Prepared by:

Elena R. Rodeo
RSU-Cajidiocan
1
Environmental Science
 Overview

This module begins with a statement regarding environmental science as a holistic

approach in studying the biosphere and the impact of human activities on it, which
neither ecology nor biology covers. It explains the basic ecological concepts, picturing
the ecosystems as they naturally occur, before shifting attention to human impact, taking
the reader through the various environmental crises that beset the planet today. It moves
on to environmental, management, discussing approaches, strategies and laws, finishing
with a look at ethics and environmental education.

This course pack contains six modules and each lesson in the module consists of
introduction, activity, analysis, abstraction, and application.

2
Environmental Science
 Table of Contents

Page

TITLE PAGE
OVERVIEW

Module 1 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Lesson 1 Definition, scope and importance

Lesson 2 Environmental Principles

Module 2 BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

Lesson 1 Levels of Organization 1
Lesson 2 Species Interactions

Module 3 MAJOR TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS

Lesson 1 Terrestrial Ecosystem 1
Lesson 2 Fresh Water Ecosystem
Lesson 3 Marine Ecosystems

Module 4 ENVIRONMENTAL CRISES

1
Lesson 1 Anthropogenic Impact
Lesson 2 Garbage Problem
Lesson 3 Pollution
Lesson 4 Global Climate Change and Related Phenomena
Lesson 5 Ecosystem Degradation

Module 5 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Lesson 1 Strategies of Governments

1
Lesson 2 Corporate Management Strategies
Lesson 3 Philippine Environmental Laws
Lesson 4 Specific Laws

Module 6 ENVIRONMENTAL CRISES

1
Lesson 1 Ethics
Lesson 2 Education
3
Environmental Science
 MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL
SCIENCE

Module Overview

Module 1 covers 2 lessons. Lesson 1 explains the definition of Environmental

Science, Scope and Importance and Lesson 2 enumerates and explains the different
environmental principles.

Module Outcomes

1. Discuss the definition, scope and importance of environmental science.

2. Enumerate and explain the different environmental principles.
3. Highlight the broad values that people must seriously consider to preserve the
environment and attain a better quality of life.

LESSON 1 Definition, Scope and Importance

Learning Outcomes

1. Define environmental science.

2. Discuss the scope and importance of environmental science.

Introduction

The word ecology is derived from the Greek word oikos, meaning “house or place to
live in.” It is the study of the interactions of organisms with one another and with their
physical and biological environment. The term environment refers to the sum of all
external factors acting on an organism or community of organisms which includes the
living (biotic) organisms like plants and animals, and the nonliving (abiotic) elements
such as air, water and soil.
The ecosystem, the basic functional unit in ecology, refers to the living component,
the environment and the interaction between and among them. It includes organisms,
populations and communities, habitats and the environment. The levels of organization
of life are interrelated with each other. One cannot exist without the other. This
interrelatedness shows that organisms are dependent on one another.

4
Environmental Science
 Activity

Directions: Classify the following field of environmental science, write A if it is physical

science and write B if it is social sciences.
1. geography __________ 7. Demography _________
2. economics __________ 8. Biology _____________
3. chemistry ___________ 9. Geology ___________
4. politics _____________ 10. Physics ____________
5. ethics ______________ 11. Engineering _________
6. resource technology___ 12. Resource conservation
and management ____

Analysis

After you classified the different field of science, define each briefly.

A. physical science
1. _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

2. _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

B. social science
1. _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

2. _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Abstraction

Awareness in the field of environmental sciences is becoming a global talk.

People worldwide are realizing its importance as they are able to smell a polluted
tomorrow. Careful handling of todays’ environment would only serve as a legacy for
tomorrows’ generation. Hence, we need to be judicious in exploiting our resources
optimally. To ensure a sustainable development we need to know something about
how our environment works. Environment can be defined as the set of conditions that
surround an organism or the complex of socio-cultural condition that affect an
individual. Environmental Science is the systematic, scientific study of the environment
in combination with living organisms.

