (d) Colour of pod
41. If 3n is the theoretically possible number of different genotypes (when n- the number of chromosome
pairs with each carrying one pairs of heterozygous alleles), the different genotypes produce by pea
plant is
(a) 310 (b) 312 (c) 314 (d) 37
42.
Male Gametes
Female AB Ab aB ab
?
AaBB AaBb aaBB aaBb
Gametes
In the Punnelsquare given above, the genotype of the female parent and male parents respectively
(a) AABB, AaBb (b) AaBB, AaBb (c) aaBB, AaBb (d) AAbb, AaBb
43. According to mendelism which character is showing dominance

(a) Terminal position of flower (b) Green colour in seed coat
(c) Wrinkled seeds (d) Green pod colour
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44. Due to the cross between TTRr  ttrr the resultant progenies showed how many percent plants would
be, tall, red flowered.
(a) 50% (b) 75% (c) 25% (d) 100%
45. A gene said to be dominant if

(a) It express it’s effect only in homozygous stage
(b) It expressed only in heterozygous condition
(c) It expressed both in homozygous and heterozygous condition
(d) It never expressed in any condition
46. Which one of the following traits of garden pea studied by Mendel, was a recessive feature
(a) Axial flower position (b) Green seed colour
(c) Green pod colour (d) Round seed shape
47. In a plant, red fruit (R) is dominant over yellow fruit (r) and tallness (T) is dominant over shortness
(t). If a plant with RRTt genotype is crossed with a plant that is rrtt
(a) All the offsprings will be tall with red fruit (b) 25% will be fall with red fruit
(c) 50% will be tall with red fruit (d) 75% will be tall with red fruit
48. Mrs. Verma has a autosomal gene pair ‘Bb’ and she contain x-linked gene ‘d’. What is the
percentage of gamete which contain ‘bd’ genes
(a) 1/2 or 50% (b) 1/4 or 25% (c) 3/4 or 75% (d) 1 or 100%
49. When a red flower homozygous pea plant is crossed with a white flower plant what colour is
produced in F1
(a) Red (b) White (c) Pink (d) Red + white
50. 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 ratio shows

(a) Monohybrid cross (b) Dihybrid cross (c) Back cross (d) Dihybrid test cross
51. If a heterozygous tall plant is crossed with a homozygous dwarf plant then what shall be the
percentage of dwarf in offspring
(a) 25% (b) 100 % (c) 75% (d) 50%
52. If a homozygous tall plant is crossed with a dwarf plant, what shall be the ratio of plant sin offsprings
(a) All heterozygous tall (b) Two tall and two dwarf
(c) 1 : 2 : 1 (d) All homozygous dwarf
53. In a plant gene ‘A’ is responsible for tallness and its recessive allele ‘a’ for dwarfness and ‘B’ is
responsible for red flower colour and it’s recessive allele ‘b’ for white flower colour. A tall and red
flowered plant with genotype AaBb crossed with dwarf and red flowered (aaBb). What is the
percentage of dwarf white flowered offspring of above cross?
(a) 50% (b) 6.25% (c) 12.5% (d) 60%
54. In rabbit black skin (B) is dominant over brown skin (b) and short hair (S) is dominant over long hair
(s), if homozygous black-short haired male is crossed with a homozygous brown-long haired female.
All F1- offspring are heterozygous black-short haired. F1 male crossed with F1-female. In F2
generation what is the percentage of homozygous black-short haired offspring
(a) 50% (b) 12.5% (c) 6.2 5% (d)18.75%
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55. How many different types of gametes can be formed byK1 progeny, resulting from the following
cross AABBCC  aa bb cc
(a) 3 (b) 8 (c) 27 (d) 64
56. In order to find out the different types of gametes produced by a pea plant having the genotype
AaBb. It should be crossed to a plant with the genotype
(a) AaBb (b) aabb (c) AABB (d) aaBB
57. Gene word was coined by

(a) Mendel (b) Hugo-de-vries (c) Morgan (d) Johansson
58. Discoverer of incomplete dominance

(a) Von Tschermak (b) Carl correns (c) Hugo-de-vries (d) None of the above
59. Test cross is

(a) Tt  Tt (b) Tt  TT (c) TT  TT (d) Tt  tt
60. Law of independent assortment of Mendel was proved by

(a) Monohybrid cross (b) Test cross (c) Dihybrid cross (d) Back cross
61. Mendel does not select which character in his experiment

(a) Plant height (b) Plant colour (c) Pod shape (d) Pod colour
62. In Mirabilis and Antirrhinum plant the appearance of the pink hybrid (Rr) between cross of a red
(RR) and white (rr) flower parent indicates
(a) Incomplete dominance (b) Segregation
(c) Dominance (d) Heierosis
63. Exception to Mendel’s law is found in flower colour of

(a) Mirabilis (b) Sweet pea (c) Gardenpea (d) All of these
64. In case of incomplete dominance the monohybrid ratio of phenotypes in F2 Generation is

(a) 1 : 2 : 1 (b) 3 : 1 : 1 (c) 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 (d) 2 : 3 : 1
65. A white flowered mirabilis plant rr was crossed with red coloured RR. If 120 plants are produced in
F2 generation the result would be
(a) 90 uniformly coloured and 30 white (b) 90 non-uniformly coloured and 30 white
(c) 60 non-uniformly coloured and 60 white (d) All coloured and no white
66. When the phenotypic and genotypic ratios resemble in the F2 generation it is an example of
(a) Independent assortment (b) Qualitative inheritance
(c) Segregation of factors (d) Incomplete dominance
67. Which one carries extra nuclear genetic material?

(a) Plastids (b) Ribosomes (c) Chromosomes (d) Golgi complex
68. Mendel did not include in his laws

(a) Segregation (b) Dominance (c) Purity of gametes (d) Linkage
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69. If Mendel has chosen to study traits determined by linked genes he would not have discovered
(a) Law of segregation (b) Law of dominance
(c) law of independent assortment (d) Law of unit character
70. Which law would have been violated if mendel had chosen eight characters in garden pea
(a) Law of dominance (b) Law of segregation
(c) Principle of independent assortment (d) Law of purity of gametes
71. Mendel had a difficulty in explaining the linked characters due to

(a) Law of dominance (b) Law of segregation
(c) Law of independent assortment (d) All the above
72. In Mirabilis jalapa when homozygous red flowered and white flowered plants are crossed, all F1
plants have pink coloured flower. In F2 produced by selling of F1 plants, red, pink white flowered
plants would appear respectively in the ratio of
(a) 1 : 1 : 2 (b) 2 : 1 : 1 (c) 1: 0 : 1 (d) 1 : 2 : 1
73. If mendel might have studies 7 pairs of characters in a plant with 12 chromosomes instead of 14,
then
(a) He could not discover independent assortment
(b) He might have not discovered linkage
(c) He might have discovered crossing over
(d) He might have not observed dominance
74. Plant, which does not obeys Mendel’s laws

(a) Mirabilis jalapa (b) Pisum sativum (c) Cicer aurietinum (d) Iberisamara
75. In case of incomplete dominance, F2 generation has

(a) Genolypic ratio equal to phenotypic ratio (b) Genotypic ratio is 3 : 1
(c) Phenotypic ratio is 3 : 1 (d) None of these
76. Incomplete dominance occurs in

(a) Mirabilis (b) Antirrhinum (c) Andulasion fowl (d) All of the above
77. Which cross yields red, white and pink flowers variety of dog glower ?
(a) RR  rr (b) Rr  RR (c) Rr  Rr (d)Rr  rr
78. What shall be ratio in offspring when a roan cow is crossed with a white bull ?
(a) 1 : 2 : 1 (b) 3 : 1 (c) 1 : 1 (d) All roan
79. Cytology + genetics were merged into “Cytogenetics” by one of following

(a) Baleson (b) Punnet (c) Morgan (d) Muller
80. Which of the following is exception t Mendel’s laws

(a) Linkage (b) incomplete dominance
(c) Co-dominance (d) All of the above
81. A roan bull is bred to three cows. Cow A has the same genotype as the roan bull, cow B is red and
cow C is white. What proportions of roan cows are expected in the offsprings of each group of cows?
(a) 2, 2, 2 (b) 1. 2, 1 (c) 1, 1, 2 (d) 3, 1
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82. A phenomenon which works opposite to the link age is

(a) Independent assortment (b) Crossing over
(c) Segregation (d) Mutation
83. Shell coiling in Limnaea (Snall) is an example of

(a) Maternal inheritance (b) Biparental inheritance
(c) Predetermination (d) Dauermodification
84. Which is not an example of cytoplasmic inheritance ?

(a) Female sterility in maze (b) Sigma particle inheritance
(c) Kappa particle inheritance (d) Plastid inheritance
85. Cytoplasmic male sterility is passed down

(a) Through bacteriophages (b) Paternally
(c) Maternally (d) Biparentally
86. The two eukaryotic organelles responsible for cytoplasmic inheritance are
(a) Lysosome and Mitocondria (b) Chloroplast and Lysosomes
(c) Mitochondria and chloroplasts (d) Mitochondria and Golgi complex
87. In a monohybrid cross, when one pair of alleles show incomplete dominance, genotypic ratio comes
to
(a) 3 : 6 : 3 : 1 : 2 : 1 (b) 1 : 2 : 2 : 4 : 1 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 1
(c) 9 : 3 : 2 : 1 (d) 1 : 2 : 1
88. Which of the following is the example of codominance ?

(a) HbA HbA, IA, IB (b) Hb a , Hbs , I A I B (c) HbA Hbs , I A I B (d) Hbs Hbs , I A I A
89. When dominant and recessive alleles express itself together it is called
(a) Co-dominance (b) Dominance (c) Amphidominance (d) Pseudo dominance
90. Two crosses between the same pair of genotypes or phenotypes in which the sources of the gametes
are reversed in one cross, is known as
(a) Test cross (b) Reciprocal cross (c) Dthybrid cross (d) Reverse cross
91. The genes controlling the seven pea characters studied by Mendel are known to be located on how
many different chromosomes
(a) Seven (b) Six (c) Five (d) Four
92. Extranuclear inheritance is a consequence of presence of genes in

(a) Lysosomes and ribosomes (b) Mitochondria and chloroplasts
(c) Endoplasmic reticulum and Mitochondria (d) Ribosomes and chloroplast
93. Which of the following conditions represent a case of co-dominant genes ?

(a) A gene expresses itself, suppressing the phenotypic effect of its alleles
(b) Genes that are similar in phenotypic effect when present separately, but when together interact to
produce a different trait
(c) Allele, both of which interact to produce a trait, which may resemble either of the parental type
(d) Alleles, each of which produces an independent effect in heterozygous condition
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94. A sinistral shelled female snail having Dd genotype cross with dextral shelled male having dd
genotype. What type of shell will be present in the progeny?
(a) All dextral (b) all sinistral
(c) 50% dextral, 50% sinistral (d) None of these
95. Mendel observed the certain characters did not assort independently. Later researches found to be
due to
(a) Amitosis (b) Linkage (c) Dominance (d) Crossing over
96. Sickle cell anemia is

(a) Characterized by elongated sickle like RBCs with a nuclear
(b) An autosomal linked dominant trait
(c) Caused by substitution of valine by glutamic acid in the beta globin chain of haemoglobin
(d) Caused by a change in a single base pair of DNA
97. Study the pedigree chart given below
What does it show

(a) Inheritance of a recessive sex-linked disease like haemophilia
(b) Inheritance of a sex-lined inborn error of metabolism like phenylketonuria
(c) Inheritance of a condition like phenylketonuria as an autosomal recessive trait
(d) The pedigree chart is wrong as this is not possible
98. The most popularly known blood grouping is the ABO grouping. It is named ABO and not ABC,
because “O” in it refers to having
(a) No antigens A and B on RBCs
(b) Other antigens besides A and B on RBCs
(c) Over dominance of this type on the genes for A and B types
(d) One antibody only-either anti-A or anti-B on the RBCs
99. Select the incorrect statement from the following

(a) Baldness is a sex-limited trait
(b) Linkage is an exception to the principle of independent assortment in heredity
(c) Calactosemia is an inborn error of metabolism
(d) Small population size results in random genetic drift in a population
100. AB-Blood groups shows

(a) Co-dominance (b) Complete dominance
(c) Mixed inheritance (d) Composite inheritance
101. A child blood group is ‘O’. His parents blood group cannot be
(a) B & O (b) A & O (c) AB (d) A & B
102. If selfing occurs in the plant having genotype RrYy, then ratio of given genotype will be RRYY,
RrYY, RRYy, RrYy
(a) 1 : 2 : 2 : 4 (b) 1 : 2 : 2 : 1 (c) 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 (d) 2 : 2 : 2 : 1
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103. If one parent has blood group A and the other parent has blood group B. The offsprings have which
blood group
(a) AB (b) O (c) BO (d) A, B, AB, O
104. A colourblind daughter is born when

(a) Father is colourblind, mother is normal (b) Mother is colourblind, father is normal
(c) Mother is carrier, father is normal (d) Mother is carrier, father is colourblind
105. A man of A blood group marries a woman of AB blood group. Which type of progeny would
indicate that man is heterozygous ‘A’
(a) AB (b) A (c) O (d) B
106. A child of O blood group, has B blood group father, the genotype of father would be
(a) I0I0 (b) IBIB (c) IAIB (d) IBI0
107. Which of the following is not a sex linked characters ?

(a) Haemophilia (b) Colour blindness (c) Hypertirichosis (d) Baldness
108. The condition in which only one allele of a pair is present is known as
(a) Homozygous (b) Heterozygous (c) Hemizygous (d) Incomplete dominance
109. Colourblindness is a
(a) Sex limited character (b) Sex linked character
(c) Sex influenced character (d) None of these
110. Andalucian foul exhibits

(a) Incomplete inheritance (b) Mosaic inheritance
(c) Epistasis (d) Co-dominance
111. A colourblind man marries a daughter of colourblind father, then in the offsprings
(a) All sons are colourblind (b) All daughters are colourblind
(c) Half sons are colourblind (d) No daughter is colourblind
112. A woman with normal vision marries a man with normal vision and gives birth to a colourblind son.
Her husband dies and she marries a colorblind man. What is the probability of her children having
the abnormality
(a) 50% colourblind sons + 50% colourblind daughters
(b) All sons colorblind and daughter carrier
(c) All daughter colourblind and sons normal
(d) 50% sons colourblind and all daughters normal
113. A hybrid is generally more vigorous than either of the parents, this is due to
(a) Homozygosity (b) Heterozygosity
(c) Superior genes in hybrid (d) Micing of cytoplasm
114. Epistatic gene differs from dominant gene in

(a) Epistatic gene is non-alletic
(b) Epistatic gene never express itself independently
(c) Epistatic and hypostatic genes are present at different loci
(d)`Al the above
IJSO BIOLOGY
115. Blood grouping in humans is controlled by

(a) 4 alleles in which IA is dominant (b) 3 alleles in which IA and IB are dominant
(c) 2 alleles in which none is dominant (d) 3 alleles in which IA is recessive
116. Pattern baldness, moustaches and beard in human males are examples of
(a) Sex linked traits (b) Sex limited traits
(c) Sex differentiating traits (d) Sex determining
117. One of the genes present exclusively on the X-chromosome in humans is concerned with
(a) Baldness (b) Red green colour blindness
(c) Facial hair/Moustaches in males (d) Night blindness
118. In a family, father has a blood group ‘A’ and mother has a blood group ‘B’. Their children show
50% probability for a blood group ‘AB’ indicating that
(a) Father is heterozygous (b) Mother is heterozygous
(c) Either of parent is heterozygous (d) Mother is homozygous
119. Epistasis differs from dominance because

(a) In epistasis one gene pair mask the expression of another pair of genes
(b) Epistasis is an allelic interaction
(c) May genes collectively controls a particular phenotype
(d) One gene pair independently controls a particular phenotype
120. The longer the chromosome of an organism, the more genetic variability it gets form
(a) Independent assortment (b) Linkage
(c) Crossing over (d) Multation
121. In a genetic cross having recessive eepistasis, F2 phenotypic ratio would b

(a) 9 : 6 :1 (b) 15 : 1 (c) 9 : 3: 4 (d) 12 : 3: 1
122. Which of the following is not a hereditary disease?

(a) Haemophilia (b) Cretinism (c) Cystic fibrosis (d) Thalassaemia
123. A woman with normal vision, but whose father was colour blind, marries a colour blind man.
Suppose that the fourth child of this couple was a boy. This boy
(a) Must have normal colour vision
(b) May be colour blind or may be normal vision
(c) Will be partically colour blind since he is heterozygous for the colour blind mutant allele
(d) Must be colour blind
124. Haemophilia is more commonly seen in human males than in human females because
(a) This disease is due to a Y-linked recessive mutation
(b) This disease is due to an X-linked recessive mutation
(c) This disease is due to an X-linked dominant mutation
(d) A gross proportion of girls die in infancy
125. A man and a woman, who do not show any apparent signs of a certain inherited disease, have seven
children (2 daughters and 5 sons). Three of the sons suffer from the given disease but none of the
daughters are affected. Which of the following mode of inheritance do you suggest for this disease?
(a) Sex-limited recessive (b) Autosomal dominant
(c) Sex-linked recessive (d) Sex-linked dominant
IJSO BIOLOGY
126. Which compounds were formed in the direction of the origin of life ?
(a) Urea, nucleic-acid (b) Urea, amino-acid
(c) Proteins, nucleic-acid (d) Proteins, amino-acid
127. Miller synthesized simple amino-acid from

(a) Methane, ammonia, oxygen, nitrogen (b) Hydrogen, methane, ammonia, water
(c) Ammonia, methane, carbon-dioxide, oxygen (d) Hydrogen, oxygen, water, nitrogen
128. Primitive atmosphere was reducing because

(a) Hydrogen atoms were few
(b) Hydrogen atoms were active and in greater number
(c) Nitrogen atoms were more
(d) Oxygen atoms were more
129. Who called larger colloidal particles of primitive sea as coacervates ?

(a) Fox (b) Oparin (c) Empedocles (d) Haldane
130. During the course of origin of the life what was the sequence of substances which appeared on earth
(a) Water, oxygen, nucleic acids, enzymes
(b) Amino acids, ammonia, phosphates, nucleic acids
(c) Glucose, amino acids, nucleic acids, proteins
(d) Ammonia, amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids
131. Archaeopteryx is a connecting link because

(a) It possessed characters of reptiles and aves
(b) It had characters of reptiles and mammals
(c) It was a reptile not a bird
(d) It had characters of non chordates and chordates
132. Which of the following organ in man is not vestigial ?

(a) Vermiform appendix (b) Nictitating membrane
(c) Ear muscles (d) Epiglottis
133. Which of the following set in man includes vestigial organs ?

(a) Coccyx, vermiform appendix and ea muscles
(b) Body hair, atlas vertebra and ear muscles
(c) Coccyx, wisdom tooth and patella
(d) Body hair, cochlea, vermiform appendix and tongue
134. Peripatus is connecting link between

(a) Mollusca and Arthropoda (b) Flat worms and annelida
(c) Annelida and ARthropoda (d) Reptilia and Mammalia
135. According to Haeckel’s biogenetic law

(a) Development of individual metazoan shown embryonic characters of ancestors
(b) Ontogeny repeats phylogeny
(c) Germplasm is immortal
(d) Every organisms is produced by its parents
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136. Homologous organs have

(a) Similar origin and similar or dissimilar functions
(b) Dissimilar origin and structure
(c) Dissimilar origin and function
(d) Dissimilar origin and similar functions
137. Analogous organs are

(a) Similar in origin (b) Similar in structure (c) Non functional (d) Similar in function
138. Connecting link between protozoa and one-called plants is

(a) Paramecium (b) Euglena (c) Amoeba (d) Trypanosoma
139. Connecting link between annelid and mollusca

(a) Cuttle fish (b) Octopus (c) Neopilina (d) Nautilus
140. If a particular animal has shelled eggs, hair and teats on the body and has cloaca, it may be a
connecting link between
(a) Reptiles and birds (b) Birds and mammals
(c) Reptiles and mammals (d) None of them
141. Which of the following sets do not have homologous organs ?

