Damage To Engine Bearings

KNOWLEDGEPOOL
DAMAGE TO ENGINE BEARINGS
OUR HEART BEATS FOR YOUR ENGINE.

MOTORSERVICE GROUP
QUALITY AND SERVICE FROM A SINGLE SOURCE
The Motorservice Group is the sales organisation for the worldwide aftermarket activities
of R
heinmetall Automotive. It is a leading supplier of engine components for the
independent aftermarket. With the premium brands K
olbenschmidt, Pierburg,
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and comprehensive range of top quality products from a single source. As a problem
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package. M
otorservice customers benefit from the combined technical know-how of a
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Edited by: Liability

Motorservice, Technical Market Support All information in this brochure has been carefully researched and compiled. Nevertheless, it is possible that errors
have occurred, information has been translated incorrectly, information is missing or the details provided have
Layout and production: changed in the intervening time. As a result, we are unable to provide any guarantee nor to accept any legal liability for
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or translated in full or in part without our prior intent or negligence on our part. Likewise, we shall not be liable for damage arising because the engine reconditioner or
written consent or without reference to the source of mechanic does not have the necessary technical expertise, the required knowledge of, or experience in repairs. The
the material. extent to which the technical methods and repair information described here will apply to future engine generations
cannot be predicted and must be verified in individual cases by the engineer servicing an engine or the workshop
All content including pictures and diagrams is operator.
subject to alteration. No liability accepted.
Published by:
© MS Motorservice International GmbH
CONTENTS 2 | 3
CONTENTS PAGE
1. BASIC INFORMATION 5
1.1 Bearing positions in the engine 5
1.2 Main bearings and connecting rod bearings in the crank mechanism 6
1.3 Functions of engine bearings 7
1.4 Structure of engine bearings 8
1.5 Removal of engine bearings in the event of damage 10
Removal of engine bearings in the event of damage
2. WEAR DUE TO MIXED FRICTION 12

2.1 Introduction 12
2.2 Adaptive run-in wear 13
2.3 Initial rubbing marks 14
2.4 Seizure 16
2.5 Special cases 18
2.5.1 One-sided edge wear 20
2.5.2 One-sided alternate edge wear 22
2.5.3 Two-sided edge wear 24
2.5.4 Wide wear marks in the centre of the bearing in the circumferential direction 26
2.5.5 Stripe-like wear in the centre of the bearing 28
2.5.6 Wear on opposing areas of the separation planes 30
2.5.7 Two-sided wear on areas of the separation planes 32
2.5.8 Narrow zone of wear in the crown of the bearing shell 34
2.5.9 Narrow, wear-free strips at the edges of the bearings 36
3. DAMAGE DUE TO THE INFLUENCE OF PARTICLES 38

3.1 Introduction 38
3.2 Scoring 40
3.3 Embedding 42
3.4 Dirt progression marks 44
3.5 Foreign particles on bearing back 46
4. EROSION AND CAVITATION 48

4.1 Erosion 48
4.2 Cavitation 49
7
5. FATIGUE DAMAGE 52
5.1 Introduction 52
5.2 Cracks and nicks to the sliding layer 54
5.3 Cracks and nicks to the bearing metal 55
6. OVERHEATING DAMAGE 56
6.1 Introduction 56
6.2 Heat cracks 57
6.3 Fusing of the sliding layer 58
6.4 Discolouration of the sliding layer and / or the back of the bearing 59
7. CORROSION 60
7.1 Frictional corrosion / Contact corrosion 61
7.2 Chemical corrosion 62
8. DAMAGE TO THRUST WASHERS 64
9. GLOSSARY 66
ABOUT THIS BROCHURE
This brochure provides an overview of the different types of Even though the bearing generally suffers the greatest damage,
damage in engine half shell bearings and thrust washers. It also the replacement alone of the damaged bearing often does not
supports experts with diagnostics and determining the cause of rectify the cause of damage.
damage.
During professional engine reconditioning, the actual cause of
The process of assessing engine damage always requires an the damage must therefore first of all be determined to then be
all-encompassing approach to identify the causes, which may able to take the suitable repair measures.
not always be clear. Following engine repair, failures may often
occur again. This is because damaged components may have For each case of damage shown, the characteristic damage
been replaced, but the cause of damage has not been rectified. symptoms are demonstrated using suitable bearing shells. It should
be noted that different damage symptoms may arise for different
Due to the high level of complexity of the interaction between the materials. Due to the different characteristics of damage symptoms,
individual components of a bearing inside the engine, the cause there may be deviations from the images shown in the brochure.
of damage is generally not easy to recognise. This is frequently
not to be found in the bearing itself, but in the surroundings of
the bearing.
01 Housing bore (example: connecting rod):

01
• Rigidity (elasticity and strength)
• Thermal distortion
• Manufacturing tolerances
• Surface quality
• Screw tightening torques
02
02 Shaft journals:
• Material (e.g. cast or steel shaft)
• Rigidity (elasticity and strength)
04
• Thermal distortion
• Oberflächengüte
• Surface quality
03 Lubrication:
• Lubricant (viscosity, additives)
• Oil supply (oil level, oil pressure,
oil pump, oil lines, oil filter)
• Level of contamination
03
04 Bearing shell:
• Material (resistance, wear resistance,
dry-running behaviour, embedding
properties)
• Surface quality
1.1 BEARING POSITIONS IN THE ENGINE 4 | 5
1. BASIC INFORMATION
1.1 BEARING POSITIONS IN THE ENGINE
The image of the six-cylinder engine shows the bearing positions
in the engine. Seven main bearings are installed, one of which is
designed as a thrust bearing. Between each of the main bearings
you can find the connecting rod bearings – one connecting rod
bearing per cylinder.
The other bearing positions, such as camshaft bearings, conrod

bushes and bearings for balancer shafts, are generally not half
shell bearings but plain bearing bushes.
This brochure focuses on the half shell bearings which are used
as bearings for the connecting rod and crankshaft in the crank
mechanism.
04
01 02 03
01 Connecting rod bearings 02 Thrust washers / main 03 Main bearings 04 Conrod bushes

bearings or flanged bearings
1.2 MAIN BEARINGS AND CONNECTING ROD BEARINGS
IN THE CRANK MECHANISM
Connecting rod bearings connect the connecting rod with the
crankshaft. The bearing shells can be divided into those on the
rod side and those on the cap side; the bearing shells on the rod
side are subject to much more strain than those on the cap side.
The ignition force generated during combustion is transferred to
the crankshaft through them. In petrol engines, the bearing shells
on the cap side are also subject to a high stress as there are high
inertial forces due to the higher speeds compared to a diesel
engine. Connecting rod bearings are supplied with oil via bores
from the main bearing via the crankshaft.
The bearings of the crankshaft are main bearings. Here, the bearing
is also divided into an upper and lower bearing shell. For the
main bearings, the lower bearing shell is subject to a higher
strain by absorbing the ignition forces. The forces transferred
from a connecting rod to the crankshaft are absorbed by several
main bearings, meaning that these are subject to a lower strain
than the conrod bearing shells on the rod side. The upper main
bearing shell contains an oil groove which conveys the oil to the
connecting rod bearings via bores in the crankshaft.
In order to also be able to absorb axial forces, which arise when

the clutch is actuated, for example, thrust washers or composite
bearings are installed as thrust bearings.
For each case of damage shown, the characteristic damage

symptoms are demonstrated using suitable bearing shells.
It should be noted that different damage symptoms may arise for
different materials. Due to the different characteristics of damage
symptoms, there may be deviations from the images shown in
the brochure.
1.3 FUNCTIONS OF ENGINE BEARINGS 6 | 7
1.3 FUNCTIONS OF ENGINE BEARINGS
01 02 04
Coefficient of friction μ
01
03
02
0 nü Speed n
Stribeck curve:
Relationship between friction and speed (constant load)
01 Static friction 01 Abrasion

02 Mixed friction 02 Formation of stable lubricating film
03 Transition point (transition speed)
04 Liquid friction
The main function of engine bearings is to absorb and transmit At low speeds, the hydrodynamic lift is not enough to keep the
forces between components which are moving in relation to one surfaces completely separate from one another. This results in
another. Friction should also be minimised, thereby enabling a partial contact between the sliding surfaces, creating the risk of
practically wear-free rotary motion. During operation, frictional bearing damage. It is only when the speed increases that the
forces are generated in every bearing which counteract the rotary frictional forces are reduced and a permanent lubrication film
motion and thereby generate heat. In order to reduce these forces is formed. Liquid friction/fluid friction is generated, whereby both
and to dissipate the frictional heat, it is necessary to have a the sliding surfaces are completely separate from one another. So
lubricating film between the bearing and the shaft journals. that the reliable functioning of the bearing can be ensured, the
Without this lubricating film, direct contact causes dry friction, resulting lubricant pressure in the bearing gap must be large
which in turn causes wear and abrasion on the bearing. enough to absorb the forces acting on the bearing without contact
of the sliding surfaces. This is the ideal operating point for engine
Hydrodynamic engine bearings, in which a stable lubricating film bearings. But this form of friction also generates heat, meaning
forms through the relative movement between the bearing shell that sufficient lubrication is also required for heat dissipation.
and journal alone, pass through a mixed friction range up to a
particular transition speed.
1.4 STRUCTURE OF ENGINE BEARINGS
In accordance with the standard DIN 50282 („The Tribological Image of bearing structure
Behaviour of Metallic Antifriction Materials – Significant
Definitions“), the tribological behaviour of an anti-friction material
01
can be characterised by terms such as running-in behaviour,
embedding properties, dry-running behaviour, wear resistance
02
and adaptability. The requirements made of the engine bearing
are therefore crucial when it comes to the choice of material.
03
There are two different anti-friction material families.
TWO-COMPONENT BEARINGS
• Steel-aluminium composites
Two-component bearings consist of a steel back, an intermediate

layer made of pure aluminium and the plated bearing material.
In the majority of cases, an aluminium alloy with tin, copper and
silicon additives is selected for the material.
01 Steel back
02 Intermediate layer (if required)
03 Bearing material
Steel-aluminium
Bearing material: Aluminium