There was a time when, as an educated person, you would have been expected
to converse confidently about any intellectual or cultural topic. You would have read the

5
Environmental Science
latest novel, been familiar with the work of the better-known poets, have had an opinion
about the current state of art, musical composition and both musical and theatrical
performance. Should the subject of the conversation have changed, you would have felt
equally relaxed discussing philosophical ideas. These might well have included the
results of recent scientific research, for until quite recently the word ‘philosophy’ was
used to describe theories derived from the investigation of natural phenomena as well as
those we associate with philosophy today. The word ‘science’ is simply an anglicized
version of the Latin scientia, which means ‘knowledge’. In German, which borrowed
much less from Latin, what we call ‘science’ is known as Wissenschaft, literally
‘knowledge’. ‘Science’ did not begin to be used in its restricted modern sense until the
middle of the last century.
As scientific discoveries accumulated it became increasingly difficult, and
eventually impossible, for any one person to keep fully abreast of developments across
the entire field. A point came when there was just too much information for a single brain
to hold. Scientists themselves could no longer switch back and forth between disciplines
as they used to do. They became specialists and during this century their specialisms
have divided repeatedly. As a broadly educated person today, you may still have a
general grasp of the basic principles of most of the specialisms, but not of the detail in
which the research workers themselves are immersed. This is not your fault and you are
not alone. Trapped inside their own specialisms, most research scientists find it difficult
to communicate with those engaged in other research areas, even those bordering their
own. No doubt you have heard the cliché defining a specialist as someone who knows
more and more about less and less. We are in the middle of what journalists call an
‘information explosion’ and most of that information is being generated by scientists.
Clearly, the situation is unsatisfactory and there is a need to draw the specialisms
into groups that will provide overarching views of broad topics. It should be possible, for
example, to fit the work of the molecular biologist, extracting, cloning, and sequencing
DNA, into some context that would relate it to the work of the taxonomist, and the work
of both to that of the biochemist. What these disciplines share is their subject matter. All
of them deal with living or once-living organisms. They deal with life and so these, as
well as a whole range of related specialisms, have come to be grouped together as the
life sciences. Similarly, geophysics, geochemistry, geomorphology, hydrology,
mineralogy, pedology, oceanography, climatology, meteorology, and other disciplines
are now grouped as the earth sciences, because all of them deal with the physical and
chemical nature of the planet Earth.
The possibly broadest, of these groupings comprises the environmental sciences,
sometimes known simply as ‘environmental science’. It embraces all those disciplines
which are concerned with the physical, chemical, and biological surroundings in which
organisms live. Obviously, environmental science draws heavily on aspects of the life
and earth sciences, but there is some unavoidable overlap in all these groupings. Should
paleontology, for example, the study of past life, be regarded as a life science or,
because its material is fossilized and derived from rocks, an earth science? It is both, but
not necessarily at the same time. The paleontologist may date a fossil and determine the
conditions under which it was fossilized as an earth scientist, and as a life scientist
reconstruct the organism as it appeared when it was alive and classify it. It is the
direction of interest that defines the grouping.
Any study of the Earth and the life it supports must deal with process and change.
The earth and life sciences also deal with process and change, but environmental
science is especially concerned with changes wrought by human activities, and their
immediate and long-term implications for the welfare of living organisms, including
humans.