(a) Wings of mosquito and butterfly (b) Wings of butterfly and bird
(c) Mouth parts of cockroach and butterfly (d) None of these
142. If a starfish possess 6 arms instead of 5, it is an example of

(a) Variation (b) Metamorphosis (c) Biogenesis (d) Evolution
143. Wings of locust, pigeon and bat are example of

(a) Vestigial organs (b) Analogous organs (c) Homologous organs (d) Exoskeleton
144. Homology is exhibited by

(a) Wings of butterfly, birds and bat
(b) Paddle of whale, forearm of horse and forelimbs of man
(c) Tail of monkey and bird
(d) Sting of scorpion and Apis
145. Fossil X can be considered to have evolved earlier than fossil Y if

(a) Y has vestigial structures that are homologous to functional structures in fossil X
(b) Y is structurally more complex than fossil X
(c) Y is in better state of preservation than X
(d) X is found in lower stratum of undisturbed sedimentary rock than Y
146. Fossils are dated by

(a) Amount of calcium residue (b) Amount of radioactive carbon compound
(c) Association with other mammals (d) Structure of bones
147. Darwin’s Theory of Natural Section was based on

(a) Inheritance of acquired characters
(b) Mutation
(c) Enormous rate of reproduction in organisms, struggle for existence and survival of the fittest
(d) Changes due to the use and disuse of organ
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148. What was the basic Principle of Lamarckism ?

(a) Inheritance of acquired characters (b) Survival of the fittest
(c) Natural selection (d) Variations
149. Which scientist gave the Theory of Continuity of Germplasm

(a) Welsmann (b) Mendel (c) Lamarck (d) Darwin
150. New breeds in domestic dogs are developed by

(a) Sexual selection (b) Natural selection (c) Youth selection (d) Artificial selection
151. If population of a species is transferred to more suitable environment then it will show
(a) Protection against enemies (b) More individuals would survive
(c) Rate of reproduction increases (d) Unlimited food would be available
152. The weakest point of Darwinism was that it had no explanation for
(a) Struggle for existence (b) Survival of the fittest
(c) Variations (d) Enormous rate of production
153. Which of the following facts develop suspicions in Lamarckism?

(a) Human females are not born with bored ear pinna although they have been bored for thousands
of years
(b) Giraffe has long neck to eat leaves of tall trees
(c) A stag can run fast to protect against the enemies
(d) None of them
154. Most of the natural mutations are

(a) Useful (b) Harmful (c) Neutral or harmful (d) Semifethal
155. In the population of a species chances of the spreading of a mutant gene increases when it is
(a) Recessive (b) Natural selection occurs
(c) Dominant (d) Neither dominant nor recessive
156. Chances of inheritable and evolutionary changes are more in such species which reproduce by
(a) Parthenogenesis (b) Fission (c) Sexual reproduction (d) Asexual reproduction
157. One major criticism of Darwin’s theory is that

(a) It pressures that environment upon earth has been changing through ages
(b) It does not explain variations with heredity
(c) It overestimates reproductive capacity of animals and plants
(d) It does not explain vestigial organs
158. The ultimate source of organic variation is

(a) Mutation (b) Sexual reproduction
(c) Natural selection (d) Hormonal action
159. Which is the most important factor for evolution of new species ?
(a) Geographic isolation (b) Extensive in breeding
(c) Extensive out breeding (d) None of these
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160. Gene pool is

(a) Genotype of an individual of a population
(b) Different genes of all individuals of a species found in an area
(c) Pool of artificially synthesized genes
(d) Genes of a genus
161. Use of atomic bombs may lead to abnormalities even in coming generations because of
(a) Body changes (b) Air pollution
(c) Changed atoms in atmosphere (d) Genetic mulation
162. Occurrence of 4 horns instead of two in goat is an example of

(a) Continuous variation (b) Discontinuous variation (mutation)
(c) Inheritable variation (d) Acquired variation
163. Characteristics of primitive monkey which was in the direction of evolution of man
(a) Thumb parallel to fingers (b) 32 teeth
(c) Prehensile tail (d) Flat nose
164. The concept of sudden genetic change which breeds true in an organism is visualized as
(a) Natural selection (b) Inheritance of acquired characters
(c) Mutation (d) Independent assortment
165. Who coined the term mutation?

(a) Morgan (b) Darwin (c) DeVries (d) Mendel
166. Mutation is
(a) An abrupt or discontinuous change which is inherited
(b) A factor for plant growth
(c) A change which affects parents only and is never inherited
(d) A change which affects the offspring of F2 generation
167. Pressure of NaCl in body fluid indicates that life originated in

(a) Primitive Ocean (b) Rain water lakes (c) Salt solution (d) All of these
168. Human hand, wing of bat and flipper of whale represent

(a) Analogous organs (b) Vestigial organs (c) Homologous organs (d) Evolutionary organs
169. A connecting link between reptiles and birds is

(a) Archaeopteryx (b) Platypus (c) Java Ape man (d) Whale
170. Match the following columns and find correct combination

Column I Column II
(i) Darwin p. Mutation theory
(ii) De Vries q. Protobiosis
(iii)Pasteur r. Origin of species
(iv) Fox s. Special Creation
t. Swan-Necked Flask Experiment
(a) i = r, ii = p, iii = t, iv = q (b) i = p, ii = q, iii = r, iv = s

(c) i = t, ii = r, iii = q, iv = p (d) i = r, ii = t, iii = p, iv = q
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171. Species separated by geographical barriers are called

(a) Allopatric (b) Sympatric (c) Sibling (d) Endemic
172. Evolution of heart from one to two, three and four chambered proves
(a) Biogenetic law of Haeckel (b) Lamarckism
(c) Hardy Weinberg’s law (d) Neo Darwinism
173. Genetic drift in mendelian population takes place in

(a) Small population (b) Large population (c) Oceanic population (d) Never occurs
174. Industrial melanism is an example of

(a) Drug resistance
(b) Darkening of skin due to smoke from industries
(c) Protective resemblance with the surroundings
(d) Defensive adaptation of skin against ultraviolet radiations
175. What kind of evidence suggested that man is more closely related with chimpanzee than with other
hominoid apes ?
(a) Comparison of chromosomes morphology only
(b) Evidence from fossil remains and the fossil mitochondrial DNA alone
(c) Evidence from DNA extracted from sex chromosomes, autosomes and mitochondria
(d) Evidence from DNA from sex chromosomes only
176. In a mutational event, when adenine is replaced by guanine, it is a case of

(a) Transcription (b) Transition (c) Transversion (d) Frameshift mutation
177. The most likely reason for the development of resistance against pesticides in insects damaging a
crop is
(a) Genetic recombination (b) Directed mutations
(c) Acquired heritable changes (d) Random mutations
178. Which of the following is not true for a species

(a) Members of a species can interbreed
(b) Variations occur among members of a species
(c) Gene flow does not occur between the populations of a species
(d) Each species is reproductively isolated from every other species
179. An important evidence in favour of organic evolution is the occurrence of

(a) Homologous and vestigial (b) Analogous and vestigial organs
(c) Homologous organs only (d) Homologous and analogous organs
180. Sickle cell anemia has not been eliminated from the African population because
(a) It is controlled by recessive genes (b) It is not a fatal disease
(c) It provides immunity against malaria (d) It is controlled by dominant genes
181. A baby has been born with a small tall. It is a case exhibiting
(a) retrogressive evolution (b) mutation
(c) atavism (d) metamorphosis
182. Most fossils have been found in

(a) Black soil (b) Lava flows (c) Granite (d) Sedimentary rocks
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183. In evolution the studies can be made at molecular level. For example the protein present in the blood
of man and ape are similar. The base sequence in nucleic acids and amino acids sequence in protein
in related organism is alike. These are the examples which one specifically referred to in
(a) convergent evolution (b) molecular analogy
(c) molecular homology (d) homoplastic appearances
184. A class of mutation induced by addition or deletion or a nucleotide is called

(a) Missense (b) Non-sense (c) Substitution (d) Frame shift
185. Breeding is possible between two member of

(a) Genus (b) Family (c) Order (d) Species
186. Which of the following factors help in evolution but is not considered the basic factor for evolution?
(a) Isolation (b) Adaptation (c) Variation (d) Mutation
187. Adaptive radiation refers to

(a) Adaptations due to geographical isolation
(b) Evolution of different species from a common ancestor
(c) Migration of members of a species to different geographical areas
(d) Power of adaption in an individual to a variety of environments
188. Factors helps in the formation of new species are

(a) competition and variation (b) isolation and competition
(c) competition and mutation (d) isolation and mutation
189. Darwin’s Finches are an excellent example of

(a) Brood parasitism (b) Connecting links (c) Adaptive radiation (d) Seasonal migration
190. The phenomenon ontogeny repeats phylogeny is explained by

(a) natural selection (b) inheritance theory (c) mutation theory (d) recapitulation theory
QUESTIONS ASKED IN PREVIOUS EXAMS
191. The following picture depicts the internal arrangement (anatomy) of bone structures in the limbs of
different organisms. Which of the following statements is the most valid inference that can be drawn
from a careful analysis of the limbs of different organisms in the diagram below?
(a) Bones of limbs of all the organisms have similar basic plan therefore may have common ancestor
(b) Bones of limbs of all the organisms have the same basic structure but different shapes, therefore
bone expression is controlled only by the environmental factor.
(c) Bones of limbs of all the organism do not have similar bone structure therefore they may have
evolved differently
(d) Systematic increase in the number of digits (fingers) exemplify use and disuse of organs.
IJSO BIOLOGY
192. Given here is a phylogenetic tree (family tree) of greater apes. Which of the following statements
cannot be true from the tree ? (mya-million years ago)
(a) Humans did not evolve from chimpanzees

(b) Humans and chimpanzees are evolutionary cousins
(c) Orangutans evolved much earlier than humans
(d) Humans are highly evolved among great apes
193. According to Darwin’s theory of evolution, which of the following is a necessary?

(a) variation among individuals of a population in some heritable characteristic
(b) variation in habital within the population of species
(c) variation in environmental conditions that suit the individual
(d) all of the above
194. A dwarf pea plant is treated with a hormone gibberellic acid. It was found that the plant height
increase rapidly. Thus it was conformed that gibberellic acid brings about increase in the height of
the plant. If this treated plant is crossed with normal dwarf pea plant, what kind of progeny would
you expect?
(a) All tall (b) All dwarf
(c) 50% tall and 50% dwarf (d) 75% tall and 75% dwarf
195. We know that the total amount of DNA from mitochondria and chloroplast will be one-third the
quantity of nuclear DNA. It has been found that on an average the chloroplast DNA content is more
than the mitochondrial DNA. This is because
(a) Mitochondria exhibit polyploidy only in meristems while chloroplasts show polyploidy even
during cell maturation
(b) The average number of mitochondria in a plant are much less than the number of chloroplasts
(c) In general chloroplasts divide much more frequently than the mitochondria
(d) All of the above
196. In the following cross, the character indicated by males (darkened squares) and females (circle) is
(a) X-linked dominant (b) X-linked recessive

(c) an autosomal dominant (d) an autosomalrecessive
IJSO BIOLOGY
197. DNA molecule has the sequence CAT CAT CAT. If a guanine base is added at the beginning of the
sequence, which of the following would be the most appropriate option
(a) G CAT CAT CAT (b) GCA TCA TCA T
(c) Frame shift mutation (d) Both (b) and (c)
198. It is known that among com plants, a tall paltn (T) trait is dominant over dwarf (t), and the colore
keemel (C) trait is dominant is over white (c). Which of the following result represents the outcome
of a cross between contrasting dihybrid parents ?
(a) F2 generation has 5 homozygous and 11 heterozygous individuals.
(b) F2 generation has 4 homozygous, 4 double heterozygous and 8 intermediates.
(c) F2 generation has all dominant forms of morphological characters.
(d) F2 generation has all recessive forms of morphological character.
199. Haemophilia and colourblindness are the disc orders caused by X chromosome linked recessive
gene. A woman has one X chromosome having gene for haemophilia and colourblindness. The other
X chromosome has wild allele for both the characters. She marries a man having phenotype normal
for both the traits. Which of the following statement is most likely for the progeny ?
(a) All daughters haemophilic and colourblind
(b) 50% haemophilic sons and 50% colourblind sons
(c) 50% haemophilic colourblind sons and 50% normal sons
(d) 25% heamophilic daughters and 75% colourblind sons
200. In forensic science DNA fingerprinting is a useful technique to trace genetic identity, releatedness
and tissue matching. Which of the following material/tissue does not find any use in DNA
fingerprinting ?
(a) Leucocytes (b) Erythrocytes (c) Sperms (d) None of these
201. In certain plant species, red flower colour is incompletely dominant to white flower colur (the
hetrozygote is pink) and talls stems are completely dominant to dwarf stem. If the pink plant (TtRr)
is crossed with a tall white plant (TTrr), which of the following types of plants would be produced in
the offsprings.
(a) Dwarfn pink and tall red (b) Tall pink and tall white
(c) Dwarf red and tall pink (d) Tall pink and dwarf white
202. A human T lymphocyte in the mitotic metaphase stage will contain how many DNA molecules ?
(Exclude the DNA of mitochondria)
(a) 23 (b) 46 (c) 184 (d) 92
203. In an mRNA the codons are read linearly and each condon consists of three consecutive nucleotides
which condes for one amino acid. During a deletion mutation, a deletion of three consecutive base in
the conding region of a gene cannot result in one of the following .
(a) deletion of a single amino acid without any other change in the protein
(b) replacement of two adjacent amino acids by a single amino acid
(c) replacement of a single amino acid by another without any other change in sequence of the
protein.
(d) production of a truncated (shorter) protein.
204. Given below are few forces of evolution. Which of the following would be the best combination of
primary forces of evolution ?
(a) Variation and mutation (b) Mutation and isolation
(c) Variation and migration (d) Migration and random genetic drift
IJSO BIOLOGY
205. Out of the two X chromosomes of human female, one X chromosomes is inactivated and
heterochromatinized. The inactive X-chromosome can be seen as a darkly stained spot and is called
as Barr body. Identify the number of Barr bodies that would be seen in the following genotypes.
46XO 46XY 46XXY 46XXXY
(a) 0, 1, 1, 2 (b) 0, 0, 1, 2 (c) 0, 1, 2, 3 (d) 0, 0, 1, 1
206. T.H. Morgan discovered that all the genes in Drosophila are linked to four pairs of linkage groups
which correspond to 4 pairs of chromosomes. Sometimes, the linkage of some genes, present at some
specific distance is broken and they show independent assortment. The most possible reason for
break in the concept of linkage would be
(a) Transposition (b) Recombination
(c) Translocation (d) Sister-chromatid exchange
207. A plant (parental) bearing red flowers is self pollinated and two kinds of progeny are obtained, plants
with red flowers and plants with red flowers and plants with white flowers in a ratio of 3: 1. Based
on this observation which one of the following statement regarding genes controlling the flower
colour is correct ?
(a) The parental plant had one kind of allele for the flower colour
(b) Two genes control the flower colour
(c) The parental plant has two different alleles for the flower colour
(d) All progeny plants with red flower colour have the genotype as that of the parent
208. Cabbage, Broccoli, Brussels sprouts are all derived from one species of wild mustard by the selection
of desired traits. This has been developed by a process.
(a) Inheritance of acquired character (b) Natural selection
(c) Adaptive selection (d) Artificial selection
209. Occurrence of tall and dwaft plants in the F2 generation of pea plant indicates that
(a) Both the traits were present in the patent plant
(b) Both the traits were present in the F1
(c) Tall is dominant over dwarf
(d) Tall and dwaft traits have equal effect in expression
210. One form of colour blindness in humans is caused by a sex linked recessive mutant gene. A woman
with normal colour vision and whose father was colour blind marries a man of normal vision whose
father was also colour blind.
(a) All daughters have normal colour vision, all the sons were colour blind
(b) Half the daughters an dhlalf the sons were colour blind.
(c) All daughters have normal colour vision and half the sons were colour blind.
(d) Half the daughters were colour blind and all the sons had normal colour vision
IJSO BIOLOGY
Answer Key :
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (a) 16. (b) 17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (d) 20. (d)
21. (b) 22. (d) 23. (c) 24. (d) 25. (d) 26. (c) 27. (b) 28. (b) 29. (a) 30. (d)
31. (c) 32. (a) 33. (c) 34. (a) 35. (d) 36. (b) 37. (b) 38. (b) 39. (a) 40. (b)
41. (d) 42. (c) 43. (d) 44. (a) 45. (c) 46. (b) 47. (c) 48. (d) 49. (a) 50. (d)
51. (d) 52. (a) 53. (c) 54. (c) 55. (b) 56. (b) 57. (d) 58. (b) 59. (d) 60. (c)
61. (b) 62. (a) 63. (a) 64. (a) 65. (b) 66. (d) 67. (a) 68. (d) 69. (c) 70. (c)
71. (c) 72. (d) 73. (a) 74. (a) 75. (a) 76. (d) 77. (c) 78. (c) 79. (d) 80. (d)
81. (a) 82. (b) 83. (a) 84. (b) 85. (c) 86. (c) 87. (d) 88. (c) 89. (a) 90. (b)
91. (d) 92. (b) 93. (d) 94. (b) 95. (b) 96. (c) 97. (c) 98. (a) 99. (d) 100. (a)
101. (c) 102. (a) 103. (d) 104. (d) 105. (d) 106. (d) 107. (d) 108. (c) 109. (b) 110. (a)
111. (c) 112. (a) 113. (b) 114. (a) 115. (b) 116. (b) 117. (b) 118. (c) 119. (a) 120. (c)
121. (c) 122. (b) 123. (b) 124. (b) 125. (c) 126. (c) 127. (b) 128. (b) 129. (a) 130. (d)
131. (a) 132. (d) 133. (a) 134. (c) 135. (b) 136. (a) 137. (d) 138. (b) 139. (c) 140. (b)
141. (b) 142. (a) 143. (b) 144. (b) 145. (d) 146. (b) 147. (c) 148. (a) 149. (a) 150. (d)
151. (c) 152. (c) 153. (a) 154. (b) 155. (a) 156. (c) 157. (b) 158. (a) 159. (a) 160. (a)
161. (d) 162. (b) 163. (b) 164. (c) 165. (c) 166. (a) 167. (a) 168. (c) 169. (a) 170. (a)
171. (a) 172. (d) 173. (a) 174. (c) 175. (a) 176. (b) 177. (b) 178. (c) 179. (d) 180. (c)
181. (c) 182. (d) 183. (c) 184. (d) 185. (d) 186. (d) 187. (b) 188. (d) 189. (c) 190. (d)
191. (b) 192. (a) 193. (d) 194. (b) 195. (c) 196. (c) 197. (d) 198. (b) 199. (c) 200. (b)
201. (b) 202. (d) 203. (b) 204. (a) 205. (b) 206. (b) 207. (c) 208. (d) 209. (a) 210. (c)
IJSO BIOLOGY
3. Ecology
Environment
 The term environment denotes all the physical, chemical and biotic condition conditions surrounding
and influencing a living organism.
 The environment can be divided into two main components.
 Abiotic: All the physical (climate), edaphic (nature of soil) and chemical factors. They are also called
nonliving factors. The important abiotic factors are temperature, light, pressure humidity, precipitation,
wind, mineral elements of soil and composition of air. Some of these environment factors serve as
resources (air, soil and water) while others act as regulatory factors (light, temperature and pressure
etc.)
 Biotic: All living organisms found in the environment and that includes plants, animal and
microorganisms. The biotic components can be classified as produces consumers and decomposers.
 Ecology is the scientific study of the relationship between organism and their environment.
 This term was introduced for the first time by a Germin Biologists Ernst Haeckel in 1869.
 The study of group of organisms in relation to their environment is called synecology.
Levels of biotic organizations showing a direct impact on the environment

 An organism is self reproducing system capable of growing and maintaining itself and is directly
influenced by the surrounding environment.
Population
 A population is an assemblage of similar organism belonging to the same species, living together at
one place at a given time.
 A population always has a specific place of its living which is known as its habitat. The habitat of
sunfish is pond and lion is a forest.
 Species: A species is defined as a group of organism which can interbreed and produce a successful
offspring. These organisms may be separated in space and time into smaller groups called populations.
SOME TERMS RELATED TO SPECIES

 Endemic Species or Endemism
A species which is found only in a particular area is known as endemic species. e.g. Meta sequoia is
found only in valley of China, Kangaroo in Australia.
 Key stone Species
The species which have great influence on the community’s characteristics relative to their low
abundance or biomass are called key-stone species. the activities of key-stone determine the structure
of the community e.g. Lion in forest, Kangaroo rat in desert.
INTRA – SPECIFIC INTERACTION

