PSCAD Cookbook

Induction Machines Study

Written for v4.5

Revision 2: November 9, 2020
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Contents

5. INDUCTION MACHINES STUDY ...................................................................................................................... 1

5.1 INDUCTION MACHINE BASICS .............................................................................................................................1
5.2 INDUCTION MACHINE MOTOR STARTING ..............................................................................................................4
5.3 INDUCTION MOTOR INITIALIZATION – STARTING THE MACHINE IN STEADY-STATE ........................................................7
5.4 CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF AN INDUCTION MOTOR ................................................................................................9
5.5 INDUCTION GENERATOR SELF EXCITATION AFFECTS WITH EXTERNAL CAPACITORS FOR REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION .14
5.6 WOUND ROTOR AND SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION MACHINE MODELS......................................................................19
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5. Induction Machines Study

5.1 Induction Machine Basics

Motivation

The induction machine is by far the most common type of motor used in industrial, commercial and
residential settings. The two main reasons for the wide use of the induction motor are that they are
cheap and highly robust. Induction machines can be operated in either generation mode or as a
motor (i.e. load). The purpose of this section is to familiarize the user with the speed and torque
input mode of the induction machine model in PSCAD.

PSCAD Model

The PSCAD master library has two fully developed induction machine models, the squirrel cage and
wound rotor induction machines.

The wound rotor model (Figure 1), with the rotor terminal shorted, is mathematically identical to a
squirrel cage machine. It is recommended to use the wound rotor model for all induction machine
simulations.

Figure 1: Wound Rotor Induction Machine in PSCAD

The model can be controlled by specifying either the mechanical torque (input TL) on the machine
shaft or the machine speed (input W) as the input to the induction machine. The input ‘S’ is simply a
switch to select between the two input modes (i.e. when S=0 input and ‘TL’ is selected, and if S=1
input and ‘W’ selected).

S=1 (speed control

mode)

S=0 (torque mode)

t=T

Figure 2: Machine ‘Operated’ in the Torque Input Mode and changed over to
‘Speed’ Input Mode at t=T

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Torque input mode: In the ‘torque input’ mode, the speed of the machine is calculated based on
the equations of mechanical motion.

The electrical torque (Te) is calculated by the model based on its terminal conditions
(voltage/current). is the mechanical torque, which is an input to the machine. J is the inertia due
to all the moving parts of the machine shaft. is the frequency of the rotor, and B accounts for
mechanical damping.

Speed input mode: In the ‘speed’ mode, the machine will operate at the speed specified input ‘W’.
This can be a variable or a constant. In some simulations, it may be advantageous to start the
machine in the ‘speed input’ mode, and then switch to the ‘torque input’ mode once steady-state
has been achieved. This can be done by switching input ‘S’ from 1 to 0 (Error! Reference source not
found.). For a more complex representation of the mechanical system such as a ‘multi mass
torsional shaft model’, the input ‘W’ must be selected.

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General: Some general points on the induction machine are listed below as a quick refresher for the
model users:

Figure 3: Torque-Speed Curve

 In steady-state operation, an induction motor will operate at the speed at which the
mechanical load equals (approximately) the electrical torque developed by the motor.
Figure 3 shows the torque-speed characteristic of an induction machine.
 Normal operation is to the right of the maximum torque. In this region, an increase in
the load torque will cause the motor to slow down; as a result the motor torque (Te)
increases until equilibrium is reached. However, no such equilibrium point can be
reached to the left of the pull out torque. Note that the dotted line represents the
torque-speed characteristic of the load connected to the motor.
 Unlike a synchronous machine, an induction machine does not allow for voltage
(reactive power) control.
 In the motoring mode, the steady-state speed of the machine will be slightly lower than
the ‘synchronous speed’ and higher in the generating mode.

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5.2 Induction Machine Motor Starting

Motivation

This section illustrates the important steps when investigating motor-starting in PSCAD.

System Overview

Figure 4 shows the PSCAD model of an induction machine connected to a power system. The power
system is represented by an equivalent Thevenin voltage source for simplicity. The machine is set to
be in the ‘torque input’ mode with S=0 and the initial speed set to zero. The breaker (BRK) is initially
open and closes at time t=0.5 s. This initiates the motor starting.

Figure 4: Torque Mode

The mechanical load characteristics greatly influence the starting response of the motor; hence, it
must be adequately represented in the model. In this example, the relationship shown in equation
(5-1) is used to represent the load torque characteristics.

(5-1)

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Based on the above relation, the mechanical load is modeled in PSCAD as shown in Figure 5. This is
effectively an 80 % load with respect to the machine MVA rating.