6
Environmental Science
 Application

How is environmental science differ from life and earth science?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

How important is environmental science for you?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

LESSON 2 Environmental Principles

Introduction

The destruction of the environment is a global concern about which the public must
be informed. Environmental education, as defined by the Asian Development Bank, is
the process by which people develop awareness, concern and knowledge of the
environment and its diverse values and processes, and learn to use this understanding
to preserve, conserve and utilize the environment in a sustainable manner for the benefit
of present and future generations. It involves acquisition of skills, motivation and
commitment to work individually and collectively toward the solution of current
environmental problems and the prevention of new ones. The main goal is to develop
and environmentally literate and responsible citizenry who shall ensure the protection of
the Philippine environment in order to promote and implement sustainability, social
equity and economic efficiency in the use of country’s natural resources.
Environmental education centers on principles that can be grouped under themes
covering the natural resources – air, land, water, energy, and life forms. These can be
incorporated in the different environmental courses in both formal and informal education
programs. These messages promote good values formation regarding environmental
problems. They highlight the broad values that people must seriously consider to
preserve the environment and attain a better quality of life.

Activity

Directions: Describe the following terms:

1. Interdependence ___________________________________________________
2. Diversity and stability________________________________________________
3. Change __________________________________________________________
4. Balance of Nature __________________________________________________
5. Finiteness of Resources _____________________________________________
6. Pollution _________________________________________________________
7
Environmental Science
 7. Stewardship ______________________________________________________
8. Sustainability _____________________________________________________

Analysis

After you described the terms in the activity, you can cite now at least 3 examples
for each.

1. Interdependence
a. ____________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________
c. ____________________________________________
2. Diversity and stability
a. ____________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________
c. ____________________________________________

3. Change
a. ____________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________
c. ____________________________________________
4. Balance of Nature
a. ____________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________
c. ____________________________________________
5. Finiteness of Resources
a. ____________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________
c. ____________________________________________
6. Pollution
a. ____________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________
c. ____________________________________________
7. Stewardship
a. ____________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________
c. ____________________________________________
8. Sustainability
a. ____________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________
c. ____________________________________________

8
Environmental Science
 Abstraction

The Environmental Principles are:

1. Interdependence/Interrelatedness

Living things are interdependent with one another and with their environment. Both
the biotic and abiotic components are equally important in the ecosystem because the
absence of one affects the functions and existence of the others and of the whole
ecosystem.

2. Diversity and Stability

It is believed that a diverse community is a stable community. The more species

present, the more stable the community because several species keep other species in
check, preventing any species from overpopulating the habitat. However, there is
another hypothesis that says the opposite, that is, the more homogeneous the
community, the more stable it is.

3. Change

It has been said that the only constant thing on this Earth is change. Change is basic
to nature. Ecosystems change over time and space. Any change in the community affects
the different organisms within it. Natural change like this is healthy but human- induced
changes like environmental disturbances wreak havoc in natural systems. These result in
the environmental crises that the world faces today.

4. Balance in Nature

Ecosystems are capable of self-maintenance and self – regulation. Predation kills off
some members of the population and is a good regulator of population density. If there
were no predation, the population of individuals would swell and lead to overcrowding
and severe competition for resources. Such resources would then stress-related
diseases, sometimes even epidemics which result in massive deaths that may lead to
species extinction. Predation checks population down to a healthy size.

5. Finiteness of Resources

Even the most abundant natural resources are in danger of being depleted in the
light of human overpopulation and overexploitation. The fossil fuels are in danger of
running out in this century because too much use for industrialization and domestic
consumption by the fast growing world population. Some species are now extinct
because of habitat destruction, overhunting, and excessive harvesting. Potable water
which is considered as free resource, is getting scarce in many areas, as manifested in
the blooming industry of bottled water, in frequent droughts, and water shortage
especially during the summer months.

9
Environmental Science
6. Pollution

Pollution is the undesirable accumulation of substances resulting in diminished

quality and utility of a resource. Pollution is found in the air, water, and soil and these
result in several problems in the environment, health and economy. Air pollution is felt
globally in terms of continuous increase in temperature and changes in climatic
patterns. Rivers, lakes, and oceans become dumping grounds of various domestic and
industrial wastes, thus making them less productive if not killing them off entirely. Solis
are degraded through soil erosion, siltation, and sedimentation of rivers, lakes, and
streams.