It is of two type
(A) Cooperative interactions (B) Competitive interactions
COOPERATIVE INTERACTION (+ve)
1. Group formation of breeding
2. Parental care-
(a) Care of eggs (b) Nest building (c) Carrying eggs of persons
3. Altruism: It is behaviour of an individual to increase the chances of survival of other individuals of
same species i.e. sacrificial behaviour. E.g. Altruism is observed in spotted deer, wild turkey, workers
of honey bee, termites etc.
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4. Dominance: Subordinate behaviour or hierarchical social order or herd, where ranking of individuals
is present for e.g. Female subordinate to males, young to adult.
5. Communication: Transmission or exchange of information among the members of same species.
COMPETITIVE INTRACTIONS
 It is the competitive relationship between two organism of same species for getting the same resources
(food, habitat, light, moisture)
Note: Intra-specific struggle is the strongest and severe type of interaction because members of same species
gave same requirement such as food, shelter and same structural, functional and behavioural adaption. E.g.
Sparrows fight for particular shelter, wall lizard flight to catch insects.
 Plants also compete for space, water, light and minerals.
Advantages: It helps in maintaining the ecological balance.
INTER SPECIFIC INTER ACTIONS

Due to increase in different species in community, interaction (for food, habitat) also starts between them.
(a) Positive or beneficial interaction: Member of one or both the interacting species are benefitted but
neither is harmed.
(b) Negative interaction: One or both interacting species is harmed.
POSITIVE OR BENEFICIAL INTERACTIONS

It is a wide spread phenomenon, it includes  Mutualism, commensalism, protocooperation
1. Mutualism (+/+) or Symbiosis: (co-evolution)
Positive inter specific interaction in which members of two different species completely depend on each
other for growth and survival, physical contact is present in between both the interacting species. It is
obligatory relationship.
 Mutualism between plant and bacteria

 Mutualism between algae and higher plant
 Mutualism between algae and fungi
 Mutualism between fungi and higher plants
Bees and orchid flower
2. Commensalism (+/0) –
 Association between numbers of two species in which one is benefitted while other is almost
unaffected.
 Epiphytes: Small plants grow on other plants in tropical rain forest. They utilise only the space of host
plant for light & humidity e.g. Orchids, Hanging mosses
 Epizones: Those animals which depends on plants other animals.
E.coli bacteria – Intestine of man
3. Proto-cooperative (+/+): Association in which both organisms are benefited but can live separately, it
is a facultative or optional or occasional association also called as non-obligatory relationship.
Scavenging: Association in which one partner called scavenger or saprobiont, eats the dead bodies of other
animals, which have died naturally or killed by another animal e.g. Jackal, Vulture, Ant, and Crow.
NEGATIVE INTERACTION (ANTAGONISM)/DETRIMENTAL

1. Exploitation: One species harms the other by making its direct or indirect use of support, shelter or
food.
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It is of two types
(a) Parasitism (b) Predation
(a) Parasitism (+/–)  This association involves individuals of two species of different size in which
smaller (Parasite) is benefitted and larger (host) is harmed. The parasite gets nourishment and shelter
from host but does not kill the host.
Type of Parasite
(i) Ectoparasite  lives on the body of host
 Ectozooparasite: Leech on cattle, mosquitoes, sandfly live on man
 Ectophytoparasite: Aphids, Lac insects, Red cotton bug
(ii) Endoparasites: live in the body of host

 Tapeworm, Taenia, Ascaris, Entamoeba  live in intestine of man
 Plasmodium  live in R.B.C. of human.
(b) Prediction (+/–): A free living organisms which catches and kills another species for food.
Insectivores fungi: Dactylella, Dactylaria, Arthrobotrys
Carnivores animals: Lion, snake
Insectivores animals: Drosera, Utricularia, Nepenthes
(i) Antibiosis: Secretion of antibiotics

(ii) Allenlopathy: Secretion of toxic chemical
 Parthenium: Transcinnamic acid is secreted by Parthenium which inhibits the growth of some plants
like Cassia tora and Vincaregia. This phenomenon is known as allelopathy.
 Sunflower, Barley, Sorghum, Occimum also show allelopathy.
 Cannabalism  Organism eaten by own species e.g. cockroach, termites
 Competition (–, –): Process in which the fitness of one species is significance lower in the presence of
another species.
 Biological community refers to the populations of different species occupying a common place of
living. For example all the living organism in a pond belong to one community.
Biotic Community - Animal community + Plant community + Microbial community
Characteristic of a community
1. Species Diversity
There are different types of population (species) found in community, this is called species diversity.
2. Dominance
The highest number of organism of a species present in community, is called as the dominant species.
3. Stratification
The different growth form (trees, shrub, under shrubs, herbs) determines the structure of a plant
community. Stratification is based on mode of arrangement of various growth forms.
 The clear stratification (vertical arrangement) in various forms of plants according to the need of light
in any dense forest.
Surface dwellers  Herbs  Under shrubs  Shrubs  Trees
Note
 The clear stratification is found in tropical rain forest. So it is known as multi-storeyed forest.
 Another example of stratification is mountain.
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 Development of plant community on barren area is called ecological succession or biotic succession.
The replacement of existing community by new ones, in an orderly sequence in barren area with time
due to Change, environmental conditions.
 Biotic communities are never stable. They are changing more or less over period and space, due to
presence of different types of climatic & environmental conditions. (So a continuous interaction is
going on between the community and environment till state of stability.
Term for community in succession

 Pioneer community: The first community to inhibit an area is called Pioneer community.
 Sere: The entire series of communities is called sere
The name of sere depends on where the succession occurs or takes place.
 Succession in fresh water  Hydrosere
 Succession in salty water  Halosere
 Succession at dry Region  Xerosere
 Succession on rocks  Lithosere
1. Biotic factors: The action of each seral community (interaction with it’s environment) makes the area
less favorable for itself and more favorable for next seral community in the succession.
2. Physiographic factors: These include climatic and other physical factors like soil erosion, soil
deposition, landslide, volcaslide lava. These all factors males an area barren.
HYDROSERE
Stages of hydrosere or hydrach succession in the newly formed pond or lake
1. Phytoplankton stage: It is pioneer community, first coming minute autotrophic organism. These
produce organic matter
e.g. Soft mud diatom, Cyanobacteria
2. Rooted submerged stages:
e.g. Vallisneria
3. Rooted floating stages:
e.g. Nymphaea, Nelumbium, Trapa
4. Reed swamp stage (amphibious stage): Most part of these plants remain exposed to air
e.g. Typha, Sahittaria
5. Sedge (Meadow stage or marsh meadow stage): Muddy plants
e.g. Carex, Ipomea
6. Scrub stage: Woody shrubs, tolerates water logging
e.g. Cornus
7. Forest stage
e.g. Tree
LITHOSERE
Stage of Lithosere (Succession on rocks)
1. Crustose lichens stage – It is pioneer community, tolerates desiccation, produces acid which causes
weathering of rocks, so first minerals are released for own use.
e.g Rhizpcarpon
2. Folliose liches stage – large lichens with leafy thallus
e.g. Dermatocarpon
3. Moss stage
e.g. Polytrichum
4. Herb stage – Annual hardy grasses
e.g. Poa, Eleusin, Aristida
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5. Shrub stage
e.g. Zizyphus
6. Forest stage
e.g. Tree
 A biological community along with its nonliving environment of energy and matter makes an
ecosystem.
 Ecosystem can range in size from a puddle of water to a stream or a patch of wood to entire or desert.
BIOSPHERE
 A thin layer on and around the earth which sustains life is called biosphere.
 The three physical components of the earth are atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere (air, land and water)
 Ecosphere = Biosphere = Lithosphere +Atmosphere
 In fact, ecosphere is the largest worldwide ecosystem. Ecosphere is very huge and cannot be studies as
a single entity. It is divided into many distinct functional units called ecosystem.
ECOSYSTEM
 Ecosystem is a self sustaining unit of nature. It is defined as a functionally independent unit (of nature)
where living organism interact among themselves as well as with their physical environment.
Definition: Total living factor (biotic) and total non living factor (abiotic) of the environment present in a
particular area is called ecosystem.
 The boundaries of ecosystem are indistinct and have a overlapping character over each other.
 Ecosystem is the smallest structure and functional unit of nature or environment. It is a self regulatory
and self sustaining unit.
 Ecosystem may be large or small. Single drop of water may be an ecosystem.
 Ecosystem may be temporary or permanent.
TYPE OF ECOSYSTEM
1. Natural Ecosystem 2. Artificial Ecosystem
1. Natural Ecosystem:
(a) Terrestrial Ecosystem
 e.g. forest, grassland, tree, desert ecosystem
(b) Aquatic ecosystem

Aquatic ecosystem is again of two type
(i) Lentic ecosystem  stagnant fresh water, lake, pond, swamp.
(ii) Lotic – Running fresh water ecosystem e.g. river
2. Artificial Ecosystem – Man made e.g. cropland, Gardens etc.
COMPOUND OF ECOSYSTEM
Every ecosystem is composed of two components
(A) Biotic Component (B) Abiotic component
BIOTIC COMPONENT
Formed by living things e.g. plants, animals, microbes.
TYPES OF BIOTIC CMOMPONENTS

1. Producers
 All the autotrophs of ecosystem are called producers.
 The solar energy is only ultimate source of energy in ecosystem. This energy is available for the
remaining living organisms.
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Other e.g. of producers are

 Chemoautotrophs: (Iron bacteria, sulphur bacteria, nitrifying bacteria)
 In aquatic ecosystem: Floating plants called phytoplankton are the major autotrophs.
2. Consumers
 All the heterotrophs of the ecosystem are known as consumers.
(a) Primary consumer – Such living organism which obtain food directly from producers or plants are
known as primary consumers. e.g. herbivores of ecosystem, cow, grazing cattle, Rabbit.
 They are also known as secondary producers as they synthesize complex materials in the cells, by the
digestion of food which is obtained from the plant.
(b) Secondary consumers or primary carnivores – Animals which feed upon primary consumers and
obtain food. Those carnivores which kill and eat the herbivores, are called predator e.g. Dog, cat,
snake.
Note
 The organism which completely depends on dead animals are not example of predators but they all are
the scavangers or detrivores e.g. Vulture, crow, fox
 All predators are carnivores but all carnivores not predators.
(c) Top Consumers – Those animal which kill other animals and eat them, but they are not killed & eaten
by other animal in the nature e.g. Lion, man, hawk, peacock.
(d) Mictro Consumers/Decomposers or Saprotrophs

 Those living organisms which decompose the dead body of producers and consumers are known as
decomposers or reducers or transformers or osmotrophs.
 The main decomposers in ecosystem are bacteria and fungi.
 Decomposers play a significant role in mineral cycle.
Function of ecosystem
There are two basic functions of ecosystem
(i) Biogeochemical cycle (mineral cycle)
(ii) Energy flow – The storage, expenditure, transformation of energy is based on two basic law of
thermodynamics.
 Energy is neither created nor destroyed but only transformed from one state to another state.
 The law of entropy – the transfer of food energy from one to another organism leads to loss of energy
as heat due to metabolic activity.
 The dynamics of an ecosystem involve two processes that cannot be fully described by population or
community processes and phenomena energy flow chemical cycling.
 Energy enters most ecosystem in the form of sunlight. It is converted to chemical energy by
autotrophs, passed to heterotrophs in the organic compounds of food, and dissipated as heat.
 Chemical elements are cycled among abiotic and biotic components of the ecosystem
 The important structural features are species composition (types of plants and animals) and consumers.
several trophic levels exist in the ecosystem.
 The feeding relationship can vbe stidied as food chain, food web and standing crops.
 These structural components function as a unit and produce certain functional aspects of ecosystem.
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Teritary Fourth trophic level

Man, lion
Cinsumers (Top carnivore)
Secondary Third trophic level

Consumers (Carnivore) Birds, fishes, wolf
Primary Second trophic level Zooplankton, grasshopper

Consumers (Herbivore) and cow
Primary First trophic level Phytoplankton, grass, trees

Producers (Plants)
 The total number types of species in a community determine its stability and ecosystem balance
(ecosystem equilibrium).
 The vertical and horizontal distribution of plants in the ecosystem is called ecosystem stratification.
 Each layer from the tree top of the forest floor has its characteristic fauna and flora. This is termed as
vertical stratification of forest ecosystem.
 On the other hand desert ecosystem shows low discontinuous layers of scant vegetation and animals
with some bare patches of soil showing a type of horizontal stratification.
Food Chain
 Transfer of food from the plants (produces) through a series of organism with repeated eating and
being eaten is called a food chain e.g.
 Grasses  Grasshopper  Frogs  Snakes  Hawk/Eagle
1 2 3 4 5
Three important features of food chain
 Weakenorganisms are attacked by the stronger organisms
 Number of organisms is reduced at each higher level but the size of organisms is increased.
 The number of steps in a food chain is limited to 4-5.
 An ecosystem’s energy budget depends on primary production
 Shorter food chains will provide greater energy.
 Generally the decomposers (Bacteria and Fungi) are included in the food when but when included then
included as the last trophic level.
FOOD WEB
 In bigecosysetm many food chains are interlinked together on different trophic levels food web. In
food web transfer of food energy in unidirectional but from many different alternative path way.
 As much as food web is complex that ecosystem is more permanent or stable, such type of ecosystem
is not destroyed naturally and continuous for long time. This ecosystem is not affected by loss of any
organism of any particular trophic level. Those ecosystems which have simple food web are not very
stable it means that they can be finished at any time, if there is a change in any particular trophic level.
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PYRAMIDS OF ECOSYSTEM
 Graphical representation of ecological parameters at different trophic level in ecosystem is called
pyramids. These parameters are Number, Biomass and Energy. First of all, pyramid was formed by
Charls Elton; So we called it Elton pyramids.
1. Pyramids of Number:
 In this type of pyramid the number of individual organism in various trophic level is shown. These
pyramids are mostly upright, because number of producers [T1] Maximum and No. of herbivores and
carnibvores decrease towards apex or at successive trophic levels, such as Grassland ecysystem and
aquatic ecosystem.
 But in a tree ecosystem the pyramid of numbers is inverted. This is called parasite ecosystem because
birds (herbivores) depend on the tree (producer) and parasites (consumer) depend on birds, therefore
with increase in the no. of trophic levels, the number of the organisms increases sequentially.
Note
 Maximum number of producers are present in aquatic ecosystem.
2. Pyramid of Biomass
 Pyramids of biomass represent the total amount of biomass of each trophic level of ecosystem, mostly
these pyramids are also upright (erect) e.g. (tree ecosystem), forest ecosystem.
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 Pyramids of biomass in aquatic ecosystem in inverted because in it producers are micro-organism and
their biomass is veryless.
Standing crop: Total of living organism matter present in particular area in particular time in an ecosystem
is known as standing crop.
3. Pyramids of energy
 It represents amount of energy at different trophic levels, energy pyramids are always upright or exect
because there is a gradual decrease in energy at successive trophic levels. According to the 10% law of
Lindeman, the 90% part of obtained energy of each organism is utilized in their various merabolic
activities and heat and only 10% energy is transferred to the next trophic level. So 90% energy is lost
at each trophic level, therefore top consumers like lion etc. are ecologically weakest but physically
they are strong.
PRODUCTIVITY
There are two type of productivity present
(i) Primary productivity
 Primary production is defined as the amount of biomass or organic produced per unit are over a time
period by plants during phorosynthesis. It is expressed in terms of weight (g/m2/yr) or energy
 Kcal m 2  . The rate of biomass production is called productivity. It is expressed in terms of g 2 yr 1
or  Kcal m 2  yr 1 to compare the productivity of different ecosystem. It can be divide into GPP and
NPP.
Its again divides in two type

Gross primary productivity (G.P.P.): It is the total amount of energy fixed (organic food) in an ecosystem
(in producers) in unit time is called G.P.P. including the organic matter used up in respiration during the
measurement period.
Net primary productivity (N.P.P): It is amount of stored organic matter in plant tissue after respiratory
utilization.
NPP = GPP – R (R = Respiration + Metabolic activities)
Or
GPP = NPP + R
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 NPP is the available biomass for the consumption to heterotrophs.

 Productivity in the biological system is a continuous process but it is different in different ecosystems.
 Different ecosystems differ greatly in their production as well as in their contribution to the total
production of the Earth.
 Tropical rain forests are among the most productive, but they cover only a small are compared to that
covered by trophical rain forests.
 The open ocean has e relatively low production per unit area but contributes more net primary
production than any other ecosystem because of its very large size.
 Nitrogen is the limiting factors in the ocean and phosphorous is the limiting factor in lake productivity.
 Overall terrestrial ecosystems contribute two-thirds net primary production, and marine ecosystems
contribute approximately one-third.
ABIOTIC ENVIRONEMNTAL FACTORS OF ECOSYSTEM

(A) Light (b) Temperature (c) Soil (d) Other
 Sunlight provides the energy that drivers nearly all ecosystems.
 Intensity of light is not the most important factor limiting plant growth in most terrestrial
environments, although shading by a forest canopy makes competition for light in the understory
intense.
 In aquatic environments, light intensity limits distribution of photosynthetic organisms.
 Every meter of water depth selectively absorbs 45% of red light and 2% of blue light passing through
it. As a result, most photosynthesis in aquatic environments occurs near the surface.
Photoperiod, the relative length of daytime and night-time, is a reliable of seasonal events and is an
important cue for the development or behaviour of many organisms.
(B) Temperature
 Environment temperature is an important factor in the distribution of organism because of its effect on
biological processes.
 Very few organisms can maintain an active metabolism at very high or very low temperatures.
 Some organism have extraordinary adaptations to allow them to live outside the temperature range
habitable for most other living things.
 Wind amplifies the effect of temperature by increasing heat loss due to evaporation and convection. It
also increase water loss by increasing the rate of evaporation cooling in animals and transpiration in
plants.
(C) Soil
 Loam Soil is the best soil for growing of crops, it has high water holding capacity, high aeration and
high root penetration.
(D) Other
Topography: It includes the physical features of the earth like altitude, slope, expose mountain chains
valley plats. It affects distribution of organism by influencing the climatic factor like light, wind, rainfall etc.
BIOME
 A Biome is a large ecosystem which is embracing the large landscape, characterised by specific flora
and fauna.
 Terrestrial biomes usually grade into each other without sharp boundaries. The area of intergradations,
called the ecotone, may be narrow or wide.
 The species composition of any biome differs from location to location.
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Aquatic biomes occupy the largest part of the biosphere.