Figure 5: Implementation of the Load Torque Characteristics

Simulation Results

At the instant the breaker closes, a large starting current is drawn by the induction machine as
shown in Figure 6. The speed builds up and finally settles at a speed slightly lower than the
synchronous speed. Note the surge in reactive power drawn from the system during the starting
process. This will lead to huge voltage drop problems in weak systems.

Figure 6: Motor Starting Transients

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Figure 7 shows the variation of electric torque and mechanical torque during start-up. Note that the
motor can take up to a few seconds to settle into steady-state operation.

Figure 7: Comparison of Electrical and Mechanical Torque during the Motor Starting Process

PSCAD

Refer to PSCAD case: IM_study_02.pscx

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5.3 Induction Motor Initialization – Starting the Machine in Steady-State

Motivation

The motor starting study described in Section 5.2 considered the scenario in which the motor starts
from rest. However, for most other studies, it is required that the motor be operating in steady-
state before contingencies such as faults are applied. Therefore, this section illustrates the
techniques required to start an induction machine from steady-state.

System Overview

The network model and the details are as listed in Section 5.2. Note that the machine speed (W) has
been set to the steady-state value, which is slightly lower than synchronous speed. The network is
shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8: Speed Control to Torque Control Mode

To accomplish steady-state operation more quickly, the motor may be started in the ‘speed input’
mode with the steady-state speed assigned to input ‘W’ (the steady-state speed can be computed
based on machine data if required, or a value close to unity may be assigned as an approximation).

Initially, selector S=1, and the machine is operated at the specified speed which in this case is
0.96574. ‘S’ is then changed to 0 at t=0.2 s (torque input mode). In torque mode, the machine
speed is calculated based on the mechanical torque, developed electrical torque of the machine,
machine inertia and damping.

Simulation Results

The above procedure helps the simulation to attain steady-state much faster than if the machine
was started from zero speed (note that the mechanical time constants are in the order of few
seconds). In the simulation results shown in Figure 9, steady-state is achieved almost immediately
following the transition (S – 1 to 0). At 0.5 s, a fault on the system side (single phase fault lasting 6
cycles) is applied to study the machine response during such a fault (Figure 10).

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Figure 9: Comparison of W, Electrical (Te) and Mechanical (Tm) in Switching Mode

Figure 10: Response during a System Fault

PSCAD

Refer to PSCAD case: IM_study_03.pscx

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5.4 Characteristic Curve of an Induction Motor

Motivation

The purpose of this section is to compare the accuracy of the characteristic curve of the induction
machine generated by PSCAD with theoretical data.

Background

The induction machine can be represented by the equivalent circuit model show in Figure 11.

R1 jX1 jX2

V E1 R2/s

Figure 11: Equivalent Circuit of Induction Machine

The torque-speed curve of the induction machine is obtained based on equation (5-2).

5-2

and are the equivalent resistances of the stator and rotor respectively, (i.e. ) is the
equivalent reactance, and is the synchronous angular speed. PSCAD modeling of the induction
machine in steady-state is shown in Figure 12. The model is used to generate the characteristic
curve of the induction machine operated in steady-state. The - curve of the induction
machine is shown in Figure 12. All torque and rotation speed data in PSCAD are in per unit.

Figure 12: PSCAD Model

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Data Acquisition

The torque-slip equation was set up in MathCAD and the 15 points were selected to plot the
characteristic curve. This result was compared with the characteristic curve obtained from PSCAD.
The theoretical calculation is shown in Figure 13.

Figure 13: Theoretical Results from MathCAD

In PSCAD, the machine is run in speed control mode and the corresponding torque at different
speed is recorded. Figure 14 shows the data acquisition in PSCAD.

Figure 14: Data Acquisition using PSCAD

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Simulation Results

Comparison of Data between Two Models

Table 1 shows all acquired data from MathCAD and PSCAD.

Slip Speed Wm Te in MathCAD Te in PSCAD

0.002 0.998 0.196 0.191
0.01 0.99 0.895 0.876
0.02 0.98 1.578 1.55
0.03 0.97 2.066 2.03
0.04 0.96 2.395 2.35
0.06 0.94 2.717 2.68
0.09 0.91 2.753 2.72
0.1 0.9 2.71 2.68
0.2 0.8 2.049 2.02
0.4 0.6 1.248 1.23
0.6 0.4 0.884 0.87
0.8 0.2 0.683 0.674
0.9 0.1 0.613 0.6
Table 1: Comparison of Theoretical and PSCAD Data

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Figure 15 compares the two plots and it clearly shows that the PSCAD results compare accurately
with the theoretical data.

Figure 15: Comparison of the Characteristic Curve from Both Methods

Dynamic Performance of IM under a Non-Linear Load

In Figure 16, the induction machine is operated in torque input mode with a non-linear load on its
shaft. The power source breaker BRK is closed at 0.5 s to empower the IM. The simulation result of
- is shown in Figure 17. Figure 18 displays the corresponding induction machine terminal
current I, mechanical load on the shaft, and rotation speed.