7. Stewardship

Christian doctrine posits that nature and its resources are God’s gifts to all and that,
when God created the Earth, He commanded man to be His steward. The natural
resources that we are enjoying now are borrowed from future generations. It is our major
responsibility to pass of these resources in their sustainable state. Stewardship of
resources means efficient management by maintaining a balance between population
growth and resource use. It is not an act of a good steward to overexploit the borrowed
resources.

8. Sustainability

Actions that address the needs of the present without compromising the needs of
the future generations to meet their own needs are embodied in the concept of
sustainable development. It is equally concerned with socioeconomic development and
environmental quality. A society should manage its economic growth in such a way as to
do irreparable damage to the environment. By balancing economic requirements with
ecological concerns, the needs of the people are satisfied without compromising the
needs of future generations. Environmental issues are addressed at the same time that
economic development is pursued but not at the expense of the environment.

Application

From the mentioned environmental principles above, which do you think the most
important to consider seriously in order to preserve the environment and attain a better
quality of life? Explain.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

10
Environmental Science
 MODULE 2 BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

Module Overview

This module covers 2 lessons: lesson 1 discusses the levels of organization which
starts from the smallest which is the cell to the complex level which is the organism and
lesson 2 discusses the different species interactions.

Module Outcomes

1. Described the biological levels of organization from the smallest to highest level.
2. Described the characteristics of population such as population density, dispersion,
natality, mortality, growth, age distribution, and reproductive potential.
3. Determined several populations in an area like in grassland.
4. Differentiated between food chain and food web and gave examples.
5. Identified a number of habitats from the selected ecosystem.
6. Explain each interaction and give examples.
7. Describe the interactions between organisms in each type of species interaction using
the symbol.

LESSON 1 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

Learning Outcomes

1. Described the biological levels of organization from the smallest to highest level.
2. Described and gave examples of the characteristics of population such as population
density, dispersion, natality, mortality, growth, age distribution, and reproductive
potential.
3. Determined several populations in an area like in grassland.
4. Differentiated between food chain and food web and gave examples.
5. Identified a number of habitats from the selected ecosystem.

Introduction

All things are composed of atoms that bond together to form molecules. The basic
atoms found in an organism are carbon atoms to which are linked varying numbers of
hydrogen atoms in varying arrangements. Molecules of this composition are called

11
Environmental Science
organic molecules, which account for why organisms are so named. Oxygen is another
atom that links with carbon and hydrogen; together, these three (CHO) form the bigger
molecules of sugars, carbohydrates, and lipids. When nitrogen links with CHO to make
CHON, an amino acid or protein is formed, to which may bond phosphorus or sulfur.

Activity

Directions: Complete the following statement with term/terms to described the different
levels of organization. The clues for your answers are found below.

1. _________________ – basic _________________ of structure and

function for __________________ things.

2. _________________ – groups of ________________________ cells that

perform a specific function.

3. ___________________ – group of different ______________________

working together to perform a certain task.

4. ____________________ – group of ___________________ working together.

5. ____________________ – combines cells, tissues, organs and systems.

Analysis

Using the laminated cards, place the levels of organization in the correct order from
smallest to most complete. Write the definition under the level. Then sort through the
cards and write in the examples under the correct level.

12
Environmental Science
 Examples Examples Examples Examples Examples
_____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ _____________
_____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ _____________
_____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ _____________
_____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ _____________
_____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ _____________