1.4 STRUCTURE OF ENGINE BEARINGSN 8 | 9
THREE-COMPONENT BEARINGS Image of bearing structure
• Sintered / cast steel-bronze or steel-brass composites with

01
an overlay
• Steel-aluminium composites with an overlay
02
Depending on the area of application and its specific requirements,

03
the overlay of the three-component bearings is applied as an
additional sliding layer in the form of a sputter, galvanic or bonded
coating layer. The bearing metal (aluminium, bronze or brass alloy) 04
is plated, cast or sintered onto the steel back. If required, an
intermediate layer made of nickel or a nickel alloy is applied
between the bearing material and the sliding layer (overlay) as a
diffusion barrier.
Different materials can therefore be used for engine bearings

depending on the requirements. Often a different material is
chosen for the bearing shell subject to the higher stress than for
the opposing bearing shell. In a V engine, the conrod bearing
shells are produced, for example, with a half shell bearing with a
sputter coating on the rod side, and with a half shell bearing
made from a steel-aluminium composite without coating on the
cap side.
01 Steel back
02 Bearing material
03 Intermediate layer (if required)
04 Sliding layer (overlay)
Galvanic Bonded Sputter
Bearing material: Bronze Bearing material: Aluminium or bronze Bearing material: Brass or bronze
Intermediate layer Sliding layer: Bonded Intermediate layer (for bronze)
Sliding layer: Galvanic Sliding layer: Sputter
1.5 REMOVAL OF ENGINE BEARINGS IN THE EVENT
OF DAMAGE
The following should be noted during the removal of bearing • Issues with other engine components, for example the
shells in the event of damage: crankshaft, must also be documented. In the majority of
• The bearing shells should be labelled according to seat and cases, damage to the interacting sliding partner of the
position in the main bearing centre line so that the events engine bearing can be recognised. Often, damage to the
leading to the damage can be better understood. In addition bearing is also the result of damage to other engine
to the appearance of the bearing, the seat can often provide components.
information on the events leading to the damage. In the event • In order to allow subsequent analyses, a sample should be
of bending of the crankshaft, above all the first and last taken of the oil used and the oil filter retained. Particle
main bearing along the centre line demonstrate one-sided residues can be documented and analysed, providing
wear marks, for example. information about possible causes of damage.
• Operating conditions (duration, type of stress) and other • The torques required to loosen the engine bolts must be
influences, such as the oil used, must be documented so documented. If the bolts are not fastened with the right
that it is possible to have a better assessment of the torque, relative movement between the bearing shell and
damage. the housing bore may be the result.
Tightening the bolts in accordance with the manufacturer‘s

instructions
1.5 REMOVAL OF ENGINE BEARINGS IN THE EVENT OF DAMAGE 10 | 11
Documenting the seat and position of the bearing
Comparison of the old and new bearings

2. WEAR DUE TO MIXED FRICTION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
01 02 03
New state Complete 01 Adaptive run-in wear

before use failure 02 Initial rubbing marks
03 Seizure
Wear is the progressive loss of material from the surface of a solid

body, due to mechanical action, i.e. the contact and relative motion
against a solid, liquid or gaseous counterbody (DIN 50320).
In bearing shells, wear is caused by metallic contact due to mixed

friction between the bearing and the shaft journal.
This is the case, for example, each time the engine is started
and stopped. Between standstill and the transition speed of the
shaft, the bearings used pass through the mixed friction range. In
this range, the load bearing capacity of the lubricating film is not
always sufficient to completely separate the interacting sliding
parts from each other (see chapter: „1.3 Functions of engine
bearings“). Especially for vehicles with start / stop function,
wear-resistant materials therefore play an important role. At low
speeds and high stress, it may also occur that liquid friction is
not achieved and the bearing is worn. Deviations in terms of
geometry due to installation errors or the deformation of journals
and the bearing line may also cause wear.
During the first hours of operation of a bearing, the interacting

sliding parts adapt. Here, roughness peaks are smoothed and
the roughness profile levelled. This adaptive run-in wear can by
all means be considered desirable and does not represent an
impairment of the function of the bearing. When the influence
of the mixed friction intensifies, the common adaptive run-in
wear develops through an initial rubbing mark to seizure – and
therefore complete failure.
2.2 ADAPTIVE RUN-IN WEAR 12 | 13
2.2 ADAPTIVE RUN-IN WEAR

DESCRIPTION
• Bright, smooth wear marks in the main load area

• Marks which gradually start and taper off
• Machining structure of the bearing is still recognisable
Lower main bearing shell
steel-aluminium composite
(without coating)
In the centre of the bearing, a bright stripe

of wear can be seen. In the area of the
relief and the edges of the bearing, no
traces of operation are visible, however.
Here, the machining structure of the
bearing can still be recognised.
ASSESSMENT
During the initial hours of operation of a bearing, the roughness

peaks are smoothed and the roughness profile levelled through NOTE
the contact between the bearing and shaft journal during mixed The function of the bearing is not impaired.
friction operation. The wear mainly appears in the main load area
of the bearing or in areas of macroscopic form deviations
(see chapter: „2.5 Special cases“). If, however, the adaptive run-in wear intensifies (for example due
to a sustained error in alignment and form), initial rubbing marks,
The adaptive run-in wear is desired and therefore does not seizure or fatigue damage may be the result.
represent damage to the bearing.
2.3 INITIAL RUBBING MARKS
DESCRIPTION
• Bright, smooth marks of mixed friction, above all in the

main load area
• Sliding layer displaced into the relief area, mostly in the
direction of rotation and tongue-shaped
• Scoring
Cap-side conrod bearing shell

In the centre of the bearing a clear bright

mark of mixed friction, with associated
scoring, is recognisable. The wear pattern
is displaced out into the relief area.
Rod-side conrod bearing shell

steel-brass composite with
sputter coating
A bright mark of mixed friction, with partial

associated scoring, is recognisable. The
sputter coating has been displaced out
into the relief area. The area where is the
sputter coating has already seized has
fused.
2.3 INITIAL RUBBING MARKS 14 | 15
ASSESSMENT
Initial rubbing marks may result from run-in marks if the effect of If the mixed friction state is continued, the initial rubbing marks
mixed friction intensifies. If this is a temporary state, these may are strengthened and scoring at the journal may occur.
be levelled out again; the functionality of the bearing is not The result is seizure at the affected bearing shells, whereby the
further impaired. Assessing this is very difficult, however. bearing shell welds with the journal due to thermal stress.
POSSIBLE CAUSES
• Oil bores not free: the reason may be the incorrect • Blocked oil filter
installation of the bearing shells or blockage of the oil bores • Defective oil pump
– the latter is often the case when biological fuels are used • Leak in the oil lines
• The lubrication gap is too small, meaning that a stable • Overstressing of the bearings: the strain is higher than the
lubrication film cannot be formed – cause: form and bearing is designed for – causes are chip tuning or piston
geometry deviations of the shaft or journal, or bending of seizure, for example
the crankshaft • Effect of particles: particles find their way into the bearing
• The lubrication gap is too large, meaning that the gap, causing initial rubbing marks on the journal and
hydrodynamic pressure required for the formation of the bearing. In the event of embedding or scoring, edges are
stable lubricating film is not achieved created, resulting in greatly increased mixed friction
• Oil level or oil pressure too low
REMEDY
Initial rubbing marks may continue to develop into seizure of the • Check the oil pump is functioning
bearings. It is therefore important to replace the bearings and to • Check the oil lines for any leaks
rectify the cause: • Check the stress of individual bearings
• Check that all of the oil bores are free and that there is no • Check the entire bearing set for the embedding of particles
blockage or grooves. If present, the influence of particles may have
• Check the actual bearing clearance: if it is not within the caused the formation of the initial rubbing marks (see
tolerance range, form and geometry errors are often the chapter: „3. Damage due to the influence of particles“)
cause (see chapter: „2.5 Special cases“)
• Check the functioning of the oil filter and always change the
oil filter and oil according to the manufacturer‘s instructions
• Check the oil level and oil pressure and readjust if necessary
2.4 SEIZURE
DESCRIPTION
• Areas of torn-out material

• Pronounced scoring and deformation
• Exposure as well as roughening and fissures
• Occurrence of free spread measure is visible with the
naked eye in comparison to adjacent bearing shells
without seizure
• Overheating phenomena, such as fusing of the bearing
material and discolouration, often occur together with
seizure