Figure 16: Induction Machine in Torque Input Mode

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Figure 17: Torque-Speed Curve

Figure 18: Variation of Induction Machine Parameters

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5.5 Induction Generator Self Excitation Affects with

External Capacitors for Reactive Power Compensation

Motivation

This section presents the harmful behaviors of self-excitation in an induction generator at fixed
torque input mode. External capacitors for reactive power compensation are connected at the
three-phase terminal.

System Overview

The case circuit is shown in Figure 19.

Figure 19: Case Circuit

Induction Generator

An induction motor does not require a separate field circuit and does not have to work at a fixed
speed. It works as a generator as long as the rotor speed is faster than the synchronous speed of
the connected power system. If a greater torque is applied to the rotor shaft, the stator outputs
greater power. The generator does not require a fancy regulation. Because of its advantage of
simplicity, it is applied in windmills, heat recovery systems, and similar supplementary power
sources attached to an existing power system [1].

An induction generator produces no reactive power since has no separate field excitation circuits. It
needs an external source of reactive power to maintain its stator magnetic field because it
consumes reactive power. Because the induction generator is unable to control its own output
voltage without field current, the external reactive power source is used to control its output
voltage. Therefore, the induction generator is connected to the external power system to maintain
the terminal voltage. In this situation, capacitors provide power-factor correction, and the external
power system controls the generator’s terminal voltage [1].

With no connection to any power system, an induction motor can function as an independent
generator, as long as available capacitors or any attached loads supply required reactive power [1].

The relation between the magnetizing current required by the induction machine and terminal
voltage can be found by measuring its armature current Im as a function of terminal voltage Vt.

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Figure 20(a) shows this magnetization curve at different rotation speeds. In order for an induction
generator to achieve a given voltage level, external capacitors must supply the magnetization
current corresponding to that level [1].

Vt Vc Medium
Speed up Small capacitance
ω3 capacitance C
ω2 C
ω1

Large
capacitance
C

Im Ic
(a) (b)

Vt Vt
Medium C
Small C Medium C Large C ω3
V3 V6 ω2
V2 V5
ω1
V4
V1

Im or Ic Im or Ic

(d)
(c)

Vt
Small C
ω3
ω2
ω1

Im or Ic

(e)

Figure 20: Magnetizing Current

A capacitor produces a reactive current which is directly proportional to the voltage applied to it.
The relation of the voltage and current through a capacitor is a straight line for a given frequency;
this is shown in Figure 20(b). Figure 20(c) shows the terminal voltage of an induction generator for
three different sets of capacitance [1]. When the capacitor is fixed, the terminal voltage also varies
if the rotor speed changes, as shown in Figure 20(d). But if the terminal shunt capacitor is very
small, the magnitude of the generator terminal voltage does not escalate based on the theory
illustrated in Figure 20(e) even though the generator speed increases.

The induction generator has two serious problems. First, its terminal voltage varies wildly with
changes in load, especially reactive load. Secondly, the induction generator’s frequency varies with

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changing loads because of the nature of the induction machine’s torque-speed characteristic. But
the total frequency variation is usually limited to less than 5% because the torque-speed
characteristic is very steep in the normal operating range [1].

Simulation Results

The induction generator connected to a compensation capacitor and power system in Figure 19 has
been simplified in Figure 21. An external power source may or may not provide reactive power to
the generator, depending on the load in the external power system. Therefore, capacitors are
connected at the terminal of the generator to provide the major reactive power Q1 as required by
the generator, in order to ensure rated generator terminal voltage. Based on the theory shown in
Figure 20(c), proper capacitor banks must be chosen, to provide the generator enough magnetic
current at rated terminal voltage and rated rotation speed.

Q Q-Q1
Induction External
Generator
IG Power
source
Q1

Figure 21: Simplified Case Circuit

When the induction generator and the capacitor are disconnected at 0.5 s from the external power
source, terminal voltage of the induction generator will change because the reactive power input
and active power load at the external power source are cut off. At this time, the generator speed
will keep increasing because the constant driving torque coming from the prime mover is still
working, but there is no active power load at the generator terminal any more. Based on Figure
20(d), at the condition of fixed terminal shunt capacitor and increasing generator speed, the
terminal voltage also increases. The capacitor acts as a reactive power source to the generator and
tries to sustain the voltage. In practical machines, the iron saturation (of the machine core) will
have a limiting effect on the over-voltage. The simulation result is shown in Figure 22, when the
capacitive load is 0.2MVAr. At this moment, the capacitive load provides not only enough reactive
power to the generator but also to an external power source. But if the capacitive load is 0.02MVAr,
the terminal voltage does not increase as shown in Figure 23. And the generator needs reactive
power not only from the reactive load but also from the external power source.

