Chapter XI: Group Theory

Lesson I: SemiGroup
Let us consider, an algebraic system (A, *), where * is a binary operation on A. Then, the
system (A, *) is said to be semi-group if it satisfies the following properties:

1. The operation * is a closed operation on set A.

2. The operation * is an associative operation.

Example: Consider an algebraic system (A, *), where A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9....}, the set of
positive odd integers and * is a binary operation means multiplication. Determine whether
(A, *) is a semi-group.

Solution: Closure Property: The operation * is a closed operation because multiplication of

two +ve odd integers is a +ve odd number.

Associative Property: The operation * is an associative operation on set A. Since every a,

b, c ∈ A, we have

(a * b) * c = a * (b * c)

Hence, the algebraic system (A, *), is a semigroup.

Subsemigroup:
Consider a semigroup (A, *) and let B ⊆ A. Then the system (B, *) is called a subsemigroup
if the set B is closed under the operation *.

Example: Consider a semigroup (N, +), where N is the set of all natural numbers and + is
an addition operation. The algebraic system (E, +) is a subsemigroup of (N, +), where E is a
set of +ve even integers.

Free Semigroup:
Consider a non empty set A = {a1,a2,.....an}.

Now, A* is the set of all finite sequences of elements of A, i.e., A* consist of all words that
can be formed from the alphabet of A.

If α,β,and,γ are any elements of A*, then α,(β. γ)=( α.β).γ.

Here ° is a concatenation operation, which is an associative operation as shown above.

Thus (A*,°) is a semigroup. This semigroup (A*,°) is called the free semigroup generated
by set A.
Product of Semigroup:
Theorem: If (S1,*)and (S2,*) are semigroups, then (S1 x S2*) is a semigroup, where *
defined by (s1',s2')*( s1'',s2'')=(s1'*s1'',s2'*s2'' ).

Proof: The semigroup S1 x S2 is closed under the operation *.

Associativity of *.Let a, b, c ∈ S1 x S2

So, a * (b * c) = (a1,a2 )*((b1,b2)*(c1,c2))

= (a1,a2 )*(b1 *1 c1,b2 *2 c2)
= (a1 *1 (b1 *1 c1 ),a2 *2 (b2 *2 c2)
= ((a1 *1 b1) *1*1,( a2 *2 b2) *2 c2)
= (a1 *1 b1,a2 *2 b2)*( c1,c2)
= ((a1,a2)*( b1,b2))*( c1,c2)
= (a * b) * c.

Since * is closed and associative. Hence, S1 x S2 is a semigroup.

Monoid:
Let us consider an algebraic system (A, o), where o is a binary operation on A. Then the
system (A, o) is said to be a monoid if it satisfies the following properties:

1. The operation o is a closed operation on set A.

2. The operation o is an associative operation.
3. There exists an identity element, i.e., the operation o.

Example: Consider an algebraic system (N, +), where the set N = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4...}.The set
of natural numbers and + is an addition operation. Determine whether (N, +) is a monoid.

Solution: (a) Closure Property: The operation + is closed since the sum of two natural
numbers.

(b)Associative Property: The operation + is an associative property since we have

(a+b)+c=a+(b+c) ∀ a, b, c ∈ N.

(c)Identity: There exists an identity element in set N the operation +. The element 0 is an
identity element, i.e., the operation +. Since the operation + is a closed, associative and
there exists an identity. Hence, the algebraic system (N, +) is a monoid.

SubMonoid:
Let us consider a monoid (M, o), also let S ⊆M. Then (S, o) is called a submonoid of (M, o),
if and only if it satisfies the following properties:
 1. S is closed under the operation o.
2. There exists an identity element e ∈ T.