Fusion and displacement of the bearing

material beyond the edge of the bearing,
as well as a jagged surface with areas of
torn-out material, are present.
2.4 SEIZURE 16 | 17
ASSESSMENT
High temperatures in the area of high mixed friction cause localised Damage due to the influence of particles or initial rubbing marks
welding between the journal and bearing. These welded areas may occur at adjacent bearings due to the deposits from abrasion
break up again, whereby the bearing material – which is softer brought in through the lubricant circuit.
compared to the crankshaft – is torn off. An acute lack of lubricant Initial rubbing marks are the preliminary stages of bearing
is the cause here. The temperature development caused by this seizure.
causes overheating damage – a common side effect of bearing
seizure.
POSSIBLE CAUSES
• Oil bores not free: the reason may be the incorrect installation • Blocked oil filter
of the bearing shells or blockage of the oil bores – the latter • Defective oil pump
is often the case when biological fuels are used • Leak in the oil lines
• The lubrication gap is too small, meaning that a stable • Overstressing of the bearings: the strain is higher than the
lubrication film cannot be formed – cause: form and geometry bearing is designed for – causes are chip tuning or piston
deviations of the shaft or journal, or bending of the crankshaft seizure, for example
• The lubrication gap is too large, meaning that the • Effect of particles: particles find their way into the bearing
hydrodynamic pressure required for the formation of the gap, causing initial rubbing marks on the journal and
stable lubricating film is not achieved bearing. In the event of embedding or scoring, edges are
• Oil level or oil pressure too low created, resulting in greatly increased mixed friction
REMEDY
Seizure is amongst the most serious types of bearing damage. • Check the oil pump is functioning
The bearing is destroyed and has to be replaced. If use of the • Check the oil lines for any leaks
bearing is continued, other engine components may be damaged. • Check the stress of individual bearings
• Check that all of the oil bores are free and that there is no • Check the entire bearing set for the embedding of particles or
blockage grooves. If present, the influence of particles may have
• Check the actual bearing clearance: if it is not within the caused the formation of the initial rubbing marks (see
tolerance range, form and geometry errors are often the chapter: „3. Damage due to the influence of particles“)
cause (see chapter: „2.5 Special cases“)
• Check the functioning of the oil filter and always change the
oil filter and oil according to the manufacturer‘s instructions
• Check the oil level and oil pressure and readjust if necessary
2.5 SPECIAL CASES
There are some cases where the Lower Upper
bearing shells display a special bearing shell bearing shell Chapter
wear pattern. The following 2.5.1
damage pictogram can be used One-sided edge wear
to assign possible damage • On the upper and lower shell, on the same side
symptoms to a type of damage. in each case
2.5.2
One-sided alternate edge wear
• On the upper and lower shell, diagonally
opposed
• Different areas may be pronounced to
differing degrees
2.5.3
Two-sided edge wear
• On the upper and lower shell on both sides
2.5.4
Wide wear marks in the centre of the bearing
• Generally pronounced to the same extent on the
upper and lower shell
• No pronounced wear pattern for main bearing
shells in the upper bearing shell due to oil
groove
2.5.5
Stripe-like wear in the centre of the bearing
• Generally pronounced to the same extent on the
upper and lower shell
• No pronounced wear pattern for upper main
bearing shells with oil groove
2.5 SPECIAL CASES 18 | 19
Lower Upper
bearing shell bearing shell Chapter
2.5.6
Wear on opposing areas of the separation planes
2.5.7
Two-sided wear on areas of the separation planes
2.5.8
Narrow zone of wear in the crown of the bearing shell
2.5.9
Narrow wear-free strips at the edges of the bearings
• May occur on one edge or both edges
2.5.1 ONE-SIDED EDGE WEAR
DESCRIPTION
• Bright, light stripes of wear on one side at the edge of the bearing
• Identifiable signs of material fatigue or initial rubbing marks
possible in the area of the edge wear in severe cases
• Overheating phenomena such as discolouration due to thermal
stress or carbon deposits in the area of the edge wear on the
bearing back

One-sided worn bearing edge is visible.

The wear occurs in the form of adaptive
run-in wear. The function of the bearing
is not impaired.
ASSESSMENT
The lubrication gap at the bearing edge is too low, meaning that Depending on the intensity of the wear at the bearing edges, this
the lubricating film is not fully stable and mixed friction occurs can be considered as completely normal. During operation, the
locally. If the shortage of lubrication continues, the temperature crankshaft is subject to bending, which above all has an effect on
increases due to the frictional heat that results. This could result the outer main bearings. The outer bearings therefore
in overheating damage such as dark discolouration of the demonstrate more pronounced edge wear.
bearing back. The shortage of lubrication continues to intensify
due to the increasing temperature level and the process
reinforces itself until the first initial rubbing marks occur and
fatigue damage occurs due to increased surface pressure.
POSSIBLE CAUSES
• Tapered ground journal (Fig. 1) • Bearing bore which is not aligned due to bolts with the
• Tapered bearing bore (Fig. 2) incorrect tightening torque during the assembly of the
• Rounding radius too large on one side (Fig. 3) engine or excessive distortion of the main bearing centre
• Bending of the crankshaft: during installation, the line due to temperature development during operation
crankshaft was not balanced or is deformed due to • Axial shell misalignment
mechanical strain during operation
Fig. 1: Tapered ground journal Fig. 2: Tapered bearing bore Fig. 3: Rounding radius too large on one side
REMEDY
Bearings that exhibit edge wear can continue to be used • Check alignment of the main bearing bore: during assembly
depending on their wear condition. of an engine, always make sure to use the specified
If these damage symptoms intensify after a few hours of tightening torques and bolt tightening sequence – the
operation, measures to determine the cause should be taken: engine must be sufficiently cooled during operation as
• Check for correct geometry of the crankshaft: Dimensions, deformations may also occur due to temperatures that are
roundness, cylindricity, ripple, surface roughness too high
• Check the bearing line bore is correct: Dimensions, • Check connecting rods for angularity before installation
roundness, cylindricity, surface
• Balance crankshaft during installation and check strain on
the shaft
2.5.2 ONE-SIDED ALTERNATE EDGE WEAR
DESCRIPTION
• Bright, light stripes of wear – opposite each other on one side

of the upper and lower shells
possible in the area of the edge wear
• Overheating phenomena such as discolouration possible
due to thermal stress or carbon deposits in the area of the
edge wear on the bearing back

sputter coating

The diagonally offset wear pattern can be

recognised. At the edge of the bearing,
the intensity of the wear is pronounced
to differing degrees in different areas.
The function of the bearing is not impaired.

ASSESSMENT
The lubrication gap at the bearing edge is too low, meaning that The shortage of lubrication continues to intensify due to the
the lubricating film is not fully stable and mixed friction occurs increasing temperature level and the process reinforces itself
locally. If the shortage of lubrication continues, the temperature until the first initial rubbing marks occur and fatigue damage
increases due to the frictional heat that results. This could occurs due to increased surface pressure.
result in overheating damage such as dark discolouration of the
bearing back.
POSSIBLE CAUSES
• Misalignment of the journals or

housing (Fig. 1)
• Incorrect rounding radii of the shaft
• Maladjustment of the connecting rod
(warped or twisted) (Fig. 2)
• Deformation of the crankcase
Fig. 1: Misalignment Fig. 2: Maladjustment of the connecting rod
REMEDY
Bearings that exhibit edge wear can continue to be used • Check alignment of the main bearing bore: during assembly
depending on their wear condition. of an engine, always make sure to use the specified
If these damage symptoms intensify after a few hours of tightening torques and bolt tightening sequence – the
operation, measures to determine the cause should be taken: engine must be sufficiently cooled during operation as
the shaft
2.5.3 TWO-SIDED EDGE WEAR
DESCRIPTION
• Bright, light stripes of wear on both sides at the edge of the

bearing
possible in the area of the edge wear
• Overheating phenomena such as discolouration possible
due to thermal stress or carbon deposits in the area of the
edge wear on the bearing back

Two-sided edge wear in the early stages –

wear in the form of adaptive run-in wear.

sputter coating
Two-sided edge wear in the early stages –

wear in the form of adaptive run-in wear.
ASSESSMENT
The lubrication gap at the bearing edge is too low, meaning that until the first initial rubbing marks occur and fatigue damage
the lubricating film is not fully stable and mixed friction occurs occurs in this area due to increased surface pressure.
locally. If the shortage of lubrication continues, the temperature Two-sided edge wear occurs very often in the main load area of a
increases due to the frictional heat that results. This could result bearing. Depending on the intensity of the wear, this can be
in overheating damage such as dark discolouration of the bearing considered normal, and does not impair the functioning.
back. The shortage of lubrication continues to intensify due to
the increasing temperature level and the process reinforces itself
POSSIBLE CAUSES
• Concave journal form (Fig. 1) • Too large an axial clearance, maladjustment of the
• Concave bearing bore (Fig. 2) connecting rod
• Too large a rounding radius between the journal and crank • Journal ground at an angle (Fig. 4)
web (Fig. 3)
Fig. 1: Concave journal form Fig. 2: Concave bearing bore Fig. 3: Too large a rounding Fig. 4: Journal ground at an
radius angle
REMEDY
Bearings that exhibit edge wear can continue to be used depending the shaft
on their wear condition. • Check alignment of the main bearing bore: during assembly
If these damage symptoms intensify after a few hours of of an engine, always make sure to use the specified
operation, measures to determine the cause should be taken: tightening torques and bolt tightening sequence – the
• Check for correct geometry of the crankshaft: Dimensions, engine must be sufficiently cooled during operation as
roundness, cylindricity, ripple, surface roughness deformations may also occur due to temperatures that are
• Check the bearing line bore is correct: Dimensions, too high
roundness, cylindricity, surface • Check connecting rods for angularity before installation
2.5.4 WIDE WEAR MARKS IN THE CENTRE OF THE BEARING IN THE
CIRCUMFERENTIAL DIRECTION
DESCRIPTION
• Acute wear marks in the centre of the bearing in the

circumferential direction
• Less worn bearing edges
• Local material displacement in circumferential direction
• In severe cases: signs of material fatigue and initial rubbing
marks visible

Clear wear marks in the centre of the

bearing which taper off towards the relief
can be identified. They are already
noticeable as initial rubbing marks in the
sliding layer.