Abstraction

Ecology starts from the study of the organism, overlapping with biology in this level,
such as in how an individual would behave in its own group or in relation to the
environment, but the primary focus with be finding commonalities in the behavior of
individuals to define and predict the behavior of the group.
An organism is any living thing. A group of organisms that is similar in appearance,
behavior, and genetic makeup belongs to the same species. The biological species
concept states that the members of a species are those individuals that are genetically
related enough to be able to interbreed and produce fertile offsprings.
The ultimate check of the classification is the fertility of the offsprings because
individuals can mate but the resulting offspring is not fertile, as in the classic example of
a horse that is interbred with a donkey producing a mule, which is sterile and cannot
therefore perpetuate the species.
The group of individuals belonging to one species and is found together in a defined
area at a certain time is called a population. Examples would be all the dogs in a house,
all the maya birds in a campus, all the mahogany trees in a province, all the whale
sharks in the Philippines, and all the Aedes aegypti mosquitoes in the world.
A population possesses characteristics that more empirically describe the group
such as population density, dispersion, natality, mortality, growth, age distribution, and
reproductive potential.

1. POPULATION DENSITY

Population density describes the degree of crowdedness of a population in a given

area. Crude density may be computed from the number of individuals or the total
population biomass per unit space, such as seven dogs in a 1000 m 2 compound, or nine
tons of rice per hectare of riceland.
Ecological or specific density describes the number or biomass per unit of space that
is actually available to the population. For example, all the estuarine crocodiles in the
Philippines would be crude density, which would have for denominator the total area of

13
Environmental Science
the country’s estuarine waters; on the other hand, ecological density would be all the
estuarine crocodiles in the smaller total area of the localities where they are endemic.

2. DISPERSION

Dispersion is the distribution of organisms over the space where they are found.
Three patterns have been observed: clumped, random, and uniform. The clumped
distribution is the most common type of pattern since the soil or medium on which the
organisms are found in nature are not uniform. Random distribution is rare in nature,
occurring only where the soil is generally rich so that the plants can grow and thrive
anywhere. Uniform distribution is found in artificial cultivated areas such as orchards.

3. NATALITY/MORTALITY

Natality corresponds to what is termed in humans as birth rate or the number of new
individuals produced in the population for a period of time, for example, 2.3 babies per
day; or 2 bacteria per 20 minutes; or 12 mice in 3 weeks.
Mortality is known as death rate in human demographics, or the number of deaths in
a given time period. Although mortality may be a helpful population indicator; the more
descriptive aspect is that of survival rate which may be expressed as 1-M, with M
representing mortality.

4. GROWTH

Growth is an important feature of a population since the increase or decrease of

population size determines its interaction with other populations in the community and its
impact on the environment.

Malthus recognized the fact that there is a connection between resources and
population growth, and that one of these (population growth) can increase at a greater
rate than the other. Modern population ecologists make use of a variety of methods to
model population dynamics mathematically. These more precise models can then be
used to accurately describe changes occurring in a population and better predict future
changes. Use the following information to make sure that you have at least a "slight
acquaintance" with the mathematical principles that are used to describe population
growth.

14
Environmental Science
1. Exponential Growth

Darwin, in his theory of natural selection, was greatly influenced by the English
clergyman Thomas Malthus. Malthus published a book in 1798 stating that populations
with unlimited natural resources grow very rapidly. This accelerating pattern of increasing
population size is called exponential growth. The best example of exponential growth is
seen in bacteria. Bacteria are prokaryotes that can undergo cell division about every
hour for many species. If 1000 bacteria are placed in a large ask with an unlimited supply
of nutrients (so the nutrients will not become depleted), after an hour, there is one round
of division and each organism divides, resulting in 2000 organisms an increase of 1000.
In another hour, each of the 2000 organisms will double, producing 4000, an increase of
2000 organisms. After the third hour, there should be 8000 bacteria in the ask, an
increase of 4000 organisms.
The important concept of exponential growth is that the population growth rate the
number of organisms added in each reproductive generation is accelerating; that is, it is
increasing at a greater and greater rate. After 1 day and 24 of these cycles, the
population would have increased from 1000 to more than 16 billion. When the population
size, N, is plotted over time, a J-shaped growth curve is produced.