 Marine biomes generally have salt concentrations that average 3%, while freshwater biomes have salt
concentrations of less than 1%.
 Marine biomes cover approximately 75% of the earth’s surface and gave an enormous effect on the
biosphere.
 Photosynthesis by marine algae and photosynthetic bacteria produce a substantial proportion of the
world’s oxygen. Respiration by these organisms consumes huge amounts of atmospheric carbon
dioxide.
 More than light, nutrients limit primary production in aquatic ecosystems.
 A limiting nutrients is an element that must be added for production in aquatic ecosystems.
 A limiting nutrients is an element that must be added for production to increase in a particular area.
 The nutrients most often limiting marine production is either nitrogen or phosphorous.
 Additional nutrients shifted many lakes from phytoplankton communities dominated by diatoms and
green algae to communities dominated by cynobacteria.
 This process is called eutrophication and has a wide range of ecological impacts, including the loss of
most fish species.
 A network food chains which are interconnected at various trophic levels of the food chain to form a
number if feeding connections is called a food web.
 This is because all the energy entering at each tropic level is not used for production of biomass due to
the following two reasons.
 Firstly a part of the energy is lost (not utilized)
 Secondary a part of it is used up by the organisms for their own metabolism through the process of
respiration.
 If herbivores consumers 1000 kcal. of plant energy in the form of food, only 100 kcal is converted into
herbivore tissue, and 10 kcal. into first level carnivore and only 1 kcal second level carnivore. This is
known as 10% law (or ecological rule of thumb) where by only 10% of the energy is transferred to the
next higher trophic level.
Ecological Niche
 In ecology, a niche is a term describing the relational position of a species or population in an
ecosystem.
 The abiotic or physical environment is also part of the niche because how populations affect, and are
affected by, resources and enemies. The description of a niche may include descriptions of the
organism’s life history, habitat and place in the food chair.
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Biome Latitude Altitude Vegetation

1. Tundra Above 60o North 3600 meter Lichen, Moss, Grass
height of Note:  This number is tree and also known
Himalaya as arctic desert or alpine tudra
 Timber line – Line beyond which
trees are not found
 Perma frost –
2. Northern coniferous o
40  60 o 1700 to 3000 Fine (Pinus), Deodar (Cendus), Cypress
or Needle leaf or meter (Cupressus torulosa), Spruse (Picea
temperate forest smithiana), Silverfir (Ables pindrow)
Note:  Coniderous forest posses
 This forest also known as Taiga
3. Temperate deciduous o
40  60 o 1500 to 2400 Oak (Quercus)
or broad leaf forest meter Note:  Trees shed their leaves in autumn
and bear again in spring
4. Tropical rain forest Tropical rain forest are found at Dipterocarpus and Hopea are most
equatorial region around the earth. In common tree species in India.
India tropical rain forest are Lianas are also found.
distributed mainly along western
Ghats and Eastern Himalaya
(Assam, W. Bengal, Andman,
Manipur)
5. Tropical deciduous Occurs widely in the Northern and Sal (Shorea robasta), Teak (Tectona
forest Southern part of our country in plan grandls), Tendu, Chiraungi, Khar
and low hilly area. Note:  Leaves of most of the tree fall
before summer.
6. Chaparral These forest are found pacific coast Draught resistant and fire resistant plant
(Mediterranean) of North America and South coast of species are found
scrub forest Australia e.g. Small tree, Shrub (sage)
7. Tropical land biome Tropical Savanna biome are found in Coarse grass – Dichanthium, Sechim,
South America and Australia. Phragmites
Trees – Acacia, Eucalyphus, Capparis
Note:  In this biome grass are found with
scattered tree.
 This biome also known as tropical
grass land
8. Grass land biome
Name of Grass Place
lands
Prairies North America
Pampas South America
Steppes Europe and Asia
(Russia)
Tussocks Newzealand
Veldts Africa
9. Desert
Name of desert Place/Area
Sahara North Africa
Tibbet, Gobi, Asia
Thar
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Competitive exclusive in ecology

 The competitive exclusive principal, sometimes referred to as Gause’s Law of competitive exclusion
or just Gause’s Law, states that two species that compete for the same resources cannot stably coexist.
 Wetlands are areas areas covered with sufficient water to support aquatic plants.
 Wetlands include marshes, bogs, and swamps.
 They are among the most productive biomes on Earth and are home to a diverse community of
invertebrates and birds.
 Because of the high organic production and decomposition in wetlands, their water and soil are low in
dissolved oxygen.
 Coral reefs are limited to the photic zone of stable trophic marine-environments with high water
clarity. They are found at temperatures between 18o C 1 and 30o C .
 They are formed by the calcium carbonate skeletons of coral animals.
 Mutualistic dinoflagellate algae live within the tissue of the corals.
NUTRIENT CYCLE
 All the types of materials required by ecosystem in addition of energy, are available continuously to
system through recycling. Thus, there is a constant exchange of materials between the living organisms and
their abiotic environment through the recycling of materials. This phenomenon is called biogeochemical
cycle.
 The mineral elements taken up from the environment (soil as well as air) by the green plant - the
producers, are again returned to the environment through consumers and decomposers.
 The following types of cycle are found in an ecosystem–
o Gaseous cycle : C, H, N, O cycles. Reservoir is in the atmosphere (air) or in hydrosphere (water).
o Sedimentary cycle : P, S, Ca cycles. Reservoirs are in earth's crust (lithosphere).
CARBON CYCLE
 The main source of carbon is atmosphere and hydrosphere is the rocks of carbonates.
 Carbon present in lithosphere is in the form of coal and petroleum. The carbon released from them is
present in the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide.
 The green autotrophs utilize CO2 from the air to synthesize food materials which is obtained by other
organisms as food. Carnivores obtain their carbonic food from the herbivores. These carbonic matter
produce CO2 through the oxidation or respiration which dissolve in air or water and are again utilized by
the plants.
Fig. : Carbon cycle

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PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
 The cycling of phosphorus between biotic and abiotic components of the environment represents
phosphorus cycle.
 In this, organic phosphates ( or H2PO4) are absorbed by plants from the soil and bodies of
water and eventually pass into animals through food chains.
 Phosphorus is the main constituent of protoplasm, plasma membrane, bones and teeth.
 Main source of phosphorus is rocks. It comes from the weathering of phosphorus containing rock in
the soil. Plants absorb this phosphorus from the soil and transfer this phosphate to animals and after the
death of animals, it is released again into the lithosphere by the action of decomposers.
 Sometimes some of the elements like phosphorus and calcium reach into the sea through water, from
where they transform into rocks. They separate from the cycle for a long time so it is also known as
sedimentary cycle.
But when these rocks break after sometime, then this phosphorus is again made available to the sea plant or
sea weeds, which pass into fish and sea birds. The excretory materials of birds on the rocks of sea shore is
called Guano and it is a source of phosphorus.
NOTES :
Plants absorbs phosphate from the soil in the form of orthophosphate (PO43–).
Fig. : Phosphorus cycle
MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Introduction:
A resource can be defined as any natural or artificial substance, which is used by human being for its
welfare.
These resources are of two types:
(a) Natural resources: Such as soil, air, water, minerals, coal sunshine (sunlight), animals and plants, etc.,
(b) Artificial resources: Biogas, thermal electricity, plastics, etc are manmade resources.
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Classification of Natural Resources

Resources
Natual Artificial
(e.g.Electricity)
Exhaustible Inexhaustible
(e.g. Solar energy, wind, rainfall, tidal energy
Renewable Non-renewable
(e.g. Wind, water, forests) (e.g. Coal, petroleum, iron, biological species)
Conservation is the proper management of a natural resource to prevent its exploitation, destruction
or degradation.
An undesirable change in the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the environment especially
air, water and land that may adversely affect human population and the wild life, industrial processes,
cultural assets (building and monuments) is called pollution.
The agents that pollute the environment or cause pollution are called pollutants.
TYPES OF POLLUTION
Depending upon the area or the part of environment affected, pollution may be of the following types :
1. Air pollution
2. Water pollution
3. Land pollution
4. Noise pollution
1. Air Pollution
Source of air pollution
(i) Natural and (ii) Man-made
(i) Natural sources
Ash from burning volcanoes, dust from storm, forest fires, pollen grains from flowers in air etc.
(ii) Anthropogenic (human-made) sources
Power stations using coal or crude oil furnaces using coal, cattle dung cakes, firewood, kerosene, etc.
Steam engines used in railways, steamers, motor vehicles, etc.
Motor and internal combustion engines which run on petrol, diesel, kerosene, etc.
Major air pollutants

Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is one of the major gases which contribute to air pollution. It is mainly produced during the
combustion of fuel in factories, power stations, household etc. The increasing CO2 in the atmosphere is
likely to have the following effects:
 Arise in atmospheric temperature due to greenhouse effect.
 Reduced productivity of the marine ecosystem. This is due to the fact that water in the oceans would
be hotter due to increased concentration of CO2 in the air, which dissolves in the water.
 Global warming: The increased surface temperature would cause melting of continental and
mountain glaciers and thus would cause flooding of coastal areas of some countries.
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Sulphur dioxide
 It is produced by the burning of coal in powerhouses and automobiles (car, trucks etc.)
 It causes chlorosis and necrosis of plants, irritation in eyes and injury to the respiratory tract (asthma,
bronchitis) in humans responsible for discoloration and deterioration of buildings.
 High concentration of sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere dissolves in rain drops to form sulphuric
acid which causes acid rain.
Carbon monoxide
 Carbon monoxide is produced as a result of incomplete combustion of fossil fuels like coal,
petroleum and wood charcoal.
 Automobile is more dangerous than carbon dioxide. It is a poisonous gas which causes respiratory
problems. When it reaches the blood stream, due to its high affinity for haemoglobin, it replaces
oxygen. It also causes giddiness, headache and interferes with normal function of the heart.
Fluorides
 On heating rocks, soils and minerals that contain fluorides, give out hydrogen fluoride gas. This is an
extremely toxic gas, which causes serious injury to livestock and cattle.
Oxide of nitrogen
 A few oxides of nitrogen, such as nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
are produced by natural processes as well as from thermal power stations, factories, automobiles and
aircrafts (due to burning of coal and petroleum).
 They reduce the oxygen carrying capacity of blood, may cause eye irritation and skin cancer in
human beings.
Smog
Smog is a mixture of smoke, dust particles and small drops of fog. Smog may cause necrosis and
develop a white coating on the leaves (silvering) of plants. In human beings and animals, it may cause
asthma and allergies.
Aerosol spray propellants

The suspended fine particles in the air are known as aerosols. Aerosols contain chlorofluoro carbons
(CFCs) and fluorocarbons. They cause depletion of the ozone layer.
Domestic air pollutants

 Smoke from cigarettes, biri, cigar and other such objects using burning tobacco, burning of coal,
firewood, cow dung cakes, kerosene oil and liquefied gases are major domestic pollutants.
 The pollution due to these pollutants causes suffocation, eye and lung diseases and low visibility.
Prevention and control of air pollution
(i) At domestic level, burning of wood and dung cakes can be replaced by use of cleaner fuel and
biogas (formed by the decomposition of animal and plant wastes in a biogas plant)
(ii) Automobile pollution can be reduced by
 Pooling of transport or use of public transport.
 Use of unleaded petrol and CNG (Compressed Natural Gas)
 Regular tuning and servicing of the engines, and
 Switching off the engine at red lights or when not in use.
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(iii)Following measures can reduce industrial pollution

 Installation of tall chimneys
 Installation of devices that do not allow pollutants to be released in the environment, such as
filters, electrostatic precipitators, scrubbers etc.
2. Water Pollution
Any physical, biological or chemical change in water quality that adversely affects living organisms or
makes water unsuitable for desired use is called water pollution.
Sources of water pollution
There are two sources of water pollution on the basis or origin of pollutants:
 Point sources : Those sources which discharge water pollutants directly into the water are known as
point sources of water pollution. Oil wells situated near water bodies, factories, power plants,
underground coal mines, etc are point sources if water pollution.
 Non-point sources : Those sources which do not have any specific location for discharging
pollutants, in the water body are known as non-point sources of water pollution. Run-offs from
agricultural fields, lawns, gardens, construction sites, roads and streets are some non-point sources of
water pollution.
Water pollutants
River, lake and sea water may be polluted in many ways.
 Domestic sewage discharged into rivers from areas located on its banks.
 Industrial wastes effluents from urban areas containing high concentration of oil, heavy metals and
detergents.
 Minerals, organic wastes and crop dusting from agricultural fields with phosphate and nitrogen
fertilizers that reach lakes, rivers and sea (water becomes deoxygenated and poisonous, thus, cannot
support aquatic life).
 Chemical fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides, herbicides and plant remains
 Industrial waste water containing several chemical pollutants, such as calcium, magnesium,
chlorides, sulphide, carbonates, nitrates, nitrites, heavy metals and radioactive waste from nuclear
reactor.
 Excretory wastes of humans and animals.\
 Disposal of urban and industrial waste matter
Pollutant Sources Cause Effect
Nitrates, phosphates, Agricultural fertilizers, Plant nutrients Eutrophication
ammonium salts sewage, manure
Animal manure and Oxygen deficiency Death of aquatic
plant residues Sewage, animals
paper mills, food
processing wastes
Heat Power plants and Thermal Death of fish
industrial cooling discharge
Oil slick Leakage from oil ships Petroleum Death of marine life due
to non availability of
oxygen dissolved in water
Fertilizers and pesticides are widely used in agriculture. Their excessive use for increasing
agricultural yield as led to the phenomenon of eutrophication and biomagnifications.
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Eutrophication
 With the use of high yielding varieties of crops, the use of fertilizers and pesticides has increased a
lot.
 Excess fertilizers may mix with surface water and may get drained in to water bodies(surface runoff)
 The anrichment of water with nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates that triggers the growth of
green algae is called eutrophication.
 This fast growth of algae followed by decomposition depletes the water body of its dissolved
oxygen. As a result aquatic animals die of oxygen shortage.
Bio-magnification
 Non-biodegradable pesticides, such as DDT are widely used for crop protection.
 Once they enter the food chain, their concentration keeps on increasing with each tropic level (steps
of a food chain). As a result, accumulation of these compounds takes place in the body of top
consumers over a period of time.
 Entry of harmful non-biodegradable chemicals in small concentrations and their accumulation in
greater concentrations in the various levels of food chain is called biomagnifications.
Prevention and control of water pollution

 Treating industrial effluents before discharging into rivers, separate channels for river and sewage
water.
 Avoid contamination of rivers, lakes and ponds by washing clothes, bathing etc.
 Not throwing waste, food materials, paper, biodegradable vegetables and plastic into open drains.
 Setting up sewage water treatment plants.
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 Use of septic tanks in houses to avoid direct outlet of faecal matter and other wastes.
 Effluents from distilleries and solid waste containing organic matter diverted to biogas plants to
generate energy.
3. Soil Pollution
Addition of substances that change the quality of soil by making it less fertile and unable to support
life is called soil pollution.
Sources of soil pollution

 Domestic sources : plastic bags, kitchen waste, glass bottles and paper
 Industrial sources : chemical residue, fly ash, metallic waste
 Agricultural residues : fertilizers and pesticides
Harmful effects of soil pollution

 Decrease in irrigated land thereby reduction in agricultural production
 Decrease in soil productivity
 Carryover of pollutants into the food chain
 Damage to landscape
Control of soil pollution

 Judicious use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides
 Proper and appropriate irrigation practices
 Conversion of farm wastes into co post and much use of bio fertilizers and manure in farming
 Ensure use of pollution free of treated waste water only for irrigation
 Recycling of waste material for example plastic, metal and glass are recyclable and incineration of
non recyclable wastes.
Soil Erosion
The process of detaching and removal of loosened soil particles by water (running water, ground
water, rain, sea waves) and wind is known as soil erosion.
Soil may be eroded by water and wind, each contributing towards a significant amount of soil loss
every year in our country.
Types of soil erosion

Wind erosion
Erosion of large quantity of fine soil particles and sand from deserts by wind is known as wind erosion. It is
spread over the cultivated land and thus, destroys fertility of that land.
Sheet erosion
When water moves over the land surface as a sheet, it takes away the topmost thin layer of soil. This
phenomenon occurs uniformly on the slopes of hilly areas, riverbeds and areas affected by floods. This type
of erosion is known as sheet erosion.
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Gully erosion
When water moves down the slope as a channel, it scoops out the soil and forms gullies which gradually
multiply and spread over a large area. This type of soil erosion is known as gully erosion.
Effects of soil erosion

 The top layer of productive land may be washed away.
 Roads, fences, bridges, trees and houses may get damaged.
 Fine soil may be transported far away.
 Crops and pasture lands may be destroyed either by being washed out or by getting covered with
mud.
 Flooded fields may take a long time to recover and fertilizers may also be washed out leading to
reduction in agricultural yield.
 Organic matter of the soil, residues or any applied manure, is relatively light-weight and can be
readily washed off the field. Crop emergence, growth and yield and directly affected by the loss of
natural nutrients and fertilizers in the soil. Seeds and plants can get disturbed or completely removed
from the eroded soil.
 Soil erosion changes the composition of soil leaving infertile rock behind. Soil quality, structure,
stability and texture may also be affected.
 The breakdown of aggregates and the removal of smaller particles or entire layers of soil or organic
matter, can weaken the structure and even change the texture.
 Textural changes can in turn affect the water holding capacity of the soil making it more susceptible
to extreme conditions, such as drought.
 Sediment which reaches streams or water-courses due to soil erosion clog drainage and stream
channels, deposit silt in reservoirs and reduce quality downstream water.
Biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste material

The waste generated from various sources can be categorized into two types :
(i) Biodegradable waste includes substances that can be degraded by microbes into harmless and non-
toxic substances. Sewage, kitchen waste, agricultural and animal wastes like leaves, twigs, hay,
dung, etc. are biodegradable waste.
(ii) Non-biodegradable waste cannot he easily degraded. Aluminium cans, plastics, glass, DDT, etc. are
examples of non biodegradable wastes. Radioactive wastes produced during nuclear reactions take a
long time to decay and are harmful to human beings.
Recycling helps in efficient management of wastes and also reduces the load on natural resources.
Use of cow dung for the production of biogas is a good example of recycling of waste for the production of
energy.
4. Noise pollution
 Note can be simply defined as “unwanted sound”.
 It is generally higher in urban and industrial areas than in rural areas. Workers using heavy
machinery are exposed to high noise levels for long period of work hours every day. Intensity of
sound is measured in a unit called decibel or dB. The lowest intensity of sound that human ear
can hear is 20 dB.
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Sources of noise pollution

 Use of loud speakers, loud music system and television at public places.
 Means of transport i.e. automobiles, railways, aircrafts, etc.
 Heavy machines in industries fireworks.
Effects of noise pollution

 Inability to sleep, slow recovery from sickness.
 Irritability and interference in communication.
 Temporary loss of hearing, earache, sometimes even leading to permanent deafness.
 Inability to concentrate, headache.
 Ringing of ears (a feeling, sound coming from within the ear in a very quiet environment).
 Increased blood pressure, irregular heart beat.
Prevention and control of noise pollution

 Control the noise emanating from your radio and television.
 Use automobile horn only in case of emergency.
 Do not burn fire crackers as they noisy and also cause air pollution.
 Get all machinery and engines properly tuned and serviced at regular interval and by the use of
silencers.
 Use of sound proof cabins and sound-absorbing materials in the walls.
 A green belt of vegetation is an efficient absorber of noise.
 Not playing loudspeakers during odd hours. It is legally banned and should be reported to the
police immediately.
GLOBAL WARMING AND GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

Carbon dioxide (CO2), Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), Methane (CH4) and Nitrous oxides (N2O) are the main
greenhouse gases that cause global warming.
An increase in the concentration of these greenhouse gases leads to an increased trapping of long wave
radiations resulting in an increase in earth’s temperature causing global warming.
The ozone hole : depletion of the ozone layer

The ozone layer present in the Earth’s atmosphere prevents the entry of Sun’s harmful ultraviolet (UV)
radiations reaching the Earth’s surface. Industrial use of chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in
refrigeration, air conditioning, cleaning solvents, fire extinguishers and aerosols (spray of perfumes,
insecticides, medicines, etc.) damage the ozone layer.
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The ozone hole is formed as follows :

Chlorine contained in the CFCs on reaching the ozone (O3) layer splits the ozone molecule to form oxygen
(O2) amount of ozone, thus gets reduced and cannot prevent the entry of UV radiations. There has been a
reduction by 30-40% in the thickness of the ozone umbrella or shield over the Arctic and Antarctic regions.
Effects of depletion of ozone layer

 Sunburn, fast ageing of skin, cancer of skin, cataract (opaqueness of eye lens leading to loss of vision),
cancer of the retina (sensitive layer of the eye on which image is formed).
 Genetic disorders.
 Reduced productivity at sea and forests.
Acid rain
 Acid rain occurs when sulphur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) are emitted into the
atmosphere, undergo chemical transformations and are absorbed by water droplets in clouds. This causes
the formation of sulphuric and nitric acids in rain clouds.
 The droplets then fall to earth as rain, snow or mist. If rain falls through polluted air it picks up more of
these gases and increases its acidity. This is called acid rain.
 Both SO2 and NO2 are converted into acids ( H2SO4 and HNO3 respectively) when they combine
with water vapour in the presence of O2 in the atmosphere. These acids return to the earth as acid
rain.
(I) NO + O3 NO2 + O2
NO2 + O3 NO3 + O2
NO2 + NO3 N2O5
N2O5 + H2O 2HNO3
(II) 2SO2 + O2 2SO3
Sources of acid rain

 Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is generally a by product of industrial processes and burning of fossil fuels.
 Ore smoking, coal fired power generators and natural gas processing are then main contributors to
sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere.
 The main source of oxides of nitrogen NOx) emissions is the combustion of fuels in motor vehicles,
residential and commercial furnaces, industrial and electrical utility boilers and engines and other
equipments.
Effects of acid rain

 It causes acidification of takes and streams and contributes to the damage of trees and many sensitive
forest soils.
 In addition, acid rain accelerates the decay of building materials and paints, including heritage
buildings, statues and sculptures that are part of our nation’s cultural heritage.
 Prior to falling to the earth, sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) gases and their
particulate matter derivatives sulphates and nitrates contribute to visibility degradation and harm
public health.
 Dome major effects of acid rain on vegetation, building and human health are given here.
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 Lower pH in surface water that occurs as a result of acid rain can cause damage to fish and other
aquatic animals. Acidity releases aluminium into the water. This builds up as a layer of aluminium
hydroxide in the gills of fishes.
 At pH lower than 5, most fish eggs do not hatch and lower pH can kill adult fish. As lakes become
more acidic, biodiversity is reduced.
Radiation an environmental pollutant

Radiation is one of the chief forms o energy consisting of high energy particles. Radiation could be natural
(solar and cosmic) or human (nuclear). Radiation has also become a major factor causing environmental
pollution. Radiation may have both short term or long term effects. They can further be divided functionally
into ionizing and non ionising radiations.
Type Ionizing Non-ionizing
Example Alpha, Beta, Gamma and X-ray Ultraviolet radiation
Properties Short wave lengths, high energy Higher wave lengths, low energy
Effects Causes ionization in cells photo products Damage through toxic effects
Harmful  Deep penetrating power effects both  Only superficial tissues are damaged.
effects external and internal organs.
 Breakage of chromosomes  Kills micro-organism and egg of fish
 Gene mutation and genetic variations and amphibians.
 Cancer of bone marrow (Leukaemia)  Prevents synthesis of DNA and RNA.
 Hair loss
 Male sterility  Skin cancer in humans
IMPORTANT
Radioactive iodine (1311) and Strontium (90Sr) are two nuclear wastes from an atomic explosion and may
cause cancer of thyroid and cancer of bone narrow respectively.
Nuclear radiation may have the following harmful effects:
 Cancer in child
 Mole sterility
 Malformation of the growing embryo.
IJSO BIOLOGY
ECOLOGY MCQ
PART A
1. Species separated by geographical barriers are called

(a) Allopatric (b) Sympatric (c) Sibling (d) Endemic
2. It CO2 is absent in atmosphere of earth then

(a) Temperature will decrease (b) Temperature will increase
(c) Plants will flourish well (d) No effect
3. Acacia, Prosopis and Caparis belongs to

(a) Deciduous forest (b) Tropical forest (c) Thom forest (d) Evergreen forest
4. CO is harmfull because
(a) It forms stable compound with haemoglobin (b) It blocks mitosis
(c) It is mutagenic (d) It causes defoliation
5. Total amount of energy trapped by green plants in food is called

(a) Gross primary production (b) Net primary production
(c) Standing crop (d) Standing state
6. Bactria are essential in carbon cycle as

(a) Decomposer (b) Synthesizer (c) Consumer (d) Pri. Producer
7. In which biome a new plant may adapt soon

(a) Tropical rain forest (b) Desert (c) Mangrove (d) Sea island
8. Sewage purification is performed by

(a) Microbes (b) Fertilisers (c) Antibiotics (d) Antiseptics
9. Main reason of disturbance of biological diversity

(a) Green house effect (b) Hunting
(c) Soil erosion (d) Destruction of natural habitats
10. Best method to preserve the wild relatives of plants

(a) By growing them in natural habitats (b) Gene library
(c) By storing seeds (d) Cryopreservation
11. Bhopal gas tragedy is related with

(a) Methane (b) Carbanmono oxide
(c) Methyl Iso cyanate (MIC) (d) SO2
12. Concentration of DDT is highest in

(a) Primary consumer (b) Producers (c) Top consumer (d) Decomposers
13. Percentage energy transferred to higher trophic level in food chain is

(a) 1% (b) 10% (c) 90% (d) 100%
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14. Lichens can be used as

(a) Bio-indicator for air pollution (b) Initial vegetation for waste lands
(c) Source of wood (d) To check the air pollution
15. The plant having the largest flower is

(a) Total stem parasite (b) Epiphyte (c) Total root parasite (d) Partial stem parasite
16. What is phytotron ?