Here, a strong wear pattern in the centre

of the bearing which tapers off towards
the relief can be identified. In terms of
form, the wear pattern still corresponds to
adaptive run-in wear.
ASSESSMENT
The lubrication gap in the centre of the bearing is too low, The shortage of lubrication continues to intensify due to the
meaning that the lubricating film is not fully stable and mixed increasing temperature level. This process reinforces itself until
friction occurs locally. If the shortage of lubrication continues, the first initial rubbing marks and fatigue damage occur in this
the temperature increases due to the frictional heat that results. area due to increased surface pressure.
POSSIBLE CAUSES
• Journal shape that is too strongly convex (Fig. 1)

• Convex bearing bore (Fig. 2)
• Shortage of lubricant
Fig. 1: Journal shape that is too strongly Fig. 2: Convex bearing bore
convex
REMEDY
The bearings can continue to be used depending on their wear • Check alignment of the main bearing bore: during assembly
condition. They should be replaced as soon as initial rubbing of an engine, always make sure to use the specified
marks develop or indicators of material fatigue become visible tightening torques and bolt tightening sequence – the
and measures to determine the cause should be taken: engine must be sufficiently cooled during operation as
roundness, cylindricity, surface • Check lubrication system (see chapter: „2.3 Initial rubbing
• Balance crankshaft during installation and check strain on mark“)
the shaft
2.5.5 STRIPE-LIKE WEAR IN THE CENTRE OF THE BEARING
DESCRIPTION
• Stripe-like wear in the centre of the bearing as a continuation

of the oil groove – in both bearing shells in the area of the
oil bore on the journal in the case of connecting rod bearings
• Sometimes with circumferential scratches
• Less worn bearing edges
• Highly localised zone of wear
marks visible

Clearly delineated stripes can be seen in

the centre of the bearing. This corresponds
to the shape of the oil groove which is in
the upper main bearing shell. The wear
marks occur in the form of adaptive run-in
wear.
ASSESSMENT
This type of wear may be due to a lacking or insufficiently rounded Since there is no metallic contact between the journal and
oil bore (Fig. 1). With this in mind, the wear in the lower bearing bearing due to the oil groove, no material removal takes place
shell in main bearings or in both bearing shells in connecting rod and a ridge forms on the journal. This ridges leads to stripe-like
bearings is very pronounced in the area of the oil bore on the wear in the bearing shell without an oil groove.
journal. Both processes can lead to initial rubbing marks and fatigue
A second way in which wear arises that can lead to the same damage.
damage symptoms is ridge wear (Fig. 2). This results from the
lower journal wear in the area of the oil groove.
POSSIBLE CAUSES
• Lacking or insufficiently rounded oil bore (Fig. 1)

• Unfavourable material combination of the bearing and
journal leads to lower journal wear in the area of the oil
groove (Fig. 2)
Fig. 1: Lacking or insufficiently rounded oil bore
(1) There is no metallic contact in the (2) A very small ridge can form due to the (3) In the lower main bearing that
area of the oil groove in the upper main reduced journal wear in the area of the oil does not have an oil groove, this ridge
bearing shell. The journal wear is lower groove (shown exaggerated here to aid causes increased wear in the centre of
than in the areas in contact with the understanding). the bearing. This leads to the typical
bearing surface. stripe-like wear pattern in ridge wear.
Fig. 2: Unfavourable material combination of the bearing and journal
REMEDY
The bearings can continue to be used depending on their wear

condition. They should be replaced as soon as initial rubbing
marks develop or indicators of material fatigue become visible
and measures to determine the cause should be taken:
• Check and reworking of the oil bore outlet
• Check shaft journals for ridges in the area of the oil groove
• Check material combination of the journal and bearing
(hardness of shaft / bearing)
• Check roughness of the journal
2.5.6 WEAR ON OPPOSING AREAS OF THE SEPARATION PLANES
DESCRIPTION
• Significant wear marks in the area of the diagonally opposite

reliefs
• Crown of the bearing shell significantly less worn
marks visible

Pronounced wear is visible in the relief,

whilst the bearing crown is considerably
less worn.
ASSESSMENT
If the bearing shells in this area carry weight, the fault is severe. The shortage of lubrication continues to intensify due to the
Misalignment of the bearing shells to one another due to an increasing temperature level and the process reinforces itself
installation error can be the cause for the wear that occurs. until the first initial rubbing marks occur and fatigue damage
The bearing clearance is too low locally due to the cover offset, occurs due to increased surface pressure.
meaning that the lubricating film is not fully stable and mixed
friction occurs in places. If the shortage of lubrication continues,
the temperature increases due to the frictional heat that results.
POSSIBLE CAUSES
• Wrong bearing cap installed

• Bearing cap installed twisted by 180 degrees
• Unsuitable tool or wrong locating bolts used
• Wrong tightening sequence or wrong tightening torque of
the bolts
REMEDY
The bearing must be replaced and the cause rectified as the

bearing is not designed to carry weight in this area:
• Pay attention to the relation of the bearing shells to the
cylinder
• Only mount suitable bolts with an appropriate tool
• Tighten bolts in accordance with the manufacturer‘s
specifications with regard to tightening torques and the
tightening sequence
• Check bore: dimensions, roundness, cylindricity, surface
must be within certain specified tolerances
2.5.7 TWO-SIDED WEAR ON AREAS OF THE SEPARATION PLANES
DESCRIPTION
• Significant wear marks in the area of both reliefs on the upper

and lower shell
• Crowns of the bearing shells significantly less worn
marks visible

Very pronounced wear marks can be

recognised on both sides in the area of
the separation planes. The crown / main
load area of the bearing shell is, however,
considerably less worn.
ASSESSMENT
If the bearing shells in this area carry weight, the fault is severe. The shortage of lubrication continues to intensify due to the
This appearance can be caused by a vertical oval bore. increasing temperature level and the process reinforces itself
This reduces the bearing clearance in the area of the parting face until the first initial rubbing marks occur and fatigue damage
meaning that the lubricating film is not fully stable and mixed occurs in this area due to increased surface pressure.
friction occurs in the reliefs. If the shortage of lubrication
continues, the temperature increases due to the frictional heat
that results.
POSSIBLE CAUSES
• Oval deformation of the bearing bore due to thermal or

mechanical stress
• Connecting rod with oval connecting rod eye – connecting
rods that have already been used have been reinstalled
without the reworking required
• Wrong bolt tightening when boring the bore
REMEDY
• Check stress on the bearing bore

• Check bore: dimensions, roundness, cylindricity, surface
must be within certain tolerances – rework used parts
before reinstalling if necessary
tightening sequence
2.5.8 NARROW ZONE OF WEAR IN THE CROWN OF THE BEARING SHELL
DESCRIPTION
• Narrow wear marks in the shell crown

• More pronounced in the shell that receives most stress
marks visible
Upper main bearing shell

Wear marks in the area of the crown in the

form of adaptive run-in wear can be
recognised. No other operating marks are
visible in other parts of the bearing sliding
surfaces.
ASSESSMENT
This appearance is caused by a horizontal oval bore. This reduces The shortage of lubrication continues to intensify due to the
the bearing clearance in the crown meaning that the lubricating increasing temperature level and the process reinforces itself
film is not fully stable and mixed friction occurs in places. If the until the first initial rubbing marks occur and fatigue damage
shortage of lubrication continues, the temperature increases due occurs in this area due to increased surface pressure.
to the frictional heat that results.
POSSIBLE CAUSES
• Placement of the connecting rod or the housing striking faces

• Wrong bolt tightening when boring the bore
• Extreme connecting rod pressure load
REMEDY
• Check the bearing line bore is correct: Dimensions,

tightening sequence
• Check stress on the connecting rod
2.5.9 Narrow wear-free strips at the edges of the bearings
DESCRIPTION
• Narrow, wear-free strips at the edges of the bearings

• No run-in marks visible in this area
• Machining structure from production still recognisable in
this area
• Clear definition between the wear-free strips and the worn
area recognisable

Two wear-free strips are recognisable at the

edges of the bearings without any visible
wear marks. The remaining part of the
bearing has a slight black discolouration,
possibly due to corrosion or wear.
Upper main bearing shell