2. Logistic Growth

Exponential growth is possible only when infinite natural resources are available; this
is not the case in the real world. Charles Darwin recognized this fact in his description of
the struggle for existence, which states that individuals will compete (with members of
their own or other species) for limited resources. The successful ones will survive to pass
on their own characteristics and traits (which we know now are transferred by genes) to
the next generation at a greater rate (natural selection). To model the reality of limited
resources, population ecologists developed the logistic growth model.
A graph of this equation yields an S-shaped curve, and it is a more realistic model
of population growth than exponential growth. There are three different sections to an S-
shaped curve. Initially, growth is exponential because there are few individuals and
ample resources available. Then, as resources begin to become limited, the growth rate
decreases. Finally, growth levels of at the carrying capacity of the environment, with little
change in population size over time.

5. AGE DISTRIBUTION

Age distribution classifies the population according to age brackets or to general age
groups such as prereproductive, reproductive, postreproductive (Odum, 1971).

A
g
e

a b c
.
(a) a bell represents a population with more young members and the very old members
compose the least number;
(b) an urn represents less young and very old members, more of those in the middle age
brackets;
15
Environmental Science
(c) broad base pyramid represents more young members than older or very old.

6. REPRODUCTIVE POTENTIAL

The reproductive potential of a population is its theoretical capacity to produce the

maximum number of offsprings in ideal conditions. The concept is exemplified by the
scenario of a couple of flies that under ideal conditions can mate and overpopulate the
planet several times. Happily, this will always remain a theoretical scenario since in
reality, the limiting factors in the environment prevent the attainment of the fundamental
niche and the full reproductive potential of the population.

There are several populations in an area. In a grassland, one would find populations
of grasshoppers, maya birds, frogs, snakes, grasses, herbs and shrubs, and many
others. Together, all these populations would form the ecological or biotic community,
which may be named after its dominant species or life form.
A large community may be distinguished by a climax vegetation or outstanding
feature and be called a biome, such as a grassland biome, forest biome, a lake biome, or
an alpine biome. All the biomes in the world together form the biosphere which is defined
as the domain of all the living organisms and which covers the lowest part of the
atmosphere, called troposphere; all the bodies of water where life is found, called
hydrosphere; and the soil domain called lithosphere. Some scientists recognize an
ecosphere, which is the biosphere and all the interactions occurring them.
Energy is necessary for maintaining the life processes of organisms. The sun is the
source of all the energy that goes into the ecosystem. Solar energy is radiated on to the
earth where a tiny fraction of it is tapped by plants and used in photosynthesis. Plants
produce their own food without direct assistance from other organisms, they are called
autotrophs. They are also recognized as the producers of the ecosystem because they
tap solar energy which other would be unavailable for the rest of the organisms, and
because they feed the other organisms.
In an ecosystem, numerous interactions between organisms result in a flow of
energy and cycling of matter. Food chains, the nitrogen cycle, and the carbon cycle are
examples of these interactions. A food chain is the sequence of steps through which the
process of energy transfer occurs in an ecosystem. All organisms need a continuous
supply of energy. Energy flows through an ecosystem in one direction— through food
chains.
Food chains illustrate how energy flows through a sequence of organisms, and how
nutrients are transferred from one organism to another. Food chains usually consist of
producers, consumers, and decomposers. If a food chain has more than one consumer
level, its consumers are defined as primary, secondary, or tertiary consumers. Primary
consumers eat plants, secondary consumers eat primary consumers, and tertiary
consumers eat secondary and primary consumers.

16
Environmental Science
 The concept of a food chain is an abstraction or generalization. Ecosystems are more
complicated than a single food chain would indicate. Most aquatic ecosystems contain
many more species than those in a single food chain, and all of these species interact
and are interdependent. Like people, most aquatic organisms consume more than one
type of food.

A food web is a diagram of a complex, interacting set of food chains within an

ecosystem.