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Figure 22: Simulation Results (Capacitive Load is 0.2 MVAR)

Figure 23: Simulation Results (Capacitive Load is 0.02 MVAR)

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In addition to the terminal voltage changes, the frequency of the terminal voltage may change. The
reason is explained in Figure 24. When the breaker cuts the external power source off, the RLC
circuit is formed, and the frequency of the transient response is . This phenomenon is
called self-excitation. Therefore, one of the solutions to protect the generator is to cut off the
capacitor banks after the external power source has been disconnected.

Xr Xs Rs Breaker

Rr/s External
Xm Power
C source

Induction Generator

Figure 24: Solution for Protecting the Generator

PSCAD

Refer to PSCAD case: IM_study_05.pscx

References

[1] Chapman, Stephen J., “Electric Machinery Fundamentals”, 4th ed. New York, NY:
The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2005.

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5.6 Wound Rotor and Squirrel Cage Induction Machine Models

Motivation

The PSCAD master library has two induction motor models:

 A squirrel (SQ) cage induction machine model representing a double cage design
 A wound rotor (WR) induction machine (IM) model

Mathematically, the SQ cage machine can be represented by the WR machine. The WR model could
also be used to represent a double cage SQ machine.

PSCAD users are encouraged to use the WR IM model for all the induction machine applications.
The two examples below describe relevant data entry considerations and also compare results for
validation purposes.

System Overview

A 0.6 kV, 60 Hz source is connected to a 0.6 kV SQ cage and a WR induction machine. Both
machines have identical ratings (see Figure 25).

Figure 25: Circuit Diagram (WR – Top, SQ Cage – Bottom)

Example 1 - Modeling a Single Cage Induction Machine

The SQ cage machine model or the WR machine model may be used to represent a single cage (SQ)
machine. Refer to PSCAD case IM_study_06_A.pscx.

The equivalent circuit of a double cage design, squirrel-cage machine is shown in Figure 26.

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Figure 26: Squirrel Cage (Double Cage) Equivalent Circuit

The equivalent circuit of a wound rotor machine model (single rotor winding) is shown in Figure 27.

Figure 27: WR IM (Single Winding) Equivalent Circuit

To use the SQ cage machine model to represent a single cage machine:

 Make the ‘second cage resistance’ (RC2) and the ‘second cage unsaturated reactance’
(XLC2) relatively large (compared to the other leakage inductances/resistances). In this
case, they are changed to RC2 =5 PU and XLC2 = 5PU, which is much larger than
Rc1 = 0.0507 PU and XMR = 0.091 PU.
 Give the SQ cage ‘rotor unsaturated mutual reactance’ (XMR) the value of the WR ‘rotor
leakage reactance’ (XLR).

Figure 28 shows the data entry for the SQ cage (left) and WR models (right). By using equivalent
values, both models show comparable behaviour and represent a single cage machine design.

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Figure 28: WR IM (Single Winding) Equivalent Circuit

The simulation results shown in Figure 29 show that the speed (W – WR, W2 – SQ cage) and torque
(T – WR, T2 – SQ cage) of both machines are the same. Thus, any one of the induction machine
models may be used to represent a single cage induction machine.

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Figure 29: Simulation Results (IM_study_06_A.pscx)

Example 2 - Modeling a Double Cage Induction Machine

The WR machine model can be set up to represent a double cage SQ cage machine (see PSCAD case
IM_study_06_B.pscx).

In the WR model, select the “Number of Rotor Squirrel Cages” to “1”, as shown in Figure 30.

Figure 30: WR Configuration

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Once this has been set, the equivalent circuit representation is as shown in Figure 31.

Figure 31: WR IM (Two Winding) Equivalent Circuit

Figure 32 shows the data entry for the WR model. With the appropriate data, the SQ cage and WR
machine models will give similar results.

Figure 32: WR Setup Configuration

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The simulation results shown in Figure 33 show that the speed (W – WR, W2 – SQ cage) and torque
(T – WR, T2 – SQ cage) of both machines are identical. Therefore, a double cage SQ machine can be
accurately modeled using the WR induction machine model in PSCAD.

Figure 33: Simulation Results (IM_study_06_B.pscx)

Discussion

As can be seen from the results, a SQ cage and WR machine model deliver equivalent results when
configured properly. Hence, a SQ cage machine model can be accurately represented using a WR
machine model. PSCAD users are encouraged to use the WR IM model for all the induction machine
applications.

PSCAD

Refer to PSACD cases: IM_study_06_A.pscx and IM_study_06_B.pscx

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DOCUMENT TRACKING

Rev. Description Date

0 Initial 01/Jun/2013
1 Update to New Brand Guidelines 09/May/2018
2 Correction to broken figures 09/Nov/2020

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