One wear-free strip is recognisable at the

edges of the bearings without any visible
wear marks. The remaining part of the
bearing has pronounced scoring.
ASSESSMENT
Due to one-sided (Fig. 1) or two-sided (Fig. 2) axial protrusion of

the bearing shells, narrow, wear-free strips at the edges of the
bearings are formed, which also do not demonstrate the typical
adaptive run-in wear. Irrespective of the speed of the journal,
there is never any metallic contact in these areas.
Fig. 1: One-sided axial protrusion Fig. 2: Two-sided axial protrusion
POSSIBLE CAUSES
• Geometric deviations of the journal

• Incorrect choice of bearing width
• Clearance (shaft / journal misalignment)
REMEDY
The bearings can continue to be used depending on their wear

condition. They should be replaced as soon as initial rubbing
marks develop or indicators of material fatigue become visible
and measures to determine the cause should be taken:
• Check for correct geometry of the crankshaft before
installation: Dimensions, roundness
• Replace the crankshaft or install new bearings which fit the
crankshaft geometry
3. DAMAGE DUE TO THE INFLUENCE OF PARTICLES
3.1 INTRODUCTION
When foreign particles find their way into the lubrication gap Inadequate maintenance of the lubricating system or extreme
between the bearing and the shaft journal, there is a great risk external influences also promote the intake of dirt into the
of bearing damage. Due to the very low thickness of the lubricant circuit. Damaged adjacent bearings or other damaged
lubricating film, even small particles may disrupt operation and engine components can also introduce particles into the oil
cause mixed friction. They may become embedded in the sliding circuit.
layer and therefore made „harmless“. The edges created in the
process are flattened during contact with the shaft. Particles Generally, the danger of damage due to the influence of particles
which are larger than the thickness of the sliding layer cannot be in the main bearing is greater than in the connecting rod bearing.
completely embedded. The protruding part causes wear of the Connecting rod bearings are supplied with oil from the main
shaft journal in the form of grooves. Strongly pronounced grooves bearings via holes in the crankshaft, meaning that the oil first
lower the expected service life and may promote bearing seizure. runs through the main bearings. Larger particles are embedded
in the main bearing and so generally do not reach the connecting
Even during production or reconditioning of an engine, particles rod bearing.
can enter the engine block and become stuck. This may be the
case, for example, during the sand or glass blasting of an engine
block. Dirt particles may also „arise“ during operation, however
(for example, soot or carbon), or be introduced.
01
04
02
03
01 Steel back
02 Oil film
03 Shaft
04 Particle
3. DAMAGE DUE TO THE INFLUENCE OF PARTICLES 38 | 39
To gain an insight into where the particles have come from, it may be useful to analyse the bearing and a sample of the oil.
POSSIBLE CAUSES
• Mounting was not clean: due to carelessness or inadequate • Cavitation: particles are broken off of the bearing material
cleaning of the engine components during mounting, dirt and carried on by the oil – depending on the size, these may
may enter the engine block cause scoring or fine embedding in the bearing or in the
• Residues such as metal chips or residual blasting agent adjacent bearing
from production or reconditioning may form deposits in the • Seizure: seized engine components (pistons, bearing
engine block which then come away during operation – shells) cause numerous particles to enter the lubricant
often these are also deposits from attachments, such as the circuit, which in turn can cause damage to other components
oil cooler, which were not cleaned adequately during the • Fatigue damage: if material has broken off of engine
engine reconditioning components, this broken-off material can be further carried
• Damage to the seals in the area of the engine: if a seal is by the oil into the bearings and can cause damage here
excessively stressed or damaged during installation, it no
longer fulfils its function and particles can enter the system
• Lack of maintenance of the lubricant system: inspection
intervals that have been exceeded or blocked oil filters may
cause an increase in dirt in the oil
REMEDY
Generally, despite scoring or embedded particles, bearings can • Filtering of the intake air: service the filters regularly;
still be used. This depends on the extent of the damage, replace if necessary
however. If, for example, there are numerous large indents from • Check other engine components for damage such as
particles with initial marks of mixed friction due to material cavitation, fatigue or seizure – engine bearing damage due
accumulation, it is advisable to replace the bearing. Fine particle to the influence of particles is often consequential damage
indents do not impair the function of the bearing. In both cases, • If the influence of particles cannot be ascertained, the
the cause should be clarified in any case: analysis of damaged bearing shells and an oil sample may
• Cleaning of all components before mounting: it is important provide an insight: if particles are still embedded in the
to rinse out all of the oil bores in the shaft and housing bearing or present in the oil, their chemical composition can
before initial start-up. It is also important that the bearing be determined – if it is a case of material from the
seats are cleaned so that small chips and particles from crankshaft, for example, a more precise check for damage
production and / or reconditioning are removed – the oil can be carried out here
channels of attachments, such as oil cooler and
turbocharger, must also be thoroughly cleaned
• Check the seals for functionality
• Always replace the oil filter and oil according to the
manufacturer‘s specifications: ensure that the inspection
intervals are complied with and only oil and oil filters to the
right standard are used
3.2 SCORING
DESCRIPTION
• Stroke-like recesses in the sliding direction with material

accumulation at the edges
• The areas of material accumulation are partially levelled out
again due to wear, bright and light
• Generally in line with scoring or embedded particles in the
crankshaft or adjacent bearings

sputter coating
The groove extends up to the brass layer.

Light wear marks occur next to the scoring
due to smoothed material accumulation.

with polymer coating
The grooves are worn up to the aluminium

alloy layer.
3.2 SCORING 40 | 41
ASSESSMENT
Particles which find their way into the lubricant gap and are not This often leads to initial rubbing marks and seizure.
embedded into the bearing material are repeatedly forced through The scoring may also be the result of the influence of mixed
the gap, causing grooves in the process. Depending on the friction. Here, the grooves are fine and formed on the surface,
thickness of the edges created, these cannot be flattened during however, and appear at both interacting sliding parts.
further operation and, due to increased mixed friction, there is an
increase in temperature in the event of shaft contact.
REMEDY
If grooves with pronounced material accumulation are present at

the edges, the bearing must be replaced. If grooves are present
with areas of material accumulation which have been flattened,
and no further influence of particles can be expected, the bearings
can still be used.
3.3 EMBEDDING
DESCRIPTION
• Scarred surface
• Particle imprints (still containing particles in places),
surrounded by material accumulation which is visible as a
light shining point due to wear
• Often in conjunction with scoring in the journal and bearing
• In severe cases, initial rubbing marks from the embedding
are visible

Fine particle imprints and individual

scoring marks are visible.

Large particle imprints without

embedded particles are visible. The
particles have caused areas of material
accumulation which have caused an
initial rubbing mark in the centre of the
bearing.
3.3 EMBEDDING 42 | 43
ASSESSMENT
Particles which find their way into the lubricant gap may become Due to the material accumulations at the edges or protrusions
embedded in the bearing material. Depending on the thickness from particles which are not completely embedded, the formation
of the sliding layer, we can differentiate between deep and shallow of the lubricant film is disrupted, and mixed friction conditions
embedding. In the case of deep embedding, the particles are may be created. So-called „wire-wool“ wear is a possible
completely integrated into the sliding layer. This is only possible consequence. Here the embedded particles cut into the surface
when the particle is smaller than the thickness of the layer. of the shaft and remove material (chipping wool). The particles
The material accumulation created during the embedding is that break away, which are then embedded again, accelerate the
flattened during the subsequent contact with the shaft due to wear. bearing damage, and often complete failure of the journal and
Shallow embedding takes place when the size of the particle is bearing cannot be avoided.
greater than the thickness of the layer. The particles are not
completely embedded and protrude from the bearing surface. Initial rubbing marks and seizure can therefore result from
They cause wear and scoring on the journal surface. particle embedding.
REMEDY
If large particle embedding in conjunction with initial wear of the

journal and bearing is present, the bearing must be replaced.
If fine particle embedding is present, the material accumulation
of which has been flattened and no further influence of particles
can be expected, the function of the bearing is not impaired.
3.4 DIRT PROGRESSION MARKS
DESCRIPTION
• Individual indents, one after the other, are arranged in tracks.