17
Environmental Science
Parts of a Food Chain

A food chain includes the sun, plants, primary consumers, secondary consumers,
and decomposers. The sun provides light energy (radiation), the ultimate energy source
for all freshwater aquatic food chains.
Plants are the next link in a food chain. Plankton are among the smallest living
organisms in ponds, lakes, rivers, and streams. This group includes tiny free‐floating
plants, animals, and some forms of bacteria. They range in size from microscopic
bacteria and single‐celled organisms to larvae and invertebrates large enough to be
visible to the unaided eye. With little or no swimming ability, most plankton floats freely
with the currents in open water.
Phytoplankton are free‐floating microscopic plants and bacteria suspended in the
water that, like other plants, produce food energy directly from the sun’s light energy.
Plants (including phytoplankton) are called producers because they can produce simple
nutrients and sugars (food energy) directly from the sun’s light energy through the
process of photosynthesis. As the base of food chains, phytoplankton populations are
indicators of aquatic health. The food energy produced by phytoplankton supports much
of the other life in the water.
By their sheer numbers, phytoplankton are the main producers in the lake. If you
could weigh all of these microscopic plants, they would weigh more than macroscopic
plants.
Plants contain the green pigment chlorophyll and other pigments known as
carotenoids. These pigments capture the sun’s light energy, which plants convert to
chemical energy (carbohydrates or sugar) through the process of photosynthesis. Other
organisms consume plants to obtain the chemical energy that fuels life processes,
including respiration, movement, growth, and reproduction. Plants obtain additional
substances necessary for photosynthesis (carbon dioxide and hydrogen) from the air,
water, and soil. Oxygen is a by‐product of photosynthesis. Producers are the first link in
every food chain, and they support all forms of animal life, including people.

18
Environmental Science
Some carnivores can also be called piscivores, which are animals that eat fish.

19
Environmental Science
 This aquatic food pyramid illustrates energy transfer and relative biomass (defined
below) in an aquatic ecosystem. Producers make up the greatest biomass in the system,
and support all other life forms. Producers convert light energy from the sun into food
energy. This food energy is transferred through the levels of the food pyramid, or trophic
levels, as one organism consumes another. At each level in the food pyramid, energy is
lost to the surrounding environment as heat as the organisms use food energy to feed,
respire, grow, and reproduce. For this reason, each trophic level can only support or
provide energy for a smaller biomass of organisms. Energy is also lost as heat on each
level as organisms eat, move, grow, and reproduce. The sun continually replaces the
energy in the system. Because energy is lost at each level, most food pyramids contain,
at most, four trophic levels.

Application

1. Give at least 2 examples for each characteristics of population aside from the
mentioned examples.
2. Give at least 2 examples for food chain and food web. Draw/illustrate.
3. In grassland, find populations and list down at least 5.
4. Identify at least 5 habitats of human and animal ecosystem.

LESSON 2 SPECIES INTERACTIONS

Learning Outcomes

1. Explain each interaction and give examples.

2. Describe the interactions between organisms in each type of species interaction using
the symbol.

Introduction

The phrase 'species interactions' covers most of the domain of ecology. The subject
is bounded on one side by autecology, the study of the responses of organisms of a
single species to their environment including toxicants, and on the other by ecosystems
ecology, the study of whole biogeochemical systems. These boundaries are somewhat
hazy; tight symbiotic relationships may respond like a single organism and a set of
trophic relationships can constitute the bulk of an ecosystem's dynamics.

20
Environmental Science
 Activity

Directions: Using the definitions of parasitism, predation, competition, mutualism and

commensalism, use the following symbols to describe the interactions between
organisms in each type of species interaction.

+ = organism benefits
- = organism is harmed
0 = organism neither benefits nor harmed (neutral)

INTERACTION ORGANISM #1 ORGANISM #2

Parasitism
Predation
Competition
Mutualism
Commensalism

Analysis

Read through each scenario and determine whether it is a case of parasitism, predation,
competition, mutualism and commensalism. In COMPLETE SENTENCES, explain the
reason behind each choice.