Example: Let us consider, a monoid (M, *), where * s a binary operation and M is a set of
all integers. Then (M1, *) is a submonoid of (M, *) where M1 is defined as M1={ai│i is from 0
to n,a positive integer,and a∈M}.
Lesson II: Group
Let G be a non-void set with a binary operation * that assigns to each ordered pair (a, b) of
elements of G an element of G denoted by a * b. We say that G is a group under the binary
operation * if the following three properties are satisfied:

1) Associativity: The binary operation * is associative i.e. a*(b*c)=(a*b)*c , ∀ a,b,c ∈ G

2) Identity: There is an element e, called the identity, in G, such that a*e=e*a=a, ∀ a ∈ G

3) Inverse: For each element a in G, there is an element b in G, called an inverse of a such

that a*b=b*a=e, ∀ a, b ∈ G

Properties of Groups:
The following theorems can understand the elementary features of Groups:

Theorem1:-
1. Statement: - In a Group G, there is only one identity element (uniqueness of identity)
Proof: - let e and e' are two identities in G and let a ∈ G

∴ ae = a ⟶(i)
∴ ae' = a ⟶(ii)

R.H.S of (i) and (ii) are equal ⇒ae =ae'

Thus by the left cancellation law, we obtain e= e'

There is only one identity element in G for any a ∈ G. Hence the theorem is proved.

2. Statement: - For each element a in a group G, there is a unique element b in G such

that ab= ba=e (uniqueness if inverses)

Proof: - let b and c are both inverses of a a∈ G

Then ab = e and ac = e
∵ c = ce {existence of identity element}
⟹ c = c (ab) {∵ ab = e}
⟹ c = (c a) b
⟹ c = (ac) b { ∵ ac = ca}
⟹ c = eb
⟹ c = b { ∵ b = eb}

Hence inverse of a G is unique.

Theorem 2:-
1. Statement: - In a Group G,(a-1)-1=a,∀ a∈ G

Proof: We have a a-1=a-1 a=e

Where e is the identity element of G

Thus a is inverse of a-1∈ G

i.e., (a-1)-1=a,∀ a∈ G

2. Statement: In a Group G,(a b-1)=b-1 a-1,∀ a,b∈ G

Proof: - By associatively we have

(b-1 a-1)ab=b-1 (a-1 a)b

⟹(b-1 a-1)ab=b-1 (e)b {∵a-1 a=e}
-1 -1 -1
⟹(b a )ab=b b {∵eb=b}
⟹(b-1 a-1)ab=e, {∵b-1 b=e}

Similarly

(ab) (b-1 a-1)=a(b b-1) a-1

⟹(ab) (b-1 a-1)=a (e) a-1
⟹(ab) (b-1 a-1)=a a-1
⟹(ab) (b-1 a-1)=e {∵aa-1=e}
Thus ( b a )ab=(ab)(b-1 a-1)=e
-1 -1

∴ b-1 a-1 is the inverse of ab

i.e., b-1 a-1= a b-1

Hence the theorem is proved.

Theorem3:-
In a group G, the left and right cancellation laws hold i.e.

(i) ab = ac implies b=c

(ii) ba=ca implies b=c

Proof

(i) Let ab=ac

Premultiplying a-1 on both sides we get
a-1 (ab)=a-1 (ac)
⟹ (a-1a) b=(a-1 a)c
⟹eb=ec
⟹b=c

Hence Proved.

(ii) Let ba=ca

Post-multiplying a-1 on both sides
⟹(ba) a-1=(ca) a-1
⟹b(aa-1 )=c(aa-1 )
⟹be=ce
⟹b=c

Hence the theorem is proved.

Finite and Infinite Group:

A group (G, *) is called a finite group if G is a finite set.

A group (G, *) is called a infinite group if G is an infinite set.

Example1: The group (I, +) is an infinite group as the set I of integers is an infinite set.

Example2: The group G = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} under multiplication modulo 8 is a finite

group as the set G is a finite set.

Order of Group:
The order of the group G is the number of elements in the group G. It is denoted by |G|. A
group of order 1 has only the identity element, i.e., ({e} *).

A group of order 2 has two elements, i.e., one identity element and one some other
element.

Example1: Let ({e, x}, *) be a group of order 2. The table of operation is shown in fig:
 * e x

e e x

x x e

The group of order 3 has three elements i.e., one identity element and two other elements.

Lesson III: Subgroup:