Physics

Lab manual

VELAMMAL BODHI CAMPUS

PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
 1. Meter Bridge-Determination of Unknown resistance of a wire
Aim: To find the resistance of the given wire using meter bridge

Requirements: Meter bridge, galvanometer, one way key, resistance box, Battery
Eliminator, jockey, unknown resistance wire, connecting wires.

Theory:

Wheatstone’s bridge: A meter bridge is the practical form of Wheatstone’s bridge

experiment as shown in figure. If there is no deflection in the galvanometer, then P  R
Q S
which is the condition of balance of bridge. We use this relation to find the unknown
resistance S of the given material of wire.

The wire whose resistance is to be found is connected in the arm CD. A resistance box
from which a known resistance can be taken out is connected across the gap AB. A sensitive
galvanometer followed by a jockey is connected between the points B and D so as to slide
over the wire AD. A cell with suitable rheostat is connected across AC.
Observation:

(i) To find the unknown resistance of the given wire:

Value of Balancing Resistance

known length, l (100-l) Of the wire,
S.NO resistance, R S=R (100𝑙 −𝑙)
(Ω) (cm) (cm) Ω

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean, S= Ω

Procedure:

a) Make the connections as shown in figure. Take out suitable resistance R from the
resistance box.
b) Touch the jockey at point A; see that there is deflection on galvanometer on one side.
Touch the jockey now on the point C of the wire. The deflection in galvanometer
should be on the other side. If it is so, connections are correct. If the deflection is one-
sided, adjust R till the deflection is reversed.
c) If the deflections are on both sides, start sliding the jockey on the wire from end A
towards C.
d) Note the point where the galvanometer shows zero deflection. This is called balance
point.
e) Note the length AD and call it as balancing length l, DC will be (100 – l). From
R l
formula,  knowing R and l, S can be found. Repeat the above procedure for
S 100  l
five different values of R.

Result :

The resistance of the given wire is Ω

Precaution:

1) Clean the connecting wires and the connecting points of Meter Bridge properly.
2) All connections should be neat and tight.
3) Balance point should lie between 40cm and 60cm.
4) Move the jockey gently in the wire and do not keep the jockey and the wire in contact
for a long time.
5) Hold the jockey perpendicular to the wire of Meter Bridge.
 Sources of error:
1. There may be error due to contact resistances.
2. Length of the wire used up may not be correctly estimated.
3. There may be a change in resistance due to heating of wires when continuous
current flows for some time.
4. There wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
5. The measurement of resistance is affected by the end resistances due to copper
strips and connecting screws

2. Meter bridge-Combination of resistances( Series)

Aim: To verify the law of combination (series) of resistances using a meter bridge.
Requirements: Meter bridge, galvanometer, one way key, a resistance box, Lechlanche
cell(or) battery eliminator of 2V, jockey, two unknown resistance wires and connecting
wires.
Theory: In series arrangement, the resistors are connected end to end. The source of
current is connected between the free ends of the first and the last resistor. In this
arrangement, the current through each resistor is the same but potential difference across
different resistors is different. The potential difference of the source is distributed across
different resistors. Let I be the current through each resistor of resistance R1, R2, R3 and
V1, V2, V3 the potential difference across each, then V = V1+V2+V3, where V1 = IR1,
V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3.
So, V = I RS, where RS is the effective resistance of the combination..
IRS = IR1+IR2+IR3
RS = R1+R2+R3.
For R1 and R2 resistors, RS = R1+R2
 Observations:
(i) resistance for the material of the wire 1, R1:

Value of Balancing Resistance

known length, l (100-l) Of the wire,
S.No resistance ,S cm cm R1=S (100𝑙 −𝑙)
Ω Ω
1. 1
2. 2
Mean (R1) = Ω
(ii) resistance for the material of the wire 2, R2:

Value of Balancing Resistance

known length, l (100-l) Of the wire,
S.No resistance ,S cm cm R2=S (100𝑙 −𝑙)
Ω Ω
1. 1
2. 2
Mean(R2)= Ω

(iii) resistance in series, Rs:

Value of Balancing Resistance

known length, l (100-l) Of the wire,
S.No resistance ,S cm cm Rs=S (100𝑙 −𝑙)
Ω Ω
1. 1
2. 2
Mean(Rs)= Ω
Procedure:
a) Measure the unknown resistances R1 and R2 using meter bridge experiment.
b) Connect two resistances R1 and R2 in series.
c) Check for deflection on both sides by touching the jockey at both ends of meter bridge
wire.
d) Proceed in the same way as in meter bridge experiment. Take atleast four sets of
observations.
e) Compare the measured values of effective resistances using meter bridge with calculated
values.
Verification:
By theory, RS = R1 + R2 = Ω
By experiment, RS = Ω
Precautions:

1) Clean the connecting wires and the connecting points of meter bridge properly.