(a) A device to grow the plants in controlled environment
(b) Growing plants in green house
(c) Radiation chamber to induce the mutations
(d) Apparatus to study the effect of light on plants
17. Species diversity is maximum in

(a) Tropical rain forest (b) Temperate forest (c) Deserts (d) Hill slopes
18. Which of the following is secondary pollutant ?

(a) PAN (b) CO (c) NO2 (d) SO2
19. Insectivorous plants grow in the soil which is deficient in

(a) Mg (b) Ca (c) P (d) N
20. Maximum DDT in birds feeding on

(a) Fishes (b) Worms (c) Insects (d) Seeds
21. Maximum photosynthesis takes place by

(a) Phytoplankton (b) Zooplankton (c) Marsh plants (d) Woody plants
22. What will happen if the number of organism increased at a place ?

(a) Inter species competition (b) Intra species competition
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
23. Pnematophores are found in

(a) The vegetation which is found in marshy and saline lake
(b) Aquatic plants
(c) Xerophytes
(d) Epiphytes
24. What shall be the effect of destruction of wild life ?

(a) Wild gene of disease resistance will not be obtained
(b) Soil erosion
(c) Floods
(d) Green house effect
25. In which of the following plant sunken stomata are found ?

(a) Nerium (b) Hydrilla (c) Mango (d) Guava
26. What is the best pH of the soil for cultivation of plants ?

(a) 3.4 – 5.4 (b) 6.5 – 7.5 (c) 4.5 – 8.5 (d) 5.5 – 6.5
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27. The maximum reproductive capacity of an organism under optimum environmental condition is
known as
(a) Biotic potential (b) Fertility (c) Carrying capacity (d) Birth rate
28. Which of the following is absent in polluted water ?

(a) Hydrilla (b) Water hyacinth (c) Larva of stone fly (d) Blue green algae
29. What is true for individuals of same species?

(a) Live in same niche (b) Live in same habitat (c) Interbreeding (d) Live in different habita
30. Which of the following is a correct pair ?

(a) Cuscuta - parasite (b) Dischidia - insectivorous
(c) Opuntia - predator (d) Capsella - hydrophytes
31. Bamboo plant is growing in a far forest then what will be the trophic level of it
(a) First trophic level (T1) (b) Second trophic level (T2)
(c) Third trophic level (T3) (d) Forth trophic level (T4)
32. What is a keystone species ?

(a) A common species that has plenty of biomass, yet has a fairly low impact on the community’s
organization.
(b) A rare species that has minimal impact on the biomass and on other species in the community.
(c) A dominant species that constitutes a large proportion of the biomass and which affects many
other species.
(d) A species which makes up only a small proportion of the total biomass of a community yet has a
huge impact on the community’s organization and survival.
33. Lichens are well known combination of an alga and a fungus where fungus has
(a) An epiphytic relationship with the alga (b) A parasitic relationship with the alga
(c) A symbiotic relationship with the alga (d) A saprophytic relationship with the alga
34. Which of the following is expected to have the highest value (gm/m2/yr) in a grassland ecosystem ?
(a) Tertiary production (b) Gross production (GP)
(c) Net production (NP) (d) Secondary production
35. Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) represents the following range of wave length.
(a) 400 – 700 nm (b) 500 – 600 nm (c) 450 – 950 nm (d) 340 – 450 nm
36. Blood analysis of a patient reveals an unusually high quantity of carboxyhaemoglobin content.
Which of the following conclusions is most likely to be correct ? The patient has been inhaling
polluted air containing unusually high content of
(a) Carbon monoxide (b) Carbon disulphide (c) Chloroform (d) Carbon dioxide
37. Common indicator organism of water pollution is

(a) Entamoeba histolytica (b) Lemna pancicostata
(c) Eichhomia crassipes (d) Escherichia coil
38. Which one of the following pairs is mirnaiched?

(a) Nuclear power – radioactive wastes (b) Solar energy – greenhouse effect
(c) Fossil fuel burning – release of CO2 (d) Biomass burning – release of CO2
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39. Identify the correctly matched pair –

(a) Kyoto Protocol – Climatic change
(b) Montreal Protocol – Global warming
(c) Basal Convention – Biodiversity Conservation
(d) Ramsar Convention – Ground water pollution
40. Which one of the following pairs mismatched ?

(a) Savanna – acacia trees (b) Coniferous forest – evergreen trees
(c) Tundra – permafrost (d) Prairies – epiphytes
41. Which of the following is not used for disinfection of drinking water ?
(a) Chlorine (b) Ozone (c) Chloramine (d) Phenyl
42. Which of the following is not true for a species ?

(a) Members of a species can interbreed
(b) Gene flow does not occur between the populations of a species
(c) Each species is reproductively isolated from every other species
(d) Variations occur among members of a species
43. One of the most important functions of botanical gardens is that

(a) they provide a beautiful area for recreation
(b) one can observe tropical plants there
(c) they allow ex-situ conservation of germ plasma
(d) they provide the natural habitat for wild life
44. The ‘blue baby’ syndrome results from

(a) excess of dissolved oxygen (b) excess of TDS (Total dissolved solids)
(c) Excess of chloride (d) methaemoglobinaemia
45. Montreal protocol which calls for appropriate action to protect the ozone layer from human activities
was passed in the year
(a) 1988 (b) 1985 (c) 1986 (d) 1987
46. Niche overlap indicates

(a) sharing of one or more resources between the two species
(b) multualism between two species
(c) active cooperation between two species
(d) two different parasites on the same host
47. Which one of the following is not used for construction of ecological pyramids ?
(a) Rate of energy flow (b) Fresh weight (c) Dry weight (d) Number of individuals
48. Which of the following pairs of an animal and a plant represents endangered organisms in India ?
(a) Cinchona and Leopard (b) Banyan and Black buck
(c) Bentinckia nicobarica and Red panda (d) Tamarind and Rhesus monkey
49. Photochemical smog pollution does not contain

(a) Carbon dioxide (b) PAN (peroxy acyl nitrate)
(c) Ozone (d) Nitrogen dioxide
50. Which one of the following is not included under in-situ conservation?
(a) Biosphere reserve (b) National park (c) Sanctuary (d) Botanical garden
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51. Which of the following is considered a hot-spot of biodiversity in India ?

(a) Eastern Ghats (b) Aravalli Hills (c) Western Ghats (d) Indo-Gangetic Plain
52. Two plants can be conclusively said to belong to the same species if they
(a) Have same number of chromosomes
(b) Can reproduce freely with each other and form seeds
(c) Have more than 90 percent similar genes
(d) Look similar and possess identical secondary metabolites
53. Identify the odd combination of the habitat and the particular animal concerned
(a) Rann of Kutch – Wild Ass (b) Dachigam National – Snow Leopard Park
(c) Sunderbans – Bengal Tiger (d) Periyar – Elephant
54. Which one of the following ecosystem types has the highest annual net primary productivity ?
(a) Temperate deciduous forest (b) Tropical rain forest
(c) Tropical deciduous forest (d) Temperate evergreen forest
55. A high density of elephant population in an area can result in

(a) Predation on one another (b) Mutualism
(c) Intra specific competition (d) Inter specific competition
56. Geometric representation of age structure is a characteristic of

(a) Ecosystem (b) Biotic community (c) Population (d) Landscape
57. Which one of the following pairs of organisms are exotic species introduced in India ?
(a) Nile perch, Flcus religiosa (b) Flcus religiosa, Lantana camara
(c) Lantana camara, Water hyacinth (d) Water hyacinth, prosopis cinereria
58. Which one of the following is not observed in biodiversity hotspots?

(a) Lesser inter-specific competition (b) Species richness
(c) Endemism (d) Accelerated species loss
59. Which one of the following is the correct percentage of the two (out of the total of 4) green house
gases that contribute to the total global warming ?
(a) N2O 6%, CO2 86% (b) Methane 20%, N2O 18%
(c) CFCs 14%, Methane 20% (d) CO2 40%, CFCs 30%
60. A lake near a village suffered heavy mortality of fishes within a few days. Consider the following
reasons for this ?
(i) Lots of urea and phosphate fertilizer were used in the crops in the vicinity
(ii) The area was sprayed with DDT by aircraft
(iii)The lake water turned green and stinky
(iv) Phytoplankton populations in the lake declined initially thereby greatly reducing photosynthesis.
Which two of the above were the main cause of fish mortality in the lake ?
(a) i, iii (b) i, ii (c) ii, iii (d) iii, ii
61. Consider the following statements concerning food chains

(i) Removal of 80% tigers from an area resulted in greatly increased growth of vegetation
(ii) Removal of most of the carnivores resulted in an increased population of deers
(iii)The length of food chains is generally limited to 3-4 trophic levels due to energy loss.
(iv) The length of food chains may very from 2 to 8 trophic levels
IJSO BIOLOGY
Which two of the above statements are correct >

(a) i, iv (b) i, ii (c) ii, iii (d) iii, iv
62. Reduction in vascular tissue, mechanical tissue and cuticle is characteristic of

(a) Hydrophytes (b) Xerophytes (c) Mesophytes (d) Epiphytes
63. Which one of the following types of organisms occupy more than one trophic level in a pond
ecosystem?
(a) Frog (b) Phytoplankton (c) Fish (d) Zooplankton
64. Montreal Protocol aims at

(a) Control of CO2 emission (b) Reduction of ozone depleting substances
(c) Biodiversity conservation (d) Control of water pollution
65. Chipko movement was launched for the protection of

(a) Wet lands (b) Grasslands (c) Forests (d) Livestock
66. DDT residues are rapidly passed through food chain causing biomagnification because DDT is
(a) Water soluble (b) Lipid soluble
(c) Moderately toxic (d) Non-toxic t aquatic animals
67. Tiger is not a resident in which one of the following national park ?
(a) Jim Corbett (b) Ranthambhor (c) Sunderbans (d) Gir
68. The organisms inhabiting a common environment belongs to the same

(a) Species (b) Genus (c) Population (d) Community
69. Minerals, metals and fossil fuels are which type of resources of energy ?
(a) Renewable (b) Non-renewable (c) Biodegradable (d) Degradable
70. Ethology is the study of

(a) Behaviour of animals (b) Past life of organism
(c) Disease causing pathogens (d) None of these
71. Pond is an example of _________ ecosystem.

(a) Artificial (b) Natural (c) Forest (d) Grass land
72. Thermal pollution is caused by

(a) Power plants (b) Industries (c) Automobiles (d) All the above
73. Humus is
(a) Dead and decayed organic matter (b) Living matter
(c) Fertilizers (d) Living animal/plants/microbes
74. Which of the following is not a green house gas ?

(a) CH4 (b) N2O (c) H2O (d) CO2
75. High BOD indicates

(a) Highly polluted water (b) Less pollution in water
(c) Less sewage (d) Less microorganism
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76. Increasing concentration of accumulated pollutant along food chain is

(a) Biomagnification (b) Eutrophication (c) Nutrient cycling (d) None of these
77. The pyramid of energy in a forest ecosystem is

(a) Always upright (b) Always inverted
(c) Both upright an dinverted (d) None of the above
78. The importance of ecosystem is

(a) Flow of energy (b) Cycling of materials (c) Both of the above (d) None of the above
79. The correct path of energy flow in an ecosystem is

(a) Producers  Carnivores  Herbivores  Decomposers
(b) Producers  Herbivores  Carnivores  Decomposers
(c) Herbivores  Carnivores  Producers  Decomposers
(d) Herbivores  Producers  Carnivores  Decomposers
80. Nepenthes is a
(a) Primary producer (b) Consumer
(c) Both primary producer and consumer (d) None of these
81. Spraying of DDT produces pollution of

(a) Air only (b) Air and soil only (c) Air, soil and water (d) Air and water only
82. Biological equilibrium is found among the

(a) Producers and consumers (b) Producers and decomposers
(c) Producers, consumers and decomposers (d) Producers and light
83. The pyramid of number in a grassland ecosystem is

(a) Linear (b) Upright (c) Irregular (d) Inverted
84. Sewage water is purified for recycling by the action of

(a) Light (b) Micro-organisms (c) Aquatic plants (d) Fishes
85. Which one is not dangerous ?

(a) Biopollutants (b) Ozone layer (c) Nuclear blast (d) Deforestation
86. Correct percentage of CO2 in atmosphere is

(a) 0.03% (b) 0.3% (c) 1% (d) 1.1%
87. 5th June is

(a) World Environment Day (b) World AIDS Day
(c) World Women’s Day (d) Worlds Polio Day
88. Which of the following bacteria has potential for nitrogen fixation?
(a) Nitrosomonas (b) Nitrobacter (c) Nitrosococcus (d) Rhizobium
89. Which of the following set is green house gases ?

(a) CFC, CH4, CO2, N2O (b) CO2, CH4, N2, O2
(c) CO2, CH4, N2, O3 (d) CO2, CFC, N2, O2
90. Decomposers are
(a) Autotrophs (b) Heterotrophs (c) Organotrophs (d) Autoheterotrophs
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91. Acid rain is due to the pollution by

(a) CO2 (b) CO2 and NO2 (c) Dust particles (d) Automobiles
92. During food chain the maximum energy is stored in

(a) Producers (b) Decomposers (c) Herbivores (d) Carnivores
93. Insectivorous plants usually survive in

(a) Water rich soil (b) N2 deficient soil (c) N2 rich soil (d) Sugar deficient medium
94. In the phosphorus cycle, weathering makes phosphate available first to

(a) Decomposers (b) Consumers (c) Producers (d) All the above
95. In a food chain, the total amount of living material is depicted by

(a) Pyramid of biomass (b) Pyramid of energy (c) Pyramid of number (d) Trophic level
96. Nitrates are converted to nitrogen by

(a) Nitrogen fixing bacteria (b) Ammonification bacteria
(c) Denitrifying bacteria (d) Nitrifying bacteria
97. Most hazardous metal pollutant of automobile exhaust is

(a) Cadmium (b) Lead (c) Mercury (d) Copper
98. In pond ecosystem, diatoms represent

(a) Producers (b) Primary consumers
(c) Secondary consumers (d) Tertiary consumers
99. Group of two or more than two plants species is called as
(a) Plant community (b) Animal ecosystem (c) Plant ecosystem (d) Ecological niche
100. Air quality indicator is

(a) Lichen (b) Moss (c) Algae (d) None of these
101. Pyramids of biomass in pond ecosystem is

(a) Inverted (b) Upright (c) Linear (d) Irregular
102. Blood haemoglobin has high affinity for

(a) CO2 (b) CO (c) O2 (d) H
103. Plants developing in dry condition are

(a) Xerophytes (b) Mesophytes (c) Lithophytes (d) Hydrophytes
104. Minamata disease caused due to water pollution is due to

(a) lead poisoning (b) arsenic chloride poisoning
(c) mercuric poisoning (d) ammonia pollution
105. Pneumatophores are characteristic feature of

(a) Hydrilla (b) Rhizophora (c) Typha (d) None of these
106. Phytoplanktons are an important biotic component of

(a) Grassland ecosystem (b) Pond ecosystem
(c) Forest ecosystem (d) None of these
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107. Which ecological pyramid can never occur in an inverted form ?

(a) Pyramid of number (b) Pyramid of biomass
(c) Pyramid of energy (d) Pyramid of species richness
108. Peacock eats a snake and snake eats frog and frog eats insect while insect eats green plant, then
position of peacock is
(a) Primary producer (b) Secondary producer
(c) Decomposer (d) Top at the apex of food pyramid
109. Taj Mahal marble is affected by

(a) SO2 (b) O2 (c) O3 (d) NO2
110. Which one of the following is well developed in hydrophytes ?

(a) Aerenchyma (b) Collenchyma (c) Stomata (d) Root system
111. Energy enters in a food chain through

(a) producers (b) primary consumers
(c) secondary consumers (d) tertilary consumers
QUESTIONS ASKED IN PREVIOUS EXAMS
112. A pond comprises of fishes, algae, water beetles and copepods. On the bank of this pond is a tree that
is home to many birds. Mark the appropriate food chain in the pond.
(a) Tree  beetles  copepods  fishes  birds
(b) Tree  copepods  beetles  copepods  birds
(c) Algae  bird  copepods  beetles  fishes
(d) Algae  copepods  beetles  fishes  birds
113. When the number of two species of aquatic organisms was monitored over time, the following graph
was obtained. Which of the following statements is most likely to be true ?
(a) One organism is the food of the other

(b) Each organism needs the other type for its survival
(c) Organism X needs Y for multiplication but Y does not need X
(d) One organism is parasitic on the other species
114. Some epiphytes are also referred to as “space parasites” because they
(a) compete with the species on which they are growing for food
(b) occupy large land space
(c) take food and support from the plant on which they are growing
(d) may choke the species supporting them by their luxuriant growth
115. Which of the following is an example of secondary succession ?

(a) Vegetation developing on a bare rock (b) Vegetation developing following forest fire
(c) Fungus growing on a banana peel (d) conversion of pond in a crop field by humans
IJSO BIOLOGY
116. Which of the following statements about food chains is False ?