At the end of these, there may still be particles embedded
• They generally run diagonally to the edge of the bearing
• Starting from the oil groove or lubricating holes
• Often in conjunction with scoring in the journal and
scoring / particle embedding in the bearing

A dirt progression mark, starting from the

parting face, has occurred. Several large
particle indents one after the other –
running diagonally – are visible. Particles
which are still embedded may be present
in part.
3.4 DIRT PROGRESSION MARKS 44 | 45
ASSESSMENT
Very large and hard particles which find their way into the
lubricant gap cannot become embedded in the bearing material.
They are forced through the lubricating gap, but then always
become stuck again. Frequently, the pattern appears from oil
grooves or oil bores as the particles were introduced here.
Pronounced material accumulation along the progression track
causes initial rubbing marks and seizure.
REMEDY
If there are pronounced areas of material accumulation along the

progression track, or signs of an initial rubbing mark, the bearing
must be replaced. The bearings can still be used, however, if the
material accumulations have been flattened and there is no
longer the risk of the influence of particles.
3.5 FOREIGN PARTICLES ON BEARING BACK
DESCRIPTION
• Locally limited deviation of the wear pattern

• Light wear point in the sliding surface
• Often particle residues / imprints on the steel back of the
bearing
• In severe cases pronounced marks of mixed friction in the
form of initial rubbing marks and signs of material fatigue in
the bearing sliding surface are visible

A clear deviation in the wear pattern,

as well as point-like wear in the sliding
surface can be recognised. The pressure
mark is the result of particles at the back
of the bearing.
Back of the bearing

3.5 FOREIGN PARTICLES ON BEARING BACK 46 | 47
ASSESSMENT
Due to dirt or oil residues (carbon) at the back of the bearing,

local pressure points arise, which become noticeable on the 01 03
bearing sliding surface. Due to the pressure, on the inside of the
bearing there is increased wear compared to the remaining areas
of the bearing. This can be recognised as a noticeable, mostly
bright light deviation to the wear mark. Depending on the extent
02
of the pressure points, initial rubbing marks and seizure, as well
as fatigue damage, may be the result.
01 Housing
02 Shaft
03 Particle
REMEDY
Whether the bearing can still be used depends on the progress of

the wear of the sliding layer. As soon as initial rubbing marks or
signs of material fatigue such as cracks or nicks in the area of the
pressure point occur, the bearing should be replaced, otherwise
there is the threat of complete failure. Broken-off material can
cause consequential damage in the same or an adjacent bearing.
4. EROSION AND CAVITATION
4.1 EROSION
DESCRIPTION
• Fine scoring in the direction of the

oil flow
• Roughening and fissures of the
sliding layer
ASSESSMENT
Erosion is a form of abrasive material removal, caused by the flow The integrity of the material is also influenced negatively as the
forces of the oil. This effect is reinforced by the smallest particles fissures on the surface can cause cracks. Damage caused by
in the oil, such as carbon deposits or deposits from abrasion. fatigue is the result.
Erosion is also often the result of cavitation, as here particles
from the material are broken off and enter into the lubrication Due to the use of thin oils, erosion is occurring more and more
system. frequently.
Erosion attacks the material surface and activates it chemically,
accelerating the initial corrosion.
POSSIBLE CAUSES
• High speeds and low bearing clearance • Smallest particles in the oil flow: particles may come from
• Use of incorrect engine oils with, for example, the incorrect different areas of the engine and may have been caused by
additives or without additives at all incomplete combustion or cavitation, for example
REMEDY
• Keep the temperature of the oil low through sufficient

cooling
• Always replace the oil filter and oil according to the
manufacturer‘s specifications: ensure that the inspection
intervals are complied with and only oil and oil filters to the
right standard are used
4.2 CAVITATION 48 | 49
4.2 CAVITATION
Cavitation is caused by the flow of the lubricant through the Despite the different ways in which they are created, for some
bearing gap. The vapour pressure of the oil used plays a crucial damage symptoms it can be difficult to differentiate between
role here. cavitation, erosion and corrosion. Often, complex transitional
forms also appear such as cavitation erosion or erosion corrosion.
Seen correctly, cavitation is merely the physical process of the This can be explained by the fact that both cavitation and erosion
fuel vapour lock of a liquid, which in itself does not cause any attack anti-corrosion layers, activate these chemically, resulting
damage to the bearing. The corresponding damage symptoms in corrosion.
describe cavitation erosion through the material removal typical
for this, as a result of the implosion of the vapour bubbles in
areas below the vapour pressure (cavitation <–> cavitation erosion).
CAVITATION
If the vapour pressure of the oil used is not reached, gas and
vapour bubbles form which are transported further by the flow.
This is known as cavitation. When the static pressure continues
to increase, these bubbles collapse like an implosion, resulting
in strong pressure surges – so-called microjets – as well as high
temperatures. The pressure surges cause the material to break off
and cause material removal, i.e. cavitation erosion.
Cavitation bubble is formed Implosion begins Microjet is formed Microjet breaks through
and grows the cavitation bubble and hits
the surface
DESCRIPTION
• Cavitation in the relief: pointed or mushroom-shaped nick Cavitation may also occur in other areas of the bearing, such as
in the relief towards the parting face. The area is clearly in the crown. These forms are, however, much harder to
roughened and matte differentiate from erosion and corrosion. Generally, you do not
• Cavitation in the run-out of the oil groove: mushroom- find material nicks such as with the forms mentioned above, but
shaped nick in the run-out of the oil groove, roughened instead matte, slightly roughened areas which could also be the
and matte area result of erosion or corrosion.

Cavitation in the relief: material removal

can clearly be seen – the area is matte
compared to the surrounding material.
Upper main bearing shells

Cavitation in the run-out of the oil groove:

a mushroom-shaped nick in the bearing
material can be seen. The area is much
more matte and roughened compared to
the surrounding material.
4.2 CAVITATION 50 | 51
ASSESSMENT
Pressure surges caused by the implosion of gas and vapour

bubbles near to the surface of the bearing result in material nicks
(see chapter: „4. Erosion and cavitation“). Cavitation often
comes hand-in-hand with erosion and corrosion and can cause
fine scoring in the same or adjacent bearings.
3D measurement – cavitation
POSSIBLE CAUSES
High temperatures and low-boiling impurities may advance Vibration or suction cavitation:
cavitation. • Lubrication gap is too large, causing the hydrodynamic
• Impurities in the oil: water, fuel or deposits from abrasion pressure in the bearing gap to fall
and dirt • Crankshaft vibration: Journal movement causes a reduction
• Oil pressure that is too low: unforeseen loss of pressure in pressure on one side due to resulting suction effect
(for example due to defective oil pump) is present or the oil • Vibration in the bearing bore (generally for connecting rod
pressure is set too low eyes) due to deformation or bending – resulting in
• The vapour pressure of the oil used is too low a reduction in pressure in the oil film
• Increase in temperature in the bearing (for example due to a
lack of oil) Flow cavitation:
• Oils with low viscosity increase the risk of cavitation • Breaks in the surface (oil bores, oil grooves) and diversion
• Hollow areas / foreign particles (for example carbon of the oil flow may cause a reduction in pressure
deposits) at the back of the bearing may cause vibration of
the bearing shell, resulting in cavitation
REMEDY
Bearings which demonstrate cavitation do not need to be • Check the lubricating gap and readjust bearing clearance
replaced. Depending on the extent of the cavitation, the service if necessary
life may be reduced due to the influence on the dynamics of the • Check the engine for vibration stress
bearing. Complete failure is not a concern, however. • Check the oil for fuel dilution
• Use quality oils and replace the oil and filter regularly in
accordance with the manufacturer‘s specifications
• Check the oil pressure and readjust if necessary
• Use an oil with a higher vapour pressure: The oil must be
compatible with all engine components, however. Consult
the manufacturer for advice if necessary
5. FATIGUE DAMAGE
5.1 INTRODUCTION
If the integrity of the material is exceeded locally, fatigue occurs.
The first cracks form (Fig. 1), which continue to grow due to notch
effect and a network of cracks develops (Fig. 2). In addition, nicks
occur (Fig. 3) in the bearing metal. The network of cracks and the
nicks reduce the strength of the bearing, meaning a fatigue
fracture can be caused in the event of stress. The engine bearing
has then lost its ability to function and complete failure occurs.
Particles enter the lubrication system due to the material
breaking off.
This can result in scoring or the embedding of particles in the
same or adjacent bearing shells. Initial rubbing marks and
seizure can also be caused in the same or adjacent bearings. Fig. 1: First cracks
Fig. 2: Network of cracks
Fig. 3: Nicks
5. FATIGUE DAMAGE 52 | 53
POSSIBLE CAUSES
Signs of fatigue, such as cracks and nicks on the bearing metal, • Poor oil quality or oil ageing: if unsuitable oil is used or the
are caused by dynamic overstrain. This can have various causes: oil is not of a sufficient quality due to ageing, this can impair
• Overstressing: if forces larger than the design allows for the formation of the lubricating film
affect the bearing, material fatigue occurs – combustion • Vibrations: if the bearing is subject to alternating tensions
defaults, such as knocking, increase the pressure on the due to vibrations, the risk of material fatigue increases
piston and therefore also on the connecting rod bearing • High temperatures: material fatigue is accelerated by high
• Lubrication gap dimensioned too small – a stable temperatures since they reduce the strength of the bearing
lubricating film cannot form: the lubricating film pressure material
rises in these locations and the surface pressure increases
– this can be caused by misalignment, formal errors, errors
in geometry or installation errors (see chapter: „2.5 Special
cases“) – inspection of the adjacent bearing can provide
more information
REMEDY
• Check stress of the bearings – if necessary, a bearing that is • Check connecting rods for angularity before installation
more resistant to fatigue must be used • Balance crankshaft during installation
• Check for correct geometry of the crankshaft: Dimensions, • Only use oil recommended by the manufacturer and observe
roundness, cylindricity, ripple, surface roughness oil change intervals
• Check the bearing line bore is correct: Dimensions, • Ensure sufficient engine cooling
• Check the alignment of the main bearing bore (observe
specified tightening torque of the bolts, cool engine
sufficiently)
5.2 CRACKS AND NICKS TO THE SLIDING LAYER
This type of damage only occurs with engine bearings with a sliding layer made of polymer / bonded, galvanic or sputter coating.
DESCRIPTION
• Fine cracks in the sliding layer identifiable: particularly

oblique to the direction of movement – is often known as
“bark beetle” as the damage symptoms resemble the
feeding pattern of a bark beetle
• Often associated with edge wear and discolouration of the
bearing surface

sputter coating
The engine bearing demonstrates signs

of fatigue towards the relief in the form of
cracks and initial nicks up into the brass
layer.
Main bearing shell

steel-bronze composite with
galvanic coating
One-sided edge wear on both bearing

shells caused the fatigue of the galvanic
layer and created the typical „bark beetle“
damage pattern.
For possible causes and remedy

see chapter „5.1 Introduction“
5.3 CRACKS AND NICKS TO THE BEARING METAL 54 | 55
5.3 CRACKS AND NICKS TO THE BEARING METAL

DESCRIPTION
• Cracks and cobblestone-like nicks down to the bearing

material
• Edges of the nick rounded off due to wear depending on
further service life

Large nicks and cracks can be recognised.