2)All connections should be neat and tight.

3) Balance point should lie between 40cm and 60cm.

4) Move the jockey gently in the wire and do not keep the jockey and the wire in contact
for a long time.

5) Hold the jockey perpendicular to the wire of meter bridge.

Sources of error:

1. There may be error due to contact resistances.

2. Length of the wire used up may not be correctly estimated.
3. There may be a change in resistance due to heating of wires when continuous
current flows for some time.
4. There wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
5. The measurement of resistance is affected by the end resistances due to copper
strips and connecting screws.

3 .Potentiometer-Comparison of EMF of two cells

Aim: To compare the emf’s of two given primary cells using potentiometer.
Requirements: Potentiometer with a jockey, two way key, source of DC supply,
rheostat, galvanometer, resistance box, Lechlanche cell, a High resistance box(if
required) and Daniel cell.
Principle: A potentiometer works on the principle that when a constant current flows
through a wire of uniform area of cross-section, the potential difference between any
two points on the wire is directly proportional to the length of that section of the wire.
i.e., V α l
Let R be the resistance of potentiometer wire and I the current passing through it.
Potential difference V = I R.
RL
But,  
A
IL
V
A
Ρ is a constant whose value depends upon the nature of material of potentiometer wire. If
current is constant and the wire is of uniform area of cross-section, then I and A are also
constant.
V I
  constant = k , where k is potential gradient ( V cm-1)
L A
The potential across a length l of wire is V’ = k l
 Observation:

Balancing Balancing
Length when Length when E l
Lechlanche cell Danial cell
1
 1

S.No
E 2 l
2
is connected(E1), is connected(E2),
l1 (cm) l2 (cm) (no unit)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean, E1/E2 =
Procedure:
a) Make the connections according to the scheme shown.
b) Take the maximum current from battery using rheostat.
c) Connect points a and c of the two way key. The cell E1 is included in the circuit. Cell E2
is excluded.
d) Introduce a 1000Ω resistance from the resistance box, press the jockey at point A and
note the direction of deflection.
e) Press the jockey at end B. The direction of deflection should be opposite.
f) Insert the key in the gap ac so as to bring lechlanche cell in the circuit. Slide the jockey
on the potentiometer wire till the galvanometer shows a zero deflection. Adjust the
current so that the balance point is on the third or fourth wire.
g) Note the length l1 for the cell of emf E1. Keep an eye on current. It should not change. If
it changes, adjust it to be the same with the help of rheostat. Then E1 α l1.
h) Remove the key form ac and insert key in gap bc. Repeat the steps (f) and (g). Then E2 α
l2.
i) Adjust the current using rheostat. Repeat the above steps to get a set of readings.

Result:
E1
The ratio of emf of lechlanche cell to that of emf of Daniel cell 
E2

Actual value of emf of Lechlanche cell, E1 = V

Actual value of emf of Daniel cell, E2 = V
E1
Theoretical value of 
E2

Precaution:
a) Do not keep the circuit closed for a long time.Insert the keys only while doing the
experiment otherwise the wire will get heated.
b) The positive terminals of batteries E1, E2 and E should be connected to point A.
c) Find the rough null deflection by introducing a high resistance form resistance box.
Sources of error:
1. There may be error due to contact resistances.
2. Length of the wire used up may not be correctly estimated.
3. There may be a change in resistance due to heating of wires when continuous current
flows for some time.
4. There wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.