(a) A single organism can feed at different trophic levels
(b) The lower the trophic level at which the organism feeds, the more energy is available
(c) All organisms that are not producers are consumers
(d) Detritivores feed organisms of all trophic levels except those at the producer level
117. Consider the following ecological pyramids

(i) Pyramid of numbers (ii) Pyramid of biomass (iii) Pyramid of energy
The one(s) which is /are always upright are
(a) I only (b) II and III only (c) III only (d) I and II only
118. A considerable increase in plant life in the lake was noticed after the farming activity intensified. The
most likely reason for this could be
(a) Chemical fertilizers leached into the lake from the field
(b) Pesticides leached into the lake from the field
(c) Organic manure leached into the lake from the field
(d) Smoke particle from the industry got settled in moist surrounding of the lake
119. Consider the following food chain in the same lake. Aquatic plant  Small fish  Big fish  Birds.
Which of the above organism is likely to show minimum amount of pesticide concentration in them
after considerable time ?
(a) Aquatic plants (b) Small fish (c) Big fish (d) Birds
120. An expert agriculturist suggests to the farmer to minimize the use of chemical fertilizers and instead
use biofertilizers as they have many advantages over chemical fertilizers. Which of the following is
not true to biofertilizers?
(a) They are economical (b) They help is reducing pollution in the lake
(c) They are renewable (d) They require large setup for their production
Answer Key :
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (c) 16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (d) 20. (a)
21. (a) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (a) 25. (a) 26. (d) 27. (a) 28. (c) 29. (c) 30. (a)
31. (a) 32. (d) 33. (c) 34. (b) 35. (a) 36. (a) 37. (d) 38. (b) 39. (a) 40. (d)
41. (d) 42. (b) 43. (c) 44. (d) 45. (d) 46. (a) 47. (b) 48. (c) 49. (a) 50. (d)
51. (c) 52. (b) 53. (b) 54. (b) 55. (c) 56. (c) 57. (c) 58. (a) 59. (c) 60. (a)
61. (c) 62. (a) 63. (c) 64. (b) 65. (c) 66. (b) 67. (d) 68. (c) 69. (b) 70. (a)
71. (b) 72. (d) 73. (a) 74. (c) 75. (a) 76. (a) 77. (a) 78. (c) 79. (b) 80. (c)
81. (c) 82. (c) 83. (b) 84. (b) 85. (b) 86. (a) 87. (a) 88. (d) 89. (a) 90. (b)
91. (b) 92. (a) 93. (b) 94. (c) 95. (a) 96. (c) 97. (b) 98. (a) 99. (a) 100. (a)
101. (a) 102. (b) 103. (a) 104. (c) 105. (b) 106. (b) 107. (c) 108. (d) 109. (a) 110. (a)
111. (a) 112. (d) 113. (a) 114. (d) 115. (b) 116. (d) 117. (c) 118. (b) 119. (a) 120. (d)
IJSO BIOLOGY
PART B
1. Bloom occurs in
(a) Oligotrophic lake (b) Eutrophic lake
(c) Fast flowering river (d) Rain water
2. Environmental Planning organization is

(a) CSIR (b) CEPHERI (c) ICAR (d) NEERI
3. Which is normally not an air pollutant?

(a) CO (b) SO 2 (c) Hydrocarbons (d) CO2
4. Acidic rains are due to

(a) O3 (b) SO2  NO2 (c) CO (d) CO2
5. What is the found in photochemical smog?

(a) CO2 (b) NO2 (c) Ozone (d) 2 and 3 both
6. Liches in a habitat indicates

(a) Zinc in soil (b) Copper in soil
(c) Carbon monoxide in air (d) Lack of air pollution
7. Green house effect is mainly due to-

(a) SO 2 (b) CO2 (c) CO (d) O2
8. Which pollutant exhibits biomagnifications in food chain?

(a) DDT (b) SO 2 (c) CO (d) None of these
9. Which will not cause any atmospheric pollution?

(a) Hydrogen (b) Sulphur (c) Carbon dioxide (d) Carbon monoxide
10. Which of the following is the main factor of water pollution?

(a) Smoke (b) Industrial waste (c) detergent (d) Ammonia
11. Main air pollutant among the following is-

(a) CO (b) CO2 (c) N 2 (d) Sulphur
12. Which is more important for water pollution?

(a) Sound (b) SO 2 (c) Salts of arsenic (d) Sewage
13. Which of the following atmospheric pollutants is not produced by the exhaust of motor vehicle in
Delhi?
(a) SO 2 (b)Hydrocarbon gases (c) Fly ash (d) CO
14. Pollution can be controlled by

(a) Sewage treatment (b) Checking atomic blasts
(c) Manufacturing electrically operated vehicles (d) All the above
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15. If water pollution continues at its present rate, it will eventually

(a) Stop water cycle
(b) Prevent precipitation
(c) Make oxygen molecules unavailable to water plants
(d) Make nitrate molecules unavailable to water plants
16. Exposure of plants to high fluoride concentration results in necrosis or chlorosis characteristically in
(a) Poriole but not in lamina (b) Only mid rib in lamina
(c) Leaf tip and leaf margins (d) Stem tips only
17. In cities like Bombay and Calcutta the major air pollutants are
(a) Ozone
(b) Carbon monoxide and oxides of Sulphur
(c) Hydrocarbons
(d) Algal spores and marsh gas
18. Recent reports of acid rains in industrial cities are due to the effect of atmospheric pollution by-
(a) Excessive release of NO2 and SO 2 by burning of fossil fuels
(b) Excessive release of NH3 by industrial plants and coal gas
(c) Excessive release of NH3 by industrial plants
(d) Excessive release of CO in atmosphere by incomplete combustion of coke, characoal and other
carbonaceous fuels in scarcity of oxygen
19. Which is t’ e greatest source of air pollutant these days?

(a) Factories (b) Motor vehicles
(c) Domestic appliances (d) Animals
20. Removal of the soil by the action of wind and water is known as
(a) Erosion (b) Fossilization (c) Leaching (d) Calcification
21. The major source of increase in BOD in the river Ganga is-
(a) Leaf litter (b) Fishes (c) Human waste (d) Aquatic plants
22. If a lake is contaminated with DDT, its highest concentration would be found in
(a) Primary consumer (b) Secondary consumer
(c) Tertian consumer (d) None of these
23. The most harmful air pollutant produced by automobiles is-

(a) HNO2 (b) NO (c) SO 2 (d) CO
24. Sewage water can be purified by

(a) Aquatic plants (b) Micro organisms (c) Penicillin (d) Fishes
25. Major pollutant in Jet plane emission is

(a) SO 2 (b) CFC (c) CO (d) CCl4
26. It is said that Tajmahal may be destroyed due to

(a) Flood in Yamuna river
(b) Air pollutants released from oil refinery of Mathura
(c) Decomposition of marble as a result of high temperature
IJSO BIOLOGY
(d) All the above
27. Melting of the ice caps might result from

(a) Depletion of ozone layes (b) Excess CFC in atmosphere
(c) Excess CO2 in the atmosphere (d) Excess water rain
28. Cotton dust is an important pollutant in

(a) Delhi (b) Almedabad (c) Madras (d) Calcutta
29. Some effects of SO 2 and its transformation products on plant include

(a) Chlorophyll destruction (b) Plasmolysis
(c) Golgi body destruction (d) None of these
30. All of the following contribute to pollution except

(a) Thermal power plant (b) Automobiles
(c) Nuclear power plant (d) Hydroelectric power project
31. The molecular action of ultraviolet light is mainly reflected through

(a) Destruction of hydrogen bonds in DNA
(b) Photodynamic action
(c) Formation of pyrimidine
(d) Formation of sticky metaphase
32. Radiation is health hazard because it causes

(a) Pneumonia (b) Leukaemia (c) Hemophilia (d) Anaemia
33. What is B.O.D.?

(a) The amount of O2 utilized by organisms in water
(b) The amount of O2 utilized by micro organisms for decomposition.
(c) The total amount of O2 present in water
(d) All of the above
34. Ozone layer of upper atmosphere is being destroyed by:

(a) Sulphur dioxide (b) Carbon dioxide (c) Chlorofluocarbon (d) Smog
35. Most hazardous metal pollutant of automobile exhaust is:
(a) Hg (b) Cd (c) Pb (d) Cu
36. B.O. D. is connected with

(a) Organic matter (b) Microbes (c) Both (d) None of these
37. Soil erosion is greater when-

(a) No rain occurs (b) Winds do not blow
(c) The rainfall is evenly disturbed (d) The rainfall is received in heavy down pour
38. Soil erosion can be prevented by-

(a) Overgrazing (b) Removal of vegetation
(c) Afforestation of vegetation (d) Increasing bird population
39. Soil conservation is the process where-

(a) Soil as aerated (b) Soil erosion is allowed
(c) Soil is protected against loss (d) Sterile soil is converted into fertile soil
IJSO BIOLOGY
40. Soil erosion can be prevented by

(a) Afforestation (b) Terrace farming (c) Contour farming (d) All of the above
41. Terracing is an effective method of soil conservation in:

(a) Desert areas (b) Hilly areas (c) Plain areas (d) None
42. Soil fertility can be increased without addition of fertilisers by

(a) Strip ropping (b) Crop rotation (c) Terracing (d) Floods
43. Process of soil conservation involves

(a) Additon of fertilisers (b) Aeration of soil
(c) Protection of soil against loss (d) Soil erosion
44. Which of the following is the non conventional source of energy?

(a) Coal (b) Petroleum
(c) Electricity from nuclear power plants (d) Solar radiations
45. Petroleum resource is

(a) Renewable (b) Non renewable
(c) Synthetic & biodegradable (d) Infinite & unconventional
Answer key
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (c) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (b) 20. (a)
21. (c) 22. (c) 23. (d) 24. (b) 25. (b) 26. (b) 27. (c) 28. (b) 29. (a) 30. (d)
31. (a) 32. (b) 33. (b) 34. (c) 35. (c) 36. (c) 37. (d) 38. (c) 39. (c) 40. (d)
41. (b) 42. (b) 43. (c) 44. (d) 45. (b)
IJSO BIOLOGY
4. Diversity of Living Organisms
Introduction :
Zoology have named more than 1.5 million species of animals. Animals with common ancestry are grouped most
closely in our taxonomic classification.
(Gr. taxis-arrangement ; nomos-law).Taxonomy is the functional branch of biology dealing with the
identification classification and nomenclature of living organisms is called taxonomy. Carolus Linnaeus
(1707-1778) is known as "Father of taxonomy".
It is the framework by which taxonomic groups are arranged in definite order from higher to lower
categories.
 The hierarchial order of classifying organisms is :
Kingdom Phylum/Division Class Order  Family Genus Species
S.NO. Categories Features

1. Species Agroup of organisms capable of interbreeding to produce offspring.
2. Genus It is a group of closely related species with common ancestory.
3. Family A number of genera having several common characters form of
family.
4. Order A number of families having common characters are placed in
Order.
5. Class Similar orders are place together in a class.
6. Phylum(or Division) Many classes with some common characters are included in
Phylum.
7. Kingdom It is the highest category of taxonomic studies.All animals are
included in kingdom Animalia and alt plants are included in
kingdom Plants are included in kingdom Plantae.
Taxon : it refers to any rank or category in the hierachial order of

classification e.g. Kingdom, phyium etc., The highest taxon it kingdom
while the lowest taxon is species. Species are the basic unit of
classification.
Classification :
Classification is the arrangement of organisms into sets or groups according to the similarities and
dissimilarities
present between them.
Why Classification ?
 It establishes hierarchy of groups of organisms on the basis of their common features.
 It makes the systematic study easier.
 It is essential to understand the interrelationship amongst different groups of organisms.
 It serves as a base for the development of other biological sciences as well as different fields of applied
biology like public health, environment eta,.
IJSO BIOLOGY
SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION :
(I) Artificial system : Biological classification in early times were based upon single chosen character
suiting the convenience of taxonomist. e.g. On the basis of habitat and ability to fly.
(II) Natural system : It was based on morphological and anatomical similarities and differences.
(III) Phylogenetic system : It was based on evolutionary sequence as well as genetic relationship amongst
the organisms.Charles Darwin showed that living organisms evolved by the process of descent with
modifications
KINGDOM SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION

(I) Two kingdom system : it was given by Carolus Linnaeus in 1758. Organisms were divided into Plant
Kingdom and Animal Kingdom. Fungi, Bacteria and Euglena could not find an appropriate position.
(II) Three kingdom system : it was given by Earnst Haeckel. In this Kingdom Protista was also included
along with plant kingdom and animal kingdom.
(III) Four kingdom system: it was given by Copeland. Kingdom Monera was also included in this system
of classification.
(IV) Five kingdom system: it was given by Robert Whittaker. According to him organisms were divided into
five kingdoms, on the following basis of :
• Complexity of structure • Mode of nutrition • Level of organization
1. Kingdom Monera : Unicellular, prokaryotic, microscopic, most ancient, can live in deep oceans, hot
springs, deserts, high salt concentrations etc. They include bacteria, filamentous and photosynthetic
blue green algae (Cyanobacteria) etc.
2. Kingdom Protista : Unicellular, colonial, eukaryotic. They include photosynthetic algae, decomposers
(slime molds) and protozoa (predators) etc.
3. Kingdom Fungi : Unicellular or multicellular eukaryotic organisms, they are heterotrophic, parasitic
or saprotrophic.
4. Kingdom Plantae: They are multicellular, eukaryotic, autotrophic (photosynthetic), some are
heterotrophic and parasitic.
 They include photosynthetic algae, green plants etc.
5. Kingdom Animalia : Multicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic.
 Carl Woese (1977) modified the five kingdom classification by dividing the Monera into
Archaebacteria (or Archaea ) and Eubacteria (or Bacteria).This is known as six kingdom
classification.
Nomenclature :
It is the system of naming an individual.
 Nomenclature is done on the basis of a set of rules stated in the ICN i.e. International Code of
Nomenclature.
(i) Binomial nomenclature :

It is a system of naming the organisms in such a way that each of their names contain two components,
first is genus and the second one is species.
IJSO BIOLOGY
e.g. Scientific name of human is Homo sapiens. Scientific name of crow is Corvus splendens. Homo
and Corvus are the genus while sapiens and splendens are the names of species.
This system was introduced by Carolus Linnaeus(Karl van Linne) in his book Systema Naturae who is
also called Father of Taxonomy.
Certain convections are followed while writing the scientific names :

 The name of the genus begins with a capital letter.
 The name of the species begins with a small letter.
 When printed, the scientific name is given in italics.
 When written by hand , the genus name and the species name have to be underlined separately.
PLANT CLASSIFICATION :
 Plant kingdom was divided in two sub kingdoms by Eichler.
Sub kingdom Cryptogamae : (Cryptos = hidden gamous m marriage)

 These are also called as lower plants, flowerless or seedless plants.
 Their reproductive organs are hidden
Division Thallophyta :
 Thallus : Undifferentiated plant body i.e. absence of root, stem & leaves.
 Their is no vascular system.
 Reproductive organs are single - celled and there is no embryo formation after fertilization
In Thallophytes, asexual reproduction generally take place by spores.

Sex organs are simple single-celled, (the male sex organs are called as
antheridia and female sex organ called oogonia) and their is no
embryo formation after fertilization.
Three classes of thallophyta are :

(I) Class Algae :
Characters :
 These are aquatic or terrestrial, fresh water or marine. Autotrophic, photosynthetic containing various
pigments like chlorophyll, carotenoids, xanthophylls etc.
 Unicellular, colonial, filamentous & multicellular.
IJSO BIOLOGY
 Cell wall of cellulose and stored food is starch.

 e.g. Blue green algae (Nostoc),Anabaena Green algae (Ulothrix, Chara, Cladophora, Ulva, Spirogyra)
Brown algae, Red algae etc.
Spirogyra
CLASS FUNGI :
Characters :
 Earlier, they were placed in kingdom plantae but Whittaker placed fungi in a seprate kingdom.
 They lack chlorophyll but have cell wall of chitin (fungus cellulose) and reserve food material consists
of glycogen.
 These are heterotrophic. They can be parasitic or saprotrophic.
 Their body is filamentous called as mycelium.
 e.g. Moulds (Rhizopus), Yeasts (Saccharomyces), Mushroom, (Agaricus), Aspergillus, Penicillium
Fungi lack chlorophyll and is heterotropic but still considered as plant

because of the presence of cell wall and absence of centriole.
LICHEN
Characters :
 It is a symbiotic relationship between algae and fungi.
 Algal part is phycobiont and fungal part is mycobiont.
 They grow on rocks, tree trunks, grounds etc.
 e.g. Parmellia, Alectoria etc.
Lichen
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(ii) Division Bryophyta :

Characters :
 Bryophytes are also known as amphibians of plant kingdom.
 These are the simplest and the most primitive land plant.
 They have flat plant body which differentiate into stem, leaf and root like structure (Rhizoids).
 Main plant body is attached to substratum by means of rhizoids.
 There is no specialized tissue for the conduction of water and other substances from one part of the
plant body to another.
Bryophytes lie in water (aquatic) and land (terrestrial) but they

require water for fertilization, so they are
Liverwort
 Sex organs are jacketed & multicellular.
 Fertilization produces embryo.
 They show heteromorphic type of alternation in generation.
 e.g. Liverworts (Riccia, Marchantia), hornworts (Anthoceros) and mosses (Funaria).
DIVISION PTERIDOPHYTA :
Characters :
 They are seedless vascular plants, primitive tracheophytes or vascular cryptogams.
 Plant body is differentiated into true stem, leaves & roots. they are the most evolved cryptogams
 Vascular tissues are present.
 Fruits are absent
Equisetum (Horsetail)
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BRYOPHYTA AND PTERIDOPHYTA

S.No. Bryophyta Pteridophyta
1. True stem and true leaves are always True stem and true leaves are
absent. present
2. Fixation is carried out by rhizoids. Fixation is carried out by roots.
3. Bryophytes are nonvascular in nature. Pteridophytes are vascular plants.
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e.g. Ferns (Dryopteris, Pteris), Club moss (Lycopodium), Horsetail (Equisetum),Marsilea.
Sub Kingdom : Phanerogamae : (Phaneros = visible : gamous = marriage.)

This is the highest group of plants which includes flowering and seed bearing plants. They reproduce
sexually by means of seeds.
The flowering plants are of two types :
(i) Gymnosperms (ii) Angiosperms
Cycas
(I) DIVISION GYMNOSPERMAE :
Characters :
 Gymno-means naked and sperma- seed.
 Seeds are not enclosed in fruits. These are naked seeded.
 They have well developed vascular system but xylem lacks vessels and phloem lacks companion cells.
 They occupy an intermediate position between the pteridophytes and the angiosperms.
 Plants are commonly tall trees or shrubs.
 The flowers are represented by unisexual cones, often both cones are present on the same plant.
 e.g. Cycas, Pinus (commonly known as pine)
(II) DIVISION : ANGIOSPERMAE :

Characters :
 Angio means covered & sperma means seed.These are seed bearing plants.
 These are represented by trees, herbs, shrubs.
 Body well differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
 They have highly developed vascular system. Seeds remain enclosed in ovary.Plant embryos in seeds
have structures called cotyledons. cotyledones are called "seed leaves".
 It is divided into two classes on the basis of number of cotyledons.
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(I) CLASS : DICOTYLEDONAE :

 Their seeds have 2 cotyledons in the embryo.
 Leaves are dorsiventral and show reticulate venation.
 Tap root is present, e.g. Neem, Peepal, Mango, Pea, Mustard.
Monocot plant (maize)
(II) CLASS : MONOCOTYLEDONAE :

 Their seeds have one cotyledon in embryo.
 Leaves are isobilateral with parallel venation. • Fibrous root system is present, e.g. Wheat, Maize,
Onion.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ALGAE AND FUNGI

S.No. Algae Fungi
1. Green, blue green, red brown Colourless.
coloured.
2. Contain chlorophyll and other Chlorophyll is absent.
pigments.
3. Autotrophic. Heterotrophic.
4. Body made up of true parenchyma. Pseudo-parenchyma (a false tissue)
present.
5. A cell-wall of true cellulose is present. Cell wall contains chitin, cellulose, pectose
etc.
6. Reserve food is starch. Reserve food is glycogen and oil.
7. Aquatic. Found at damp and moist places.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BRYOPHYTES AND PTERIDOPHYTES.