6. OVERHEATING DAMAGE
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Overheating damage is the result of dramatic temperature The heat dissipation provided by the lubricant plays a central role
development in the engine bearing shell, which goes hand-in- here. If heat dissipation is no longer provided, this causes
hand with acute mixed friction. This is why heat cracks, complete failure. Even with the initial signs of overheating, local
discolouration and fusing are also always displayed for initial changes to the microstructure occur and the integrity of the
rubbing marks or seizure. material is reduced. Heat cracks form at the affected areas.
POSSIBLE CAUSES
• Consequential damage due to increasing temperature • Insufficient heat dissipation provided by the lubricant
development as a result of initial rubbing marks, seizure or (see chapter: „2.3 Initial rubbing marks“)
edge wear
REMEDY
If overheating damage occurs, the bearing must be replaced and If no further damage to the bearing is visible, the lubricant circuit
the causes investigated. In the event of consequential damage, (see chapter: „2.3 Initial rubbing mark“) and the stress on the
the cause of the primary damage must be rectified. bearing must be checked.
6.2 HEAT CRACKS 56 | 57
6.2 HEAT CRACKS

DESCRIPTION
• A network of cracks is visible

• Fusing and discolouration of the bearing shell
Cap and rod-side conrod bearing shell

steel-bronze composite with galvanic
coating
Clear discolouration and fusion is visible

on the sliding layer of the seized bearing
shells. The crack formation is above all
recognisable in the area of the edge.

6.3 FUSING OF THE SLIDING LAYER
DESCRIPTION
• Material displacement and smearing visible in the sliding

surface
• Accompanied by heat cracks and discolouration of the
bearing shell

galvanic coating
White fusion deposits are visible in the

galvanic layer.

6.4 DISCOLOURATION OF THE SLIDING LAYER AND / OR THE BACK OF THE BEARING 58 | 59
6.4 DISCOLOURATION OF THE SLIDING LAYER

AND / OR THE BACK OF THE BEARING
DESCRIPTION
• Blue-ish to black discolouration of the sliding layer or on the

back of the bearing
• Accompanied by lumps and material removal / displacement

galvanic coating
Following bearing seizure, the back of the

bearing is black in colour.

galvanic coating
The tarnishing colour can be seen in the

sliding layer.

7. CORROSION
7.1 FRICTIONAL CORROSION / CONTACT CORROSION
DESCRIPTION
• Scarred surface of the back of the bearing or in the area of

the parting face
• Roughened, matte areas

In the area of the parting face, signs of

movement of the bearing shell in the form
of frictional corrosion may also be visible.
The material surface has clearly changed
(Fig. 1).
Fig. 1: Clearly changed surface
Upper main bearing shells

Clear traces of frictional corrosion can be

recognised – in part with areas of torn-out
material (Fig. 2).
Here, the clear characteristics of surface

frictional corrosion are recognisable: with
areas of torn-out material and scarring of
Fig. 2: Areas of torn-out material Fig. 3: Areas of torn-out material
the surface (Fig. 3).
and scarring of the surface
7.1 FRICTIONAL CORROSION / CONTACT CORROSION 60 | 61
ASSESSMENT
If the bearing shell is not sitting correctly in the bearing block, The surrounding medium can penetrate into the surface (which is
frictional corrosion is caused due to the resulting relative already roughened and chemically activated) and accelerate the
movement (micro sliding movements). The frictional heat corrosion.
generated by the movement of the bearing cannot be dissipated Frictional corrosion reduces the integrity of the material, as the
by the lubricant as in the inside of the bearing, but instead formation of micro cracks is facilitated. Fatigue damage with
causes local overheating of the steel back. The overheating consequences such as cracks or fatigue fractures can be the
causes fusing and the scarred surface typical of this. There is a result.
transfer of material between the back of the bearing and the
bore.
POSSIBLE CAUSES
• Insufficient preloading due to bore being too large or • Bending of the crankshaft: the bending of the crankshaft
bearing shell being too small leaves a particular wear pattern on the sliding surface of the
• Bearing shell protrusion too small: the protrusion of the bearing (see chapter: „2.5 Special cases“)
bearing shell guarantees the reliable fit through sufficient • Insufficiently tightened bolts
press fitting • Vibrations from the housing or the crankshaft which cause
• Housing deformation: for crankcases made from aluminium, micro-movements (vibration may also be caused by foreign
the housing and bearing shell can deform differently under particles and / or hollow areas)
the effect of extreme temperatures, whereby the reliable fit
of the bearing may no longer be sufficient
REMEDY
When the signs of contact corrosion are recognisable, the • Check the locating hole and housing for possible deformation
bearing must be replaced as the integrity may already be • Balance crankshaft during installation and check strain on
reduced. the shaft
• Locating hole and bearing shell outer diameter must be • Tighten bolts in accordance with the manufacturer‘s
within the tolerance range so that the specified bearing specifications with regard to tightening torques and the
clearance can be met tightening sequence
• Protrusion: in order to create the desired press fit for the • Check engine for vibration during operation
reliable fit, the bearing shell must have a sufficient
protrusion
7.2 CHEMICAL CORROSION
DESCRIPTION
• Discolouration of the material surface, mainly in the main

load area
• Sliding surface rough and porous

Deposits from corrosion products are

visible in the bearing sliding surface,
especially pronounced in the centre of the
bearing. The deposits appear in the
formation of stains. When studied under
a microscope, roughening of the bearing
sliding surface can be seen in the
corroded area.
7.2 CHEMICAL CORROSION 62 | 63
ASSESSMENT
Chemical corrosion is caused by reactions between the bearing The integrity of the material is adversely affected by the chemical
shell and engine oil. Triggers for the chemical reaction are attack, meaning that fatigue damage is accelerated, even with
aggressive additives in the oil or oil contamination during low stress.
operation.
POSSIBLE CAUSES
• Wear, cavitation and erosion can assist corrosion since they • Contamination of the oil with water or antifreeze
attack the material surface and activate it chemically • High operating temperatures accelerate chemical processes
• Formation of acids and metal salts as a result of oil ageing such as oil ageing
• Impermissible, aggressive oil additives
• Aggressive products from combustion (sulphur, hydrogen
sulphide)
REMEDY
Corroded bearings must be replaced.

• Always carry out oil changes in accordance with the
manufacturer‘s instructions
• Only use quality oils free from aggressive additives
• Cool engine sufficiently
8. DAMAGE TO THRUST WASHERS
Thrust washers enable the absorption of axial forces, which arise This is realised through the use of thrust washers or pre-assembled,
when the clutch is actuated, for example. This means one bearing ready-for-installation collar bearings or flanged bearing halves.
position is always axially supported in the main bearing set.
Crack formation from outer edge to

outer edge
Large-scale material nick at the outer edge

of the thrust washer
POSSIBLE CAUSES
• Axial clearance too low, meaning that the thrust washer is • Sustained axial stress
pressed against the interacting sliding parts • Shaft flange too rough
• Axial stress too high
REMEDY
• Check the axial clearance of the crankshaft and keep to the • Check the axial stress on the thrust washer
specified tolerance range – if necessary use a thrust washer
with undersize grade
8. DAMAGE TO THRUST WASHERS 64 | 65
Sliding wear
Wear marks are visible on the sliding surface of the thrust washer New state before use
Advanced sliding wear

Material displacement and removal; oil groove hardly
still there
Seizure
Areas of torn-out material and pronounced scoring; oil grooves
are no longer visible
Complete failure
9. GLOSSARY
TECHNICAL NAMES AND NAMES ON THE ENGINE BEARING
01 02
01 02
03
03
06 08
05 07 04
04
09 05 09 10
06 07
04 08
01 Parting face 01 Face surface relief

02 Sliding surface relief 02 Parting face relief
03 Wall thickness 03 Oil groove on face relief
04 Left and right locking lugs 04 Crescent groove
05 Face relief 05 Oil distributing pocket
06 Oil bore 06 Sliding surface
07 Sliding surface 07 Face relief
08 Inner oil groove 08 Flange thickness
09 Bearing width 09 Bearing width
10 Flange spacing
02
01
01 Locking lug
02 Oil groove
9. GLOSSAR 66 | 67
EXPLANATION OF TECHNICAL TERMS
Abrasive Diffusion barrier