1. Shrimp and sea anemone: The shrimp is immune to the stinging tentacles of the sea
anemone. By hiding in the sea anemone, the shrimp is protected from predators.
INTERACTION: _________________
REASONS: _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

2. Tapeworm and dog: The tapeworm attaches to the intestinal wall of the dog and takes
nutrients consumed by the dog.
INTERACTION: _________________
REASONS: _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

3. Ant and acacia tree: The ant burrows into the thorn of the acacia tree to live and eat
sugar secreted by the tree. The ant benefits the tree by attacking predators.
INTERACTION: _________________
REASONS: _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Abstraction

Effects of pollutant mixtures on interactions between species (predation, parasitism,

mutualism, commensalism and competition) and methods for measuring those effects
21
Environmental Science
are critically reviewed. While numerous field studies have shown that responses to
pollutants are mediated or modified by species interactions, the relative importance of
direct effects on survival and growth of the individual participants versus effects on the
rate of interaction is unclear. The sensitivity of species interactions in the laboratory
suggests their use in screening tests but the expense and complexity of such systems
have discouraged such use. Use of species interaction tests to predict the type and level
of effects is hampered by the large number of interactions and our inability to extrapolate
test results between pairs of interacting species. In the near term, species interaction
tests are most likely to be useful in predicting effects on simple systems with only a few
interactions such as crops, pastures, and monospecific forests. In the long term, greater
use of species interaction tests will depend on evidence from field studies that
assessments based on single species tests are failing due to lack of knowledge about
species interactions.

1. Parasitism (win-lose situation) parasite benefits from its relationship to its host
(usually does not kill host)
- ectoparasite – lives on outside of host (ex. flea, tick)
- endoparasite – lives inside host (ex. Tapeworm)

2. Predation- is when one organism of 1 species (predator) consumes part or all of

another organism of another species (prey)
- Can be: herbivores (plant-eaters) or carnivores (meat-eaters)
- This is a win-lose relationship (predator wins, prey loses)

What makes a good predator more effective?

- speed
- heightened senses like hearing, vision
- claws or teeth for grabbing and shredding
- camouflage (to sneak up on prey)

22
Environmental Science
 Prey animals may develop speed, heightened awareness, colonial living,
camouflage or mimicry. Mimicry is when 1 species looks like another species
(usually 1 that is venomous or bad-tasting).

Plants can have physical defenses like thorns, needles, tough leaves They can also
have chemical defenses that are poisonous, irritating or bad-tasting.

3. Competition

Interspecific competition is competition between 2 different types of species for the same
resource.

Examples include: - plants competing for light or space

- 2 predators competing for the same prey

Intraspecific competition is a competition between individuals from the same species

(conspecifics). The effect of competition on each individual within the species depends
on the type of competition that takes place.

Examples include: - plants of the same species

- two male birds of the same species

23
Environmental Science
4. Mutualism (win-win situation)
- both species benefit
- examples include: * flowers and their pollinators * clownfish
& sea anemones * zebras, hippos & oxpicker birds

5. Commensalism – one species benefits, the other is not affected (although it actually
may be mutual but we don’t understand the benefits!)

Ex: - scavengers who feed on dead things

- buffaloes & cattle egrets (buffalo displace insects as they walk & egrets feed on
them)

Cattle don’t get much benefit but egrets get small prey
items flushed out into the open

24
Environmental Science
 Scavenger – special case of commensalism. The vultures did not kill
the hyena (also a scavenger!) but now get the benefit from eating

Application

Give at least two examples for each species interactions aside from the given examples.

1. Parasitism
Examples: a. __________________________
b. __________________________
2. Predation
Examples: a. __________________________
b. __________________________
3. Competition
Examples: a. __________________________
b. __________________________
4. Mutualism
Examples: a. __________________________
b. __________________________
5. Commensalism
Examples: a. __________________________
b. __________________________

25
Environmental Science