S.No. Character Bryophytes Petridophytes
1. Size Bryophytes are very small in Pteridophytes are herbaceous.
size.
2. Vascular They do not contain vascular They bear the vascular tissues.
tissue tissue(xylem and phloem)
3. Differentiation They are not divided into roots, Plant body is differentiated into
stem and leaves. roots, stem and leaves.
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GYMNOSPERMS AND ANGIOSPERM

S.No. Character Gymnosperms Angiosperms
1. Nature of Naked as no fruit formation Enclosed inside the fruit.
seeds
2. Reproductive Sporophylls form cones. Flowers.
organs
3. Xylem Only tracheids but no vessel. Vessels present.
4. Phloem No companion cell. Companion cell present.
5. Ovules Not enclosed in ovary. Enclosed in ovary.
6. Examples Cycas and Pinus. Monocots and Dicots.
SOME DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF DICOTS AND MONOCOTS.
S.No. Plant organ Dicots Monocots.
1. Root Tap, Adventitious or both. Only adventitious.
2. Stem Vascular bundles arranged in Vascular bundles scattered
ring with central pith.
3. Leaves Mostiywith reticulate venation Usually parallel venation.
4. Cotyledons Two One
5. Floral parts Five or multiple of 5, rarely4 Three or mulitiple of 3, rarely4,
never 5.
C. ANIMAL KINGDOM
(a) Basis of Classification :
 Organization and differentiation of cells to form tissues and organs.
 Body symmetry.
 Formation of body cavities and blood vascular system.
 Features of embryonic development.
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1. Level of Organisation in living beings : It is structural differentiation of animal body.
 Cellular level of Organisation : Tissues do not differentiate. Different types of cells are present, e.g.,
porifera (sponges).
 Tissue Level of Organisation : Multicellular body cells organised into tissues but organs are absent
e.g., Coelenterata.
 Organ Level of Organisation : Cells are organised into tissues and tissues into organ but organ
systems are absent, e.g., Platyhelminthes.
 Organ System Level of Organisation: Cells are organised into tissues, tissues into organs and organ
into organ systems e.g., Nematoda and higher animals.
2. Body Symmetry : It is similarity in arrangement of parts. Absence of repetition or similarity is called

asymmetry. Symmetry is of two types, radial and bilateral.
 Radial Symmetry : The body is cylindrical or discoid when similar parts occur all around the central
axis. Any vertical plane passing through, the central axis will divide the body into two equal halves,
e.g., many sponge, coelenterates and echinodermates. Head is generally absent.
(II) Bilateral Symmetry : The body has a head. Organs and limbs are paired. They are arranged laterally.
Body is divisible into two equal halves by only one plane (mid-sagittal plane). Bilateral symmetry is
found in Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda and chordata.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BILATERAL AND RADIAL SYMMETRY

S.No. BILATERAL SYMMETRY RADIAL SYMMETRY
1. Limbs and organs are paired. Limbs and organs occur all around the
central axis.
2. Cephalization is present. Cephalization is absent.
3. The body can be divided into two equal The body can be divided into two equal
halves by only one plane called mid- halves by any vertical plane passing
sagittal plane. through the central axis.
4. Examples. Fish, Frog, Earthworm, Examples. Hydra, Starfish.
Human.
Radial symmetry Bilateral symmetry

Asymmetry
Diagrams showing body symmetry A-Asymmetry in Sponges ; B-Radial symmetry in Starfish : C-Bilateral
symmetry in Spider:
Cephalization : It is development of head in the anterior part of the animal body.
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Germ or Germinal Layers :

They are the germinal layers that differentiate in the embryo. All tissues and organs of the animal body
develop from them.
Germinal layers can be two or three in number. On this basis, the animals are of two types, Diploblastic and
Triploblastic.
 Diploblastic Animals : Animals having two germinal layers, outer ectoderm and inner endoderm.
Mesoderm is absent e.g. Porifera, Coelenterata.
 Triploblastic Animals : Animals having three germinal layers-outer ectoderm, middle mesoderm and
inner endoderm, e.g., Platyhelminthes to Chordata.
Diploblastic and triploblastic bodies have two and three cell layers respectively.
 Coelom (Body Cavity) : It is mesoderm lined fluid filled space that occurs between alimentary canal
and body wall which provides shock proof environment to various body organs. Depending upon the
absence or presence of coelom animals are of three types-acoelomate, pseudocoelomate and
eucoelomates.
(I) Acoelomate : Coelom is absent e.g., Porifera, Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes.ln Platyhelminthes a
mesoderm is present but it does not form cavity.
(II) Pseudocoelomate : A cavity called pseudocoelom is present which is not lined by mesoderm. It is
generally endodermal in origin. Mesoderm occurs but forms small separate pouches e.g.. Nematoda.
(III) Coelomate or Eucoelomate : A true coelom lined by mesoderm is present. On the basis of origin, true
coelom is of two types, schizocoelom and enterocoelom. Pseudocoelom
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Diagrammatic sectional view of : (A) Coelomate (B) Pseudocoelomate (C) Acoelomate

Flow Chart : Classification of Animals ANIMALS
(A) NON CHORDATES :
(i) Phylum Protozoa :
Characters :
 They are unicellular, eukaryotes.
 These are the simplest & the most primitive animals. Their body organization is of "Protoplasmic
Level".
 They are of different shapes i.e. irregular, elongated or rounded.
 They have different types of locomotory organs like cilia, flagella, pseudopodia (false feet) etc.
 Nutrition is of different types like holozoic, halophytic, mixotrophic.
 Digestion is intracellular & it takes place in food vacuole.
 Excretion & respiration occurs through general body surface by the process of simple diffusion.
 Reproduction may be sexual or asexual.
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 e.g., Amoeba, Entamoeba, Plasmodium, Euglena, Paramoecium.
Amoeba & Euglena

(ii) Phylum Porifera :
Characters :
 These are pore bearing organisms i.e. with porous body.
 Also called as sponges.

 Aquatic, mostly marine habitats.
 These are sessile and sedentary (attached to substratum) asymmetric or with radial symmetry.
 Sponges are diploblastic.
 Occur in different shapes i.e. vase-like, rounded, sac like etc.
 Body perforated by numerous pores called ostia which opens into a canal system having canals and
chambers lined with choanocytes and have a large sized water outlet called oscula.
 Their cavity is called spongocoel.
 Endoskeleton is made of needle like spicules made of calcium carbonate and silica or spongin.
 Hermaphrodite, asexual reproduction by budding.
 e.g., Sycon, Spongilla, Eup/ectella. (Venus flower basket)
(iii) Phylum - Coelenterata or Cnidaria :
Characters :
 These are sac like structures. They have a body cavity called gastrovascular cavity Or coelenteron.
 It has single opening for ingestion and egestion both. Aquatic, mostly marine. Multicellular,
diploblastic, radially symmetrical.
 They have special structures called tentacles, cnidoblast or nematocyst cells. They are specialized for
stinging. They paralyse the prey by releasing poison. Asexual reproduction by budding and sexual
reproduction by gametes.
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 Some of them have exoskeleton of CaCO3.They are called Corals, they live in colonies and when they
die they form coral reefs, or islands. e.g. Hydra, Jelly fish, Physalia , Sea-anemone etc.
 Cnidoblast - Helps in paralysing the prey by injecting poison.

e.g. Hydra : Fresh water coelenterate. - Physalia :Portugese
man of war
 Aurelia - Jelly fish.
 Millepora - Coral.
(iv) Phylum Ctenophora :
Characters :
 Body is transparent with radial symmetry.
 They possess comb plates that are ciliated and 8 in number. These help in locomotion. They also
possess tentacles.
 Marine, solitary and free swimming. e.g. Cestum.
(v) Phylum Platyhelminthes : (Platys = Flat; helminth = worm)
Characters :
 Generally called as flatworms.
 Bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, dorsoventrally flattened.
 Acoelomates. • Their digestive cavity has a single opening with mouth only and anus is absent.
 They possess hooks and suckers.
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DIVERSITY OF LIVING ORGANISMS

 They have flame cells or protonephridia for excretion.
 Mode of nutrition is parasitic.
 Reproduction is of both types i.e. asexual and sexual
 These are hermaphrodite. e.g. Planaria, Fasciola (liver fluke) , Taenia solium, Blood fluke.
Hermaphrodite i.e. male and female reproductive organs are present in same animal.
(vi) Phylum - Nematoda (Aschelminthes):

Characters :
 Also called as roundworms.
 Bilaterally symmetrical, unsegmented triploblast ic.
 These are pseudocoelomic.
 Their alimentary canal is tubular having both mouth and anus.
 Most are free living, some live in moist soil, some are fresh water while some are marine.
 Some are parasites on plants & animals.
 They lack circulatory system. Female ascaris is longer than male ascaris it has curved tail.
 Reproduction is sexual and sexes are separate. e.g. Ascaris (round worm), Filarial worm
(elephantiasis).
Alimentary canal straight and complete with mouth and anus

in nematodes. They are unisexual organisms.
Ascaris - A; male ; B : female.
(vii) Phylum : Annelida (Annulus = ring segments)
Characters :
 Their body is triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, soft, elongated, vermiform, cylindrical.
 Body is metamerically segmented. .
 Exoskeleton is absent, body is covered by thin cuticle.
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 Eucoelomata i.e. they have true body cavity which first appeared in this phylum.
 Well developed alimentary canal is present.
 They have closed circulatory system.
 Locomotion is with the help of chitinous projections called chaetae (setae).
 Excretion by nephridia.
 Nervous system has dorsal brain.
 Most are aquatic, marine or fresh water. Some are terrestrial.
 They reproduce sexually e.g. Earthworm, Leech, Nereis, Sea mouse etc.
Some common annelids A) Nereis B) Hirudinaria
 Annelids, body is metamerically segmented i.e. body

is divided externally by transverse
grooves as well as internally by septa,
 These segments are called meta meres.
 Locomotion by parapodia or Chitinous setae which
are segmentally arranged.
(viii) Phylum : Arthropoda (Arthros -+ jointed , poda = legs)

Characters
• These are the organisms with jointed appendages.
• This is the largest phylum in animal kingdom.
• Body triplobiastic, bilaterally symmetrical and externally segmented.
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Some common arthropods

 They have an exoskeleton made up of protein and chitin (Moulting Periodic shedding off of
the exoskeleton to induce the growth).
 They have a complete alimentary canal with mouth & anus.
 Respiration occurs through general body surface, gills, trachea and book lungs.
 They have an open circulatory system with dorsal heart & arteries.
 Body cavity is called haemocoel.
 Excretion by coelomducts, malpighian tubules, green glands, coxal glands.
 Sexes are separate.
 Each segment has paired lateral and jointed appendages. e.g. Palaemon (prawn), Cancer
(crab), Periplanata (cockroach), Anopheles (mosquito) & Aranea (spider), Apis (Honey bee),
Lepisma, Palamnaeus (scorpion) Scolopendra (centipede), Musca (House fly) Butterfly.
(ix) Phylum Mollusca : (Molluscs = soft)
Characters :
 It is the second largest group of animals, body soft, unsegmented, asymmetrical & without
appendages Neopilina is a segmented mollusca.
 Bilateral symmetry in some mollusca like pila due to torsion (twisting) during growth , the adult
are asymmetrical.
 Body divided into a head, foot and visceral mass. A thin skin covering the body is called as
mantle, which secretes a calcareous shell.
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Some common Molluscs

 Body cavity is haemocoel.
 Respiration by gills (Ctenidial) in aquatic forms but in terrestrial forms space between mantle and
body wall called as mantle cavity act as lungs.
 For ingestion they have tongue like structure "radula" they also possess a digestive gland called
hepatopancreas.
 Open circulatory system.
 Excretion by metanephridia present near heart.
 Reproduction is sexual and sexes are separate. e.g. Chiton (8 Calcareous pieces), Pila, Helix (torsion
univalve), Dentalium (tusk like shell), Unio, Mytilus (Bivalve), Octopus, Tropedo, Sepia, Indian pearl
oyster
(x) Phylum Echinodermata : (Echinos = spines Derma = skin)
Characters :
 These are marine animals, their body is triploblastic, eucoelomata, unsegmented.
 Their body has spines arising from exoskeleton of calcium.
 Adults are radially symmetrical while larvae are bilaterally symmetrical.
 Head is absent, oral and aboral surfaces have five radial ambulacra.
 Water vascular system is the charactristic feature of this phylum.
 Excretory organs are absent.
Some common Echinoderms

 A complex system of water containing tubes and bladders passing through pores of skin called water
vascular system is present. From this tube like structure arise, these tubes look like feet and are called
as tube feet that helps in locomotion
 Reproduction can be asexual, sexual or by regeneration.
 e.g. Asterias (star fish), Echinus (sea urchin), Holothuria star
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(xi) Phylum Hemichordata :
Characters :
 They are placed in between nonchordates and chordates as they possess some characters of both. They
include worm like, unsegemented, bilaterally symmetrical animals which are exclusively marine.
 Their body is divided into three regions proboscis, collar& trunk.
 They do not possess notochord, which is a flexible, rod like structure running through the length of the
body, above alimentary canal.
 They possess gill slit or gill cleft which is meant for respiration.
 They possess nerve cord in collar region but it is not a true dorsal nerve cord.
 e.g. Balanoglossus (tongue worm), saccoglossus.
Balanoglossus
SUBPHYLUM : Vertebrata or Craniata :

Majority of chordates are included in this phylum.
Characters :
 They are advanced animals, having a cranium (brain box) around the brain. Nervous system is well
developed.
 Notochord is replaced by a vertebral column (backbone) in the adults. Endoskeleton is highly
developed.
 There are two pairs of limbs or appendages.
 Head is well differentiated.
 The heart is situated ventrally. The circulatory system is closed consisting of blood vascular system
and lymphatic system. Red coloured pigment hemoglobin is present in red blood corpuscles.
 Respiratory organs may be gills (in aquatic animals), skin, buccopharyngeal cavity (in amphibians) or
lungs (in land animals).
 Excretion occurs through kidneys.

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VERTEBRATES VERSUS INVERTEBRATES

S.No. Vertebrates Invertebrates
1. Vertebral column (backbone) to support Lack vertebral column (backbone).
the body.
2. Possess endoskeleton. Lack endoskeleton
3. Usually possess a post-anal tail. Tail is absent.
4. Position of heart is ventral. Position of heart, if present, is dorsal.
5. Nerve cord is tubular and dorsal in Nerve cord (spinal) is solid and ventral in
position. position.
6. Red blood cells (RBCs) contain Generally, hemoglobin is absent. If
hemoglobin. present, it remains dissolved in blood.
7. Two pairs of limbs (appendages) are Limbs (appendages) consists of more
present than two pairs.
AGNATHA
1. Cyclostomata
(I) Class Cyclostomata : (Gr. Cyclos = circular, Stome = mouth ; the circular mouthed fishes)
These are the most primitive vertebrates.
Characters :
 Animals are jawless and possess a circular mouth.
 They are ectoparasites on fish and use mouth to stick to fish ; the mouth is therefore suctorial.
 Notochord is present in the form of a cylindrical rod.
 Head and brain are poorly developed.
 Cartilagenous endoskeleton is present.
 Respiration occurs through gills contained in pouches.
 Heart is two—chambered consisting of one auricle and one ventricle.
 Gonad is single and fertilization is external. e.g. Petromyzon (lamprey), Myxine (hag fish).
Petromyzon
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GNATHOSTOMATA :
(I) Super Class Pisces :
General feature
 True fishes are included in the class
 They respire through gills. • Their body is stream lined and and covered by scales / plates.
 They have muscular tail and fins for movement.
 Endo skeleton is either made up of cartilage or bone.
 They are unisexual and lay eggs. • They are cold blooded.
 Heart is 2 chambered.
Cold blooded / Poikilotherms: There body temperature does

not remain constant and varies with atmospheric temperature.
Some common fishes
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S.No. CHONDRICHTHYES OSTEICHTHYES

1. Mouth ventral. Mouth terminal.
2. Tail fin asymmetrical (heterocercal). Tail fin symmetrical (homocercal).
3. 5-7 pairs of gills are present. 4-5 pairs of gills are present.
4. Gills are naked. Gills are covered by operculum
5. Cloaca! aperture is present. Anus and urinogenital apertures are separate.
6. No swim bladder. Swim bladder usually present.
7. Fertilization is internal. Fertilization is external.
8. e.g. Scoliodon — Dog fish. Trygon - e.g. Labeo rohita - Rohu or Indian carp, Anabas -
Sting ray, Torpedo - Electric ray, Climbing perch, Caulophyryne jordani- Angler
Rhineodon - Whale shark. fish, Hippocampus - Sea horse. Pterois valitans -
Lion fish, Exocoetus - Flying fish, Synchiropus
splendidus -Mandarin fish.
TETRAPODA :
1. Class Amphibia : (Gr. amphi = both, bios = life, the vertebrates leading two lives / dual life)
Amphibians are the first vertebrate which come out of water
but these are not able to live on land permanently.These
Characters :
 They are amphibious in nature ; found in fresh water and moist places.
 Skin is smooth or rough, rich in glands which keep it moist ; skin with pigmented cells,
i.e.,chromatophores.
 Body is without scales.
 Endoskeleton is mostly bony, notochord does not persist in adults.
 Head and trunk are distinct ; neck and tail may or may not be present.
 Limbs tetrapods (four — limbed), digits without nails
 Respiration occurs by lungs, skin or buccal lining, gills are present at least during larval stage for
respiration.
 Excrete either ammonia (by tadpole) or urea (by adults). Heart three chambered with two auricles and
a ventricle, red blood corpuscles are biconvex, oval and nucleated.
 Brain is not much developed, cranial nerves are 10 pairs.
 Sexes are separate, i.e., dioecious, male without copulatory organ.
 Eggs with gelatinous covering, usually laid in water.
 Fertilization is external.
 Development is indirect with a tadpole larva which undergoes metamorphosis to become adult.
 e.g. Salamanders, frogs & toads. Salamandra (Salamander), Necturus (mud puppy), Triturus (newt),
Rana (frog), Bufo (toad).
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Class Reptilia : (L. reptare = to creep ; creeping vertebrates).
Reptiles are first successful terrestria animals but some are

aquatic. Body is divided into head, neck, trunk and tail
Characters :
 Two pairs of pentadactyl limbs are present ; but in snakes limbs are reduced or absent.
 Body is covered with epidermal horny scales.
 Skin is dry, impermeable and devoid of glands.
 Respiration takes place by lungs only. Gills are absent.
 Heart is incompletely four - chambered, having two auricles and incompletely divided ventricle. In
crocodile, heart is completely four chambered.
 Fertilization is internal (characteristics of land animals).
 There is no larval stage in development. e.g. Testudo (tortoise), Chelone (turtle) Draco (flying lizard),
Chameleon, Hemidactylus (wall lizard), Naja (cobra) etc.
The only poisonous lizard is Heloderma all other are non-

poisonous. Varanus is the largest living lizard present in the
Wall Lizard, Chamaeleon, Snake, Tortoise'
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AMPHIBIA AND REPTILIA

S.No. Amphibia Reptilia
1. Skin is smooth and moist. Skin is dry and comified.
2. Scales are absent. Scales are present over the body.
3. Digits do not possess claws. Digits end in claws.
4. Heart is three chambered. Heart is incompletely four chambered.
5. Fertilization is extemal. Fertilization is internal.
6. Examples : Frog, Toad Examples : Lizard, Snake, Tortoise.
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3. Class Ayes : (L. Ayes = birds )

The birds are described as 'feathered reptiles' that have developed the power of flight.
Characters :
 The body is covered with soft feathers (feathery exoskeleton). called Plumage
 The body is divisible into head, neck, trunk and tail.
 There are two pairs of limbs. The fore limbs are modified to form wings (in flying birds) or are
reduced (as in non—flying birds). Hind limbs are strongly developed for perching, walking.
 Endoskeleton is light. The bones have air cavities (Pneumatic bones). This makes the bird light.
 Jaws are modified to form a strong beak.
 Teeth are absent.
 Respiration is by lungs only. Lungs have additional bag like membranous extensions called as air sacs.
 Heart is completely four chambered.
 Birds are oviparous, i.e. egg laying.
 Fertilization is internal. Fertilized eggs are laid with a yolk (stored food ) and with a hard calcareous
shell.
 Like reptiles and mammals, they have the embryonic membranes namely the amnion, chorion,
yolk - sac and allantois.
 High degree of parental care is exhibited.
 There is no larval stage in development. e.g. Columba (pigeon), Pavo (peacock), Corvus (crow),
Passer (sparrow). Struthio camelus(ostrich), Kiwi and Penguin are flightless birds.White Stork
(Ciconia ciconia) Male Tufted duck (Aythya fligula)
Sound producing organ at the junction of trachea and bronchi of

birds is called syrinx. -> Penguins, Emu, Ostrich and Kiwi are
flightless birds. -. Archaeopteryx is the connecting link between
reptiles and birds.
4. Class Mammalia : (L. mamma = breast ; the mammals)

 Mammalia is the most evolved group of organisms and are found in diverse habitats ranging from
deserts, polar ice caps, oceans, mountains, forests and grasslands.
 They are named mammals as all of them possess mammary glands (milk producing glands). Mammals
are the only animals which feed their young ones with milk.
IJSO BIOLOGY
Characters :
 Skin is covered with an exoskeleton of hair. Hair are provided with sweat glands which help in the
regulation of body temperature. In aquatic mammals, hair being negligible, the subcutaneous layer of
fats provides insulation.
 Mammals have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs.
 The body cavity is unequally divided into two parts by a muscular partition called as diaphragm.
 Eyes are provided with movable lids.
 Ears have fleshy external ears or pinnae.
 Teeth are embedded in sockets (thecodont). Two sets of teeth develop in the life time of a mammals
Milk teeth and permanent teeth (diphyodont).
 Teeth are of different types (heterodont).
 Respiration occurs by lungs.
 Heart is four chambered. R.B.Cs are non nucleated and usually circular.
 Sexes are separate. Gonads are paired. Testes lie commonly in the scrotal sacs outside the abdomen.
 Fertilization is internal. Eggs are small , microscopic without shells and are retained in uterus of
female for development.
 Embryonic membranes (amnion, chorion, yolk sac and allantois ) present.
 They give birth to living young ones and are called as viviparous.
 The young ones are fed on milk from mammary glands.
Important Groups of Mammals :

 Mammals are divided into three main groups :
 Egg-laying mammals (monotremes) : These mammals show characters of both reptiles and
mammals. They lay hard shelled eggs (oviparous)
 e.g. Spiny ant eater, Duck - billed platypus
 Marsupial mammals (pouched mammals):
 Pouched or marsupial mammals (Latin marsu-pium = pouch) They are viviparous.