4.Potentiometer- Internal resistance of a cell

Aim: To determine the internal resistance of given primary cell using potentiometer.
Requirements: Potentiometer with jockey, a Lechlanche cell/ a Daniel cell, two plug keys,
source of DC supply, a resistance box and a High resistance box(if required).
Theory: The emf of a cell is the difference of potential across the terminals of a cell when
it is in open circuit. However when a current is drawn from the cell, the reading of
voltmeter falls. This is because a fall of potential takes place across the cell due to its
internal resistance.
Internal resistance of a cell is the resistance offered by the electrolyte of the cell to the
flow of ions through it. It is denoted by ‘r’ and is measured in Ω.
E
If I is the current through the circuit, then I  , where r is the internal resistance, R
Rr
is the external resistance and E is the emf of the cell.
IR + Ir = E
V + Ir = E
 Ir = E – V
E V E  V (E  V )R
r  
I V V
R
If l1 and l2 are balancing lengths of potentiometer wire which balance E and V respectively,
then E α l and V α l2.
E l1 (E  V )R (l1  l2 )R
Then,  . Therefore, r  
V l2 V l2

Observation:

To determine the internal resistance of the given primary cell, E:

Resistance,R Balancing Balancing Internal

S.No Ω Length when Length when Resistance,
R is not R is Included
Included( i.e, ( i.e, K2 is r = R(l1-l2)/l2
K2 open) Closed)
l1 (cm) l2 (cm) Ω
1. 1
2. 2
3. 3
4. 4
5. 5

Mean(r) = Ω

Procedure:
a) Make connections as shown in figure.
b) Check emf of the battery and cell. See that emf of the battery is more that of dry cell.
c) Put key K1 and move the jockey to obtain the null point on the wire.
d) Note the length l1. Then E α l1
e) Introduce a resistance in the resistance box and put the key K2.
f) Slide the jockey and obtain the null deflection. Note the null point. Then V α l2.
g) Repeat the above steps for different values of current and resistance R.
 Precautions:

a) Do not keep the circuit closed for a long time. Insert the keys only while doing
experiment.
b) Positive terminals of battery and cell should be connected to point A(taken as zero)
c) Keep watching that ammeter reading is constant for one set of observation. Adjust it to
be constant with rheostat if necessary.

Result:

The internal resistance of given wire is Ω

Sources of error:
1. There may be error due to contact resistances.
2. Length of the wire used up may not be correctly estimated.
3. There may be a change in resistance due to heating of wires when continuous current
flows for some time.
4. There wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.

5. Resistance and Figure of merit of galvanometer

Aim: To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to find its
figure of merit.

Requirements: Galvanometer, battery, two resistance boxes, one way key(two numbers)
and connecting wires.

Theory: A galvanometer is a device used to detect small current in a circuit. It has a coil
pivoted in a radial magnetic field. When electric current is passed through the coil, it gets
deflected. Its deflection is noted by attaching a pointer to the coil. The deflection is
proportional to current passed. A galvanometer has a moderate resistance and has a small
current carrying capacity.

The resistance of a galvanometer can be found by half deflection method. The circuit
is shown for this method. Key K is inserted and deflection θ is determined with a suitable
value of R. If E is the emf of cell and I be the current in circuit, the galvanometer resistance,
RS
G
RS
Figure of merit of galvanometer:
It is defined as current required for producing deflection of 1 division. It is measured in
ampere/div. When a high resistance R is taken out from resistance box, a current I flows in
the circuit and it produces a deflection θ.
E
=k θ. Therefore , k 
E
I
RG (R  G)


By varying R and noting corresponding value of θ, we can find a set of values of figure of
merit. The mean of these values gives the figure of merit.

Observation:

Resistance Deflection in Galvanometer Figure of

R(Ω) Galvanometer θ/2 Shunt Resistance Merit,
θ (divisions) (divisions) S G(Ω)
S.No k= 𝐸
(Ω) 𝑅+𝐺 𝜃
(A/divisions)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean (G) = Ω

Mean (K) = A/division

Procedure:

a) Make the connections as shown.

b) See that the plugs of resistance box are tight.
c) Introduce a resistance of 5000 from the resistance box R and then insert the K1 only
d) Adjust the value of R so that the deflection in the galvanometer is maximum(say 30
div)
e) Note the deflection. Let it be θ i.e., θ = 30 div.
f) Now, insert the key K2. Without changing the value of R, adjust the value of k, suc h
that deflection in galvanometer reduces exactly to half the value obtained. i.e., θ / 2.
g) Note the value of R.
h) Repeat the above steps for various values of R.
 Result:

1). The resistance of galvanometer is found to be Ω.