Rubbing / grinding The diffusion barrier is a thin layer, generally made from
nickel (Ni) or nickel-chromium (NiCr) which is intended to stop
Automatic start / stop system tin diffusion between the sputtered or galvanic sliding layer
Start / stop operation for combustion engines is primarily being (upper bearing layer) and the bronze bearing material.
driven forward due to the required reduction in CO2 emissions. Tin diffusion would change the mechanical characteristics of
During start / stop operation, the engine stops when the vehicle the sliding layer and the bearing metal.
comes to a standstill and starts again automatically to drive off.
This means the internal engine bearings must have increased Erosion
resistance to mixed friction. During each start and stop The removal of material as a result of the effects of the kinetic
operation, the bearings leave the hydrodynamic operating energy of solids, liquids or gases acting on the surface.
range and pass through the mixed friction range up to the zero
point of sliding speed. Only sliding layers specially optimised Free spread
for this guarantee sufficient wear resistance under these The free spread measure provides the deviation of the external
conditions, which are extremely critical in terms of tribology for diameter from the ideal circle in the area of the parting face.
the engine bearing. It represents the elastic recovery after shaping and is measured
in the uninstalled state. The resulting preload of the bearing
Axial force shell facilitates mounting through a good contact with the wall
A force which acts in the direction of the axis of a rotating body. of the bore, preventing the bearing from twisting or falling out.
Cracked connecting rods Galvanic

Cracked connecting rods are initially produced as a single unit, Electrochemical coating procedure – galvanic layers are applied
then given break lines (sinter rods) or laser notches (steel electrochemically to the fully prepared engine bearings. These
connecting rods) and split (cracking) into two parts. Both parts enable specific loads of up to 100 MPa. The adaptive processes
are screwed together when the connecting rods are assembled. during run-in are facilitated by the galvanic layers and the
Due to the individual breakage geometry, they fit together particle tolerance of the bearing shells, as well as their
precisely. emergency running properties, improved.
Groove system / oil groove

Groove systems are necessary to distribute the required
lubricant in the bearing, and to thereby enable the creation of a
hydrodynamic operating state. They are preferably arranged in
the unloaded area of the bearing. Lubricant distribution to other
consumers is also guaranteed by groove systems.
Initial rubbing marks

Pre-seizure stage which is caused by severe mixed friction
(for example due to lack of lubricating oil). Scoring and mixed
friction marks are typical of an initial rubbing mark, as well as
displacement of the sliding layer.
Liquid friction Relief
Also called fluid friction. With hydrodynamic engine bearings, a The area of the bearing shell in which the wall thickness is
stable lubricating film is not formed at lower speeds; there is reduced in the direction of the parting face. This compensates
mixed friction between the journal and the engine bearing. Only for mounting inaccuracies.
from the transition speed onwards does liquid friction, the
desired state, establish itself. Here, a stable lubricating film is Rod-side / cap-side
formed and the wear of journals and engine bearings is In order to be able to mount the connecting rod on the crankshaft,
minimised. the connecting rod bearing consists of a rod-side and cap-side
bearing shell. Once mounted, the connecting rod bolts clamp
Locking lugs the bearing shell pair to create a precisely closed bearing. The
The locking lugs are fixed to the bearing shells in the area of the rod-side bearing shell is subject to a much higher mechanical
parting face. They prevent errors during mounting due to the stress than the cap-side as the gas power from the combustion
axial positioning. process is passed to the crankshaft through it. Especially for
highly charged diesel engines, specific stresses of 100 MPa and
Parting face more impact on the engine bearing shell. The cap-side conrod
The parting faces of a bearing shell are the free ends of the bearing shell has the task of closing the bearing.
hollow cylinder section. These areas are created when
separating the plate from the strip or during corresponding Roundness
reworking. During mounting, the upper and lower shells in the The roundness of a rotating element in a section (vertically to
housing are tensioned via the parting faces, thus creating the its actual axis) is the same as the minimum width of the ring
press fit through the protrusion. between two circles with a common centre. In this section, the
centre can be moved freely so that the width of the ring reaches
Polymer coating the minimum value. Here, all the points of the element are
Also polymer bonding. The coating consists of a temperature- between these two circles.
and dirt-resistant polyamide resin that contains a high level of
friction- and wear-reducing bulking agents. By combining metal Sputter
and polymer components, the new product is 20% stronger Enhanced engine performance calls for materials of significantly
than conventional two-material bearings while also ensuring increased fatigue strength, lower wear rate in mixed friction
greater wear-resistance and less friction. operation and good corrosion resistance at elevated
temperatures, especially for connecting rod bearings. This
Press fit and protrusion complex requirements profile is met with the aid of physical
Bushes and bearing shells are mainly fixed in the housing with vapour deposition (PVD). Under high vacuum, extremely fine
press fitting. For bearing shells, the press fit is created by the particles are beaten out of a dispenser. By means of
fact that both half cylinders are produced with a circumferential electromagnetic fields, they are uniformly applied to the part to
length greater than 180°. The difference between the actual be coated. These magnetron layers are able to distribute the
circumferential length of the bearing shell and the individual microstructure components extremely finely.
circumferential length in relation to 180° is known as the This design is based on the well-known three-component
protrusion. The protrusion of the bearing shell has a direct bearing. The basic structure is maintained. Here, the galvanic
influence on the press fit. sliding layer is replaced by a sputtered sliding layer. Sputtered
bearing shells are primarily used on the thrust side of connecting
Pressure oil filling rod bearings. The opposing shells are conventional two or
In order to avoid run-in damage, such as dry running of the three-component bearings. The sputtered bearing shell must
engine bearings, the oil system must be filled with pressure oil be correctly positioned on installation to ensure operational
before the initial engine start and bled. safety.
9. GLOSSAR 68 | 69
Transition speed
Describes the transition point – the area in which the transition
from mixed friction to liquid friction takes place due to the
higher sliding speed. In hydrodynamic engine bearings – as
used in combustion engines – the thin lubricating film only
forms at higher sliding speeds. At lower sliding speeds, these
engine bearings have to withstand mixed friction with high
proportions of dry friction. For this reason, we always strive to
keep operation with mixed friction as short as possible.
Wear mark / wear pattern

Appearance of the bearing sliding surface caused by contact
with the journal during operation.
Wall thickness
The bearing clearance is determined by the wall thickness of
the engine bearing. As the outer diameter is specified by the
press fitting, the bearing clearance relative to the shaft
diameter can be adjusted by varying the wall thickness.
For reconditioned shafts, there are engine bearings with
different oversize grades (larger wall thicknesses).
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KNOWLEDGEPOOL

OUR HEART BEATS FOR YOUR ENGINE.

Rheinmetall Automotive is the mobility division of the technology corporation

Edited by: Liability

2. WEAR DUE TO MIXED FRICTION 12

3. DAMAGE DUE TO THE INFLUENCE OF PARTICLES 38

4. EROSION AND CAVITATION 48

8. DAMAGE TO THRUST WASHERS 64

01 Housing bore (example: connecting rod):

The other bearing positions, such as camshaft bearings, conrod

01 Connecting rod bearings 02 Thrust washers / main 03 Main bearings 04 Conrod bushes

In order to also be able to absorb axial forces, which arise when

For each case of damage shown, the characteristic damage

1.3 FUNCTIONS OF ENGINE BEARINGS

01 Static friction 01 Abrasion

There are two different anti-friction material families.

Two-component bearings consist of a steel back, an intermediate

Bearing material: Aluminium

THREE-COMPONENT BEARINGS Image of bearing structure

• Sintered / cast steel-bronze or steel-brass composites with

Depending on the area of application and its specific requirements,

Different materials can therefore be used for engine bearings

Galvanic Bonded Sputter

Tightening the bolts in accordance with the manufacturer‘s

Documenting the seat and position of the bearing

Comparison of the old and new bearings

New state Complete 01 Adaptive run-in wear

Wear is the progressive loss of material from the surface of a solid

In bearing shells, wear is caused by metallic contact due to mixed

During the first hours of operation of a bearing, the interacting

2.2 ADAPTIVE RUN-IN WEAR

• Bright, smooth wear marks in the main load area

In the centre of the bearing, a bright stripe

During the initial hours of operation of a bearing, the roughness

• Bright, smooth marks of mixed friction, above all in the

Cap-side conrod bearing shell

In the centre of the bearing a clear bright

Rod-side conrod bearing shell

A bright mark of mixed friction, with partial

• Areas of torn-out material

Lower main bearing shell

Fusion and displacement of the bearing

Lower main bearing shell

One-sided worn bearing edge is visible.

• Bright, light stripes of wear – opposite each other on one side

Rod-side conrod bearing shell

Cap-side conrod bearing shell

The diagonally offset wear pattern can be

The function of the bearing is not impaired.

• Misalignment of the journals or

Fig. 1: Misalignment Fig. 2: Maladjustment of the connecting rod

• Bright, light stripes of wear on both sides at the edge of the

Cap-side conrod bearing shell

Two-sided edge wear in the early stages –

Rod-side conrod bearing shell

Two-sided edge wear in the early stages –

• Acute wear marks in the centre of the bearing in the

Lower main bearing shell

01 Connecting rod bearings 02 Thrust washers / main 03 Main bearings 04 Conrod bushes