 The young ones, when born, are cared in pouch called marsupium present on the mother's abdomen.
 In the pouch, they feed on the mother milk e.g. Kangaroo (Macropus), Kola bear.
 Placental mammals (true mammals) : These mammals with true placenta.

 The embryo is retained in the uterus.
 These are the very successful group of land animals, occurring in diverse climatic conditions. e.g.
Mole, bat, lion, tiger, camel, giraffe, whale, dolphin, monkey, humans etc.
Duck-Billed Platypus (b) Spiny ant –Eater, (c) Kangaroo
IJSO BIOLOGY
A COMPARATIVE SUMMARY OF THE VERTEBRATES

S. No. Character Piscos Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia
1. Habitat Aquatic Terrestrial Terrestrial Arboreal Terrestrial,
& aquatic aquatic &
arboreal.
2. Body Cold- Cold- Cold- Warm- Warm-
Temperature blooded blooded blooded blooded blooded
3. Exoskeleton Slimy scales Absent Dry & Scaly Feathers, Hairs, nails
claws etc.
4. Respiratory Gills Gills lungs Lungs Lungs Lungs
organ & skin
5. Locomotory Fins Limbs Limbs Wings and Limbs
organs legs
6. Heart 2- 3- Incompletely 4- 4-
chambered chambered four chambered chambered
chambered
7. Propagation Oviparous Oviparous Oviparous Oviparous Viviparous
8. Fertilization External External Internal Internal Intra-uterine
IJSO BIOLOGY
QUESTION BANK
(TAXONOMY, PLANT KINGDOM AND ANIMAL KINGDOM)

SECTION (A) : TAXONOMY
1. Classification reflecting the evolutionary interrelationships of organisms is called
(A) phylogenetic classification (B) artificial classification
(C) natural classification (D) numerical classification
2. Two kingdom classification was given by

(A) Linnaeus (B) Haeckel (C) Copeland (D) Whittaker
3. Three kingdom classification was proposed by

(A) Linnaeus (B) Haeckel (C) Whittaker (D) Lamarck
4. A branch of biology which deals with the identification, nomenclature and classification of organisms
is called
(A) Morphology (B) Ecology (C) Taxonomy (D) Phytogeography
5. Who is known as father of taxonomy ?

(A) Mendel (B) Linnaeus (C) Darwin (D) Crick
6. Binomial nomenclature was introduced by

(A) John Ray (B) A.P. deCandolle (C) A.L.de Jussen (D) Carolus Linnaeus
7. The basic unit of classification is

(A) variety (B) species (C) genus (D) family
8. According to binomial nomenclature, the scientific name of an organism must consists of two words.
These are
(A) species and tribe (B) genus & species (C) order and family (D) genus and family
9. Which taxonomic term may be substituted for any rank in the classification ?
(A) Class (B) Genus (C) Species (D) Taxon
10. A group of freely interbreeding organisms constitutes a

(A) species (B) genera (C) family (D) class
SECTION (B) : PLANT KINGDOM

1. Thallophyta includes
(A) fungi and bacteria (B) algae, fungi, animals and lichens
(C) algae, fungi and lichens (D) algae and fungi
2. Flowering plants are included under

(A) cryptogams (B) phanerogams (C) bryophytes (D) pteridophytes
IJSO BIOLOGY
3. Which of the following has an embryo but lacks vascular tissue ?

(A) Bryophyta (B) Pteridophyta (C) Gymnosperms (D) Angiosperms
4. The most primitive vascular plants are

(A) bryophytes (B) Tteridophytes (C) gymnosperms (D) angiosperms
5. Cryptogams include
(A) thallophytes (B) bryophytes (C) pteridophytes (D) all of the above
6 Algae are characterized by

(A) pyrenoids (B) aquatic habitat
(C) unicellular sex organs (D) all of the above
SECTION (C) : ANIMAL KINGDOM
1 Organ system grade of body organization is found in :

(A) Sponges (B) Protozoa (C) Arthropods (D) Platyhelminthes
2 Polymorphism is exhibited by
(A) Hydra (B) Physalia (C) Octopus (D) Crab
3 Comb jellies belong to

(A) Scyphozoa (B) Hydrozoa (C) Ctenophora (D) Both A and B
4 Platyhelminthes are called

(A) round worms (B) flat worms (C) blind worms (D) none of the above
5 In Platyhelminthes, the excretory organs are

(A) nephridia (B) malpighian tubules
(C) flame cells (solenocytes) (D) green glands
6 Platyhelminthes are
(A) coelomates (B) pseudocoelomates (C) haemocoelomates (D) acoelomates
7 The common name for Ascaris is

(A) shipworm (B) pinworm (C) tapeworm (D) round worm
8 Metamerism is characteristic feature of

(A) Chordata (B) Annelida (C) Mollusca (D) Nematoda
9 The excretory organs of Annelida are

(A) nephridia (B) statocysts (C) archeocytes (D) none of the above
IJSO BIOLOGY
10 Which one is mismatched ?

(A) Flagella Euglena (B) Pseudopodia Amoeba
(C) Cilia Paramecium (D) Flagella Plasmodium
11. Contractile vacuole is present in

(A) Amoeba (B) Euglena (C) Paramecium (D) All of the above
12. Choanocytes are unique to

(A) Protozoa (B) Porifera (C) Mollusca (D) Echinodermata
13. Cnidaria is characterised by

(A) nematoblasts (B) coelenteron
(C) tissue level of organisation (D) all of the above
14. Which of the following coelenterate is known as "Portuguese man of war"

(A) Hydra (B) Aurelia (C) Physalia (D) Metridium
15. The most important character of chordata is :
(A) Dorsal hollow nervous system (B) Vertebral column
(C) Kidneys (D) None of the above
16. Herdmania is member of :

(A) Hemichordata (B) Urochordata (C) Cephalochordata (D) Vertebrata
17. Which one of following belongs to hemichordata :

(A) Doliolum (B) Pyrosoma
(C) Balanoglossus (D) All of the above
18. All chordates possess :

(A) Exoskeleton (B) Limbs
(C) Skull (D) Axial skeletal and rod of notochord
19. Which is an exclusive chordate character :

(A) True coelom (B) Pharyngeal gill slits
(C) Bilateral symmetry (D) Triploblastic
20. Which of the following is not the basic feature of chordate

(A) Pharyngeal gills slits (B) Presence of contractile vacuole
(C) Post anal tail (D) Dorsal nerve cord
21. Mesoglea is characteristic of

(A) platyhelminthes (B) aschelminthes (C) cnidaria (D) mollusca
22. Which of the following are first true terrestrial animals :

(A) Amphibia & reptilia (B) Reptilia (C) Ayes (D) Mammals
IJSO BIOLOGY
23. Skin is devoid of glands in :

(A) Amphibians (B) Reptiles (C) Both A & B (D) Mammals
24. Which of the following reptile can change it's colour of body :
(A) Snake (B) Draco (C) Chameleon (D) Python
25. Birds are :

(A) Endothermal (B) Warm blooded (C) Both A & B (D) Ectothermal
26. Which of the following is exclusively mammalian character :

(A) Four chambered heart (B) Diaphragm
(C) Presence of external ear (D) Both B & C are correct
27. In the flying birds, the quill feathers are useful for :
(A) Giving shape to the bird (B) Giving external heat
(C) Flight in air (D) Preventing loss of heat from the body
28. Which of the following class is without epidermal scale ?

(A) Fish (B) Ayes (C) Mammals (D) Amphibian
29. Whale is kept in class :

(A) Pisces (B) Mammalia (C) Ayes (D) Amphibian
30. The heart is completely divided into 4 chambers in :

(A) Reptiles (B) Mammals (C) Ayes (D) Both (B) and (C)
31. Which of the following is a chordate feature, not shared by the non-chordates
(A) Metamerism (B) Protoplasmic organization
(C) Bilateral symmetry (D) Pharyngeal gill slits
32. Which one of the following invertebrates is a deuterostome and enterocoelous coelomate
(A) Pila (B) Ascaris (C) Aphrodite (D) Asterias
33. Which one of the following sets of animals belongs to the same class of a phylum
(A) Hydra, jelly fish, cray fish (B) Bat, pigeon, whale
(C) Spider, scorpion, centipede (D) Whale, otter, kangaroo
34. Jaws are absent in

(A) Protochordata (B) Protochordata and cydostomata
(C) Amphioxus and balanoglossus (D) Herdmania and myxine
35. Scales in chondrichthyes are

(A) Placoid (B) Ganoid (C) Cycloid (D) Sesamoid
IJSO BIOLOGY
36. Which of the following is not found in birds

(A) Hind limb (B) Fore limb (C) Pelvic girdle (D) Pectoral girdle
37. Schizocoelic type of coelom is present in the

(A) Protochordata (B) Echinoderms (C) Nematodes (D) Annelids
38. Which of the following group is Deuterostome

(A) Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca (B) Echinodermata, Hemichordata, Chordata
(C) Annelida, Mollusca. Chordata (D) Arthropoda, Mollusca, Echinodermata
39. Laminaria (kelp) and Fucus (rock weed) are the examples of
(A) Green algae (B) Brown algae (C) Red algae (D) Golden brown algae
40. Which of the following represents obligate anaerobes

(A) Spirogyra (B) Pisum sativum (C) Onion (D) Methane bacteria
41. Which of the following is a photo—autotrophic bacterium

(A) Rhodospirillum (B) Azospirillum (C) Nitrosomonas (D) Nitrobacter
42. Gram +ve bacteria have

(A) Thick and homogeneous cell walls (B) As much as 70% peptide molecules
(C) Either no lipids or less than 10% lipids (D) All the above
IJSO STAGE – 1 (PYQ)
1. Pteridophytes are characterized by venation in their leaves. (IJSO/Stage-I12008)

(A) multicostate, reticulate divergent. (B) unicostate, parallel
(C) forked (D) unicostate, reticulate
2. The animal body is formed of many cells, but the cells show no coordination to form tissues in :
(IJSO/Stage-I12009)
(A) protozoans (B) coelonterates (C) sponges (D) flat worms
3. Which one of the following is true fish ?

(A) Star fish (B) Gold fish (C) Silver fish (D) Hag fish
4. Cycas is classified as gymnosperm because of (IJSO/Stage-I/2010)

(i) presence of naked seeds (ii) lack of vessels in the xylem. (iii) presence of sieve tubes. (iv) fruit
formation. The correct reason is
(A) (i) and (iv) (B) (i) and (iii) (C) (i) and (ii) (D) (ii) and (iii)
5. The correct order of evolutionary advancement among the plants is

(A) spirogyra  diatom hornwort  fern
(B) blue green alga  liverwort  fern  seed bearing plant
(C) liverwort  cyanobacterium  moss gymnosperm
(D) red alga  fern  moss  liverwort
IJSO BIOLOGY
6. The animal in which coelomic fluid has a significant role in locomotion is

(A) earthworm (B) leech (C) crab (D) sea cucumber
7. An animal with chitinous exoskeleton, haemocoel and gills belongs to

(A) ascheminthes (B) Arthropoda (C) echinodermata (D) urochordate
8. With reference to human beings, the correct order of taxonomical classification is

(IJSO/Stage-(/2011)
(A) chordata, primata, mammalia, hominidae. (B) chordata, mammalia, primata, hominidae.
(C) chordata, primata, hominidae, mammalia. (D) chordata, mammalia, hominidae, primata
9. If the glands in the pharyngeal bulb of earthworm are inactivated, digestion of which of the following
is affected ?
(A) proteins (B) carbohydrates (C) lipids (D) nucleic acids
10. What is the major difference between Bacteria and Virus (IJSO/Stage-(/2012)
(A) Viruses are precursors to bacteria
(B) Viruses lack proteins that are present in bacteria
(C) Viruses use host machinery to reproduce unlike bacteria
(D) Viruses have proteins whereas bacteria do not,
11. The term Biodiversity refers to (IJSO/Stage-(/2013)

(A) Species Diversity (B) Genetic diversity (C) Ecosystem diversity (D) All of the above
12. Which one of the following is said to produce seeds exposed and they are called naked seed plant
(A) Deodar & Pinus (B) Marsilea & Nostoc
(C) Maize & Garden Pea Plant (D) Spirogyra & Funaria
13. Wuchereria is an example of :

(A) Arthropods (B) Annelida (C) Arthropoda (D) Nematoda
14. The algae belonging to which group can sustain normal growth at the greater depth of ocean ?
(IJSO/Stage-(/2014)
(A) Red algae (B) Blue-green algae (C) Brown algae (D) Green algae
15. Snakes, the cold blooded animals, flick their bifid tounge often to :
(A) sense vibration in earth (B) sample air for chemoreceptors
(C) sense the nature of substratum (D) sense the temperature of air
16. Which of the following places having same number of species is considered most biodiverse ?
(A) species belonging to more taxa (B) many of the species economically important
(C) many of the species endemic (D) species adapted to greater number of habitats
IJSO BIOLOGY
17. Gram positive bacteria will have one of the specific characters. Identify it.
(A) They have more peptidoglycon in their cell walls.
(B) They show red colour on gram staining.
(C) Flagella found all over the body.
(D) They will have mesosomes as the extension of cell membrane.
18. Choose the right combination of heart types and animals.
(A) (B)
2 chamber Sardine fish 2 chamber Sardine fish
3 chamber Amphibians 3 chamber Gharial
4 chamber Reptiles reptiles
4 chamber Birds / owl
(C) (D)
2 chamber Gharial reptiles 2 chamber Birds
3 chamber Birds / owl 3 chamber Gharial
4 chamber Human reptiles
4 chamber Fish sardine
19. Which of the following option is not true about the viruses ? (IJSO/Stage-(/2015)
(A) Viruses have either DNA or RNA as their genetic material.
(B) Viruses will not infect bacteria, fungi and algae.
(C) Viruses use host machinery to produce their own proteins.
(D) Viruses are useful in the preparation of vaccines.
20. Which amongst the following shows the characters of both plants and animals :
i. Anabaena ii. Paramecium iii. Euglena iv. Amoeba (IJSO/Stage-(/2017)
(A) i and iv (B) iii (C) ij (D) i and iii
21. Metamerism is a characteristic of (IJSO/Stage-(/2017)

(A) Hirudinaria (B) Taenia (C) Asterias (D) Pila
22. A scientist observed few cells under a microscope with following characters: (IJSO/Stage-(/2018)
i. Cells divided by binary fission or fragmentation, or budding.
ii. Cells moved with the help of flagella
iii. Ether lipids were observed in cell membranes
iv. Peptidoglycans were noted in the cell walls
Which of the following category do the cells belong to?
(A) Archaea (B) Plant cells (C) Unicellular eukaryotes (D)
Cyarrobacteria
23. True coelom is not present in animals of : (IJSO/Stage-I/2018)

(A) Platyhelminthes (B) Annelida (C) Echinodermata (D) Arthropoda
IJSO BIOLOGY
24. Identify the odd ones from each group (A and B) based on same criterion. (IJSO/Stage-(/2018)
Group A Group B Salmon Alpine salamander Bullfrog Spiny anteater Platypus Common toad L Bull
shark Crocodile
(A) Platypus, Alpine Salamander (B) Bull shark, Alpine salamander ,
(C) Bullfrog, Crocodile (D) Platypus, Common toad
Answers key
EXERCISE - 1
SECTION (A) : TAXONOMY
1. (A) 2. (A) 3. (B) 4. (C) 5. (B) 6. (D) 7.(B) 8.(B)

9. (D) 10 (A)
SECTION (B) : PLANT CLASSIFICATION
1. (C) 2. (B) 3. (A) 4. (B) 5. (D) 6. (D)
SECTION (C) : ANIMAL KINGDOM
1. (C) 2.(B) 3. (C) 4. (B) 5. (C) 6. (D) 7.(D) 8.(B)

9. (A) 10.(D) 11.(D) 12.(B) 13 (A) 14. (C) 15. (A) 16. (B)
17.(C) 18.(D) 19 (B) 20.(B) 21.(C) 2. (B) 23. (B) 24.(C)
25. (C) 26. (D) 27.(D) 28.(D) 29.(B) 30.(D) 31.(D) 32. (D)
33.(D) 34.(B) 35.(A) 36.(A) 37.(D) 38.(D) 39.(B) 40.(D)
4.(A) 42.(A)
EXERCISE - 3
IJSO STAGE-I (PYQ)

1. (C) 2. (C) 3. (B) 4. (C) 5. (B) 6. (A) 7. (A) 8. (B)
9. (A) 10. (C) 11. (D) 12. (A) 13. (D) 14. (A) 15. (B) 16. (D)
17. (A) 18. (A) 19. (B) 20. (B) 21. (A) 22. (A, D) 23. (A) 24. (A)

IJSO Biology Module - 1

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IJSO-BIOLOGY MODULE - (PART-1)

Sr. No. Topic Name Page No.

1. CELL CYCLE & CELL DIVISION 1 - 30

2. HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION 31 - 65

4. DIVERSITY OF LIVING ORGANISMS 103 - 135

BIOLOGY- 1. CELL CYCLE & CELL DIVISION

Two processes take place during cell reproduction.

PHASES OF CELL CYCLE

Regulation of cell cycle:

THE PHASES OF KARYOKINESIS or NUCLEAR DIVISION

MITOTIC CELL DIVISION:

Amitosis / Direct Nuclear Division.

Mitosis / Indirect Cell Division

Cytokinesis: The final cellular division to form two new cells.

Diplotene: homologous chromosomes start to separate but remain attached by chiasmata.

Meiosis II: Meiosis II separates each chromosome into two chromatids.

Meiosis generates genetic diversity through---

CELL CYLCLE AND CELL DIVISION

Interphase :  Reasting phase, but cell is preparing for cell division

 G1 Phase  (G  Gap /Growth): Cell metabolically active, continuously grows, no replication of

Prophase:  Initiation of condensation of chromosomal material  It untangles  forms compact

Late Prophase  No nucleolus, no nuclear envelope, no ER, no Golgi

Metaphase:  Complete disintegration of Nuclear envelope marks the start of metaphase

Telophase:  The chromosomes reach the opposite poles

Importance:  Growth of multicellular organisms is by Mitosis.

 Karyokinesis-I: Ist division of nucleus

2) Zygotene: > Pairing (called Synapsis) of homologous

3) Pachytene: > Sometimes, exchange of genes/ crossing over

4) Diplotene: > Desynapsis (separation) of homologous chromosomes due to dissolution of

5) Diakinesis: > Terminalisation of chismata completed

6) Metaphase-I: Bivalents arrange themselves in two parallel equatorial or metaphase plates

7) Anaphase-I: Separation of homologous chromosomes,

8) Telophase-I: May or may not occur

 Cytokinesis -I: May or may not be present

Karyokinesis -II: 2nd division of nucleus

Metaphase-II : > Chromosomes align at the equator

Anaphase-II: > Begins with splitting of the centromere

Telophase-II:> The two groups of chromosomes once

Cytokinesis-II:> Follows Telophase - II, results in the

Significance/ Importance of Meiosis

2. The events listed below take place during ___________stage of mitosis.

Spiralisation and Nuclear Envelope Centromeres

4. The centromeres divide during ___________stage of meiosis.

Ans. 1.a 2.d 3.d 4.a

7. During mitosis, nuclear membrane disappears at _____________ phase of cell division.

8. Bouquet stage is observed in cells undergoing meiosis during ____________ of prophase-I.

9. The property or phenomenon of _____________ is seenbetween the homologous chromosomes

5.a 6.d 7.b 8.a 9.c

10. Identify the incorrect statement.

13. Select the incorrect statement.

15. Cell would normally proceed to mitosis without interruption ______________.

16. True statement for mitosis is ____________.

17. Which of the following is true?

19. The correct sequence of the given stages in meiosis

(a) A, C, D, E, B (b) A, B, C, D, E (c) C, A, D, B, E (d) D, B, E, C, A,

20. During G1 phase of the cell cycle of somatic cells, ______________.

21. ____________ is the shortest phase in the interphase of cell cycle.

(a) A, B, C, D, E (b) C, A, B, D, E (c) C, A, B, E, D (d) A, C, B, D, E

24. In ____________ phase of mitosis chromosomes arrange on equatorial plate.