2). Figure of merit of galvanometer is A/division.

Precautions:

a) All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

b) Ensure that the plugs of resistance box are tight.

c) Initially a high resistance from the resistance box should be introduced or else a small
resistance can damage the galvanometer.

Sources of error:

1. The emf of the battery may change during the experiment.

2. Calibration of resistance in resistance boxes may not be correct.
3. Plugs in resistance boxes may not be tight and nay have contact resistance.

06. Focal length of concave mirror

Aim: To find the value of ‘v’ for different values of ‘u’ in case of the concave mirror.

Requirements: Concave mirror, mirror holder, metre scale, lamp with object

Theory: When a beam of light parallel to the principal axis falls on concave mirror, it
reflects the beam which passes through the focus. The nature and size of the image depends
on where the object is placed in front of the concave mirror.

The focal length formula is 1 1 1 where f is focal length of mirror in cm,

 
f v u
u is object distance in cm and v is image distance in cm.
Observation:

Rough focal length of the given concave mirror = cm

S.No Mirror Object Image Focal length,f

position distance, u distance, v
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1. 2f-4
2. 2f-2
3. 2f
4. 2f+2
5. 2f+4
Procedure: mean, f= cm
Obtain the rough focal length value by focusing the image of a distant object on the
wall.
a) Mount the mirror in the mirror holder.
b) Ensure that the object and the mirror is on the straight line.
c) Keep the mirror from the object at a distance of twice the focal length of the mirror.
d) Adjust the position of the white screen till the image is obtained.
e) Measure the distance between the pole of the mirror and the object. This is the object
distance, u.
f) Measure the distance between mirror and screen.
This is the image distance, v.

h). Repeat the steps with mirror at (2f-2), (2f -4), (2f+2) and (2f+4) positions from object.

Result:The focal length of the concave mirror is

1) By calculation, f= cm
2) By u-v graph, f=_ cm

Precautions:

a) The object and mirror must be in a straight line. Do not keep the object closer to the
rough focal length of the mirror. This will produce a virtual image.
b) Tips of the object and image should be at same height and should be in level with
centre of mirror.
c) Keep your eye atleast 30cm away from the image to view the image clearly.

Sources of error:
1. The uprights may not be vertical.
2. The parallax may not be removed properly.
3. Personal error.
4. Sign convention not applied correctly.
 07. Focal length of convex lens

Aim: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v

Requirements: Convex lens, lens holder, metre scale, white screen, lamp with object.

Theory:When a ray of light, parallel to principal axis is incident on a convex lens, after
refraction, it passes through focus. Another ray which passes through optical centre goes
straight and these refracted rays meet and produce real inverted images. The nature and size
of image depends on position of object.
1 1 1
Focal length formula is   where u is object distance in cm, v is image distance
f v u
in cm and focal length of lens in cm.

Observation:

Rough focal length of the given convex lens = cm

Object Image Focal length, f

𝑢𝑣
S.No Lens position distance, u distance, v f=
(𝑢−𝑣)
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1. 2f-4
2. 2f-2
3. 2f
4. 2f+2
5. 2f+4
Mean (f) = cm.

Procedure:

a) Obtain rough focal length of given convex lens by focusing the image of a distant
object on the wall.
b) Mount the given lens on the lens holder and place at 2f distance from the object.
c) Place white screen behind the lens.
d) Move the screen forward and backward so that the image of the object is obtained.
e) Note the position of the object, image and the lens.
 f) The distance between the object and the lens is u and the distance between the image
and the lens is v.
g) Repeat the above steps with lens at (2f-4),(2f-2), (2f+2) and (2f+4) positions from the
object.

Result:

The focal length (f) of given convex lens is,

1) By calculation, f=
2) By u-v graph, f=_

Precautions:

a) Do not place the object closer than the rough focal length of the lens. This will produce
a virtual image.
b) Tips of the object and the image should be at same height and should correspond with
centre of curvature.
c) Keep your eye atleast 30cm away from image to view the image clearly.

Sources of error:
1. The uprights may not be vertical.
2. The parallax may not be removed properly.
3. Personal error.
4. Sign convention not applied correctly.

08. PN Junction diode

Aim: To study the I-V characteristics curve of a pn junction diode in forward bias and
reverse bias.
Requirements: A pn junction diode, a battery, a high resistance rheostat, voltmeter,
milliammeter, one way key and connecting wires.
Theory: A pn junction is a semiconductort device obtained by putting in contact a p-type
semiconductor with an n-type semiconductor. The one piece device so obtained is also
called a junction diode. A junction diode is based on two different ways.
Forward biasing: In forward biasing, the p-type of ccrystal is connectged to the +ve of the
bias battery and n-type to the –ve of the battery. In forward biasing, current increases as
the forward bias is increased. The current increases slowly in the beginning and then
sharply. The forward current flows only if the initial forward voltage is greater than a
certain minimum voltage. This is represented by the knee voltage or cut-in voltage.
Reverse biasing: A p-n junction is said to reverse biasing if the p-type crystal is connected
to –ve terminal and n-type is connected to +ve terminal of the bias battery.
 Now a very small current (µA) flows due to minority carriers. This current is called
saturation current because it is found to be independent off reverse bias. At a certain
reverse voltage the current suddenly increases the breaking of the covalent bonds. This
reverse voltage is called the reverse breakdown voltage.

Procedure:

Forward characteristics:

1). Make the connections as shown.

2). Keep the moving contact of the rheostat to the minimum and insert the key K. Voltmeter
and milliammeter will show a zero reading.

3). Move the contact towards the positive of the battery to apply the forward bias voltage.
VF = 0.1V. The current remains zero.

4). Increase the forward bias voltage in steps. The current will still be zero. This is due to
junction potential barrier.

5). Increase VF in steps and note the corresponding milliammeter and voltmeter readings.
6) At VF = 0.4V, the current increases suddenly. This represents the forward bias cut-in
voltage.

7) Draw a graph between I and V, by taking V along X-axis and I along Y-axis.

Reverse biasing:

For plotting reverse I-V characteristics the circuit is modified as shown. The voltmeter as
before is connected across the p-n junction. The milliammeter is replaced by microammeter
as shown.
Observations:

Least count of Voltmeter = V

Least count of milliammeter = mA

Least count of microammeter = µA
(i) Forward bias:

S.No Voltmeter Reading (V) Milli ammeter

Reading (mA)

(i) Reverse bias:

S.No Voltmeter Reading (V) Micro ammeter

Reading (µA)

Procedure: Same as in forward bias. The microammeter readings are noted corresponding
to different voltmeter readings. A graph between V and I is plotted by taking V along –X
axis and I along –Y axis.
Precautions:
1). Measuring instruments must be of proper range.
2) Make all connections neat , clean and tight.
3) Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not in use.
4) Avoid applying forward bias voltage beyond breakdown.
Sources of error:

1. There may be contact resistance particularly if any connection remains loose.

2. Each time the pointer of ammeter ( milli or micro)may not be on a scale mark.
3. Zero error of the meters may not be accurately eliminated.
 9. Zener Diode

Aim: To draw the characteristic curves of a Zener diode and to determine its reverse
breakdown voltage.

Requirements: Zener diode, battery, rheostat, two voltmeters, one microammeter, one
resistance, one way key, connecting wires.

Theory:

Zener diode is a semiconductor diode in which the n-type and p-type sections are heavily
doped. This heave doping results ina low value of reverse breakdown voltage. Zener diode is
always operated in the reverse bias. In the forward bias it works as a normal diode.

The reverse breakdown voltage of zener diode is called zener voltage(VZ) . The
reverse current that results after the breakdown is called zener current (IZ). The circuit
diagram is shown. Initially as V1 increases, I1 increases and Vo increases. At breakdown,
increase of V1 increases I1 by large amount so that Vo = Vi – IIRI becomes constant. It is for
this reason that it is used as a voltage regulator. This constant value of breakdown voltage is
called zener voltage.

Observation:

S.No Voltmeter Reading (V) Micro ammeter

Reading (µA)
Procedure:
1) Make sure the connections are as shown.
2) Bring rheostat to minimum and insert key K. Voltmeter and ammeter will read zero.
3) Move the contact a little towards +ve end and apply some reverse bias voltage VI.
Microammeter reading remains zero.
4) As VI is further increased, II starts increasing and Vo becomes less than VI. Note the
values of VI, Vo, and II.
5) Keep increasing the VI in small steps. Note the corresponding values of II and VO.
6) At one stage as VI is increased, II increases by large amount and Vo doesn’t increase.
This is reverse breakdown situation.
7) As VI is increased further, II will increase keeping VO constant. Record your reading.
8) The V-I characteristic curve is then drawn.

Result: The reverse breakdown voltage of zener diode is

Precautions:

1) Use voltmeter and microammeter of suitable range.

2) Connect the zener diode pn junction in reverse bias.
3) The key should be kept on when the circuit is not in use.

Sources of error:

1. There may be contact resistance particularly if any connection remains loose.

2. Each time the pointer of ammeter ( milli or micro)may not be on a scale mark.
3. Zero error of the meters may not be accurately eliminated.
 10.Concave lens
Aim : To determine the focal length of the given concave lens using a
convex lens in combination.
Apparatus : Concave lens, convex lens, source box, lens stand, screen, meter
scale.
Formula:

Ray diagram :

Procedure :
(1) Find the rough focal length of convex lens.
(2) Place the convex lens infront of source box and form an image
beyond its C on the screen.
(3) Introduce the concave lens in between convex lens and the screen.
(4) Note the distance between screen and concave lens as u(object
distance) when the image is blurred.
(5) Now move the screen back word so as to get a clear image. Note the
distance between the screen and concave lens as image distance V
when the clear image is seen.
𝑢𝑣
(6) Calculate the focal length using the formula f =
𝑢 +𝑣
(7) Repeat the steps 2 to 6 for different positions of converse lens.
Observation and Tabular col.
S.No. Object distance Image distance Focal length f(cm)
u(cm) V(cm) uv
f 
vu

Mean f =

Calculation :

Result : The focal length of given concave lens is ……….m.

Precautions : (1) Convex lens must be of small focal length.

(2) Intensity of source box must be good.
Sources of error : (1) Parallel error possible.
(2) Principal axis of lens may not be parallel to table.

11.Convex mirror
Aim : To find the focal length of convex mirror using convex lens.
Apparatus: Convex mirror, convex lens, lens stand, source box, meter scale.
Formula:

Ray diagram
 Procedure :
(1) Find the rough focal length of convex lens. Let it be of large focal length.
(2) Form the image on the screen using convex lens beyond its C.
(3) Introduce the convex mirror between convex lens and screen and move
it towards the lens such that the image is formed on the source box itself.
(4) When the image is clear on the source box, measure the distance
between the convex mirror and the screen. Note it as R and calculate f.
(5) Repeat the steps 2 to 4 for different positions of convex.

Observation and Tabular column :

S.No. Distance between Focal length
R
mirror and screen
R(cm)
f  cm
2

Mean f = cm

Calculation :

Result: The focal length of the given convex mirror is …….. m .

Precautions : (1) Convex lens may be thin
(2) Source may not be bright
Sources of error : (1) Parallel error.
(2) Principal axis of lens and mirror may not be parallel to the
plane of table

12.Ohm’s law
Aim: To determine the resistivity of two wires by plotting a graph between
potential difference and current.
Apparatus Required: Resistance wire, battery eliminator, milliammeter,
voltmeter, connecting wires, Rheostat.
Formula

R – Resistance of the given wire in Ω

𝜌 -- Resistivity of given wire in Ωm
L – Length of the givrn wire in m
A – Area of the given wire in m 2
Circuit diagram

Procedure
(1) Make the connections as shown in the diagram.
(2) Adjust the rheostat and check whether ammeter and voltmeter is
showing reading.
(3) Note the voltmeter and ammeter readings by varying the rheostat.
Calculate the resistance using the formula.
(4) Repeat the observation.
(5) Plot the graph of V verses I and find the slope.

Observation 1:

For material 1
S.No. Ammeter reading Voltmeter reading V
Resistance R  
I(A) (V)
I

Observation 2:

For material 2:
S.No. Ammeter reading Voltmeter reading V
Resistance R  
I(A) (V)
I
 Model graph:

Result :
For material 1:
The resistance of the given wire from V-I graph……
The resistivity of thr given wire…….
For material 2:
The resistance of the given wire from V-I graph……
The resistivity of thr given wire…….

Sources of error : (1) Excess current may heat the coil and hence R will vary.
(2) Zero error may be their.
Precautions : (1) Connection must be tight and correct.
(2) Less amount of current may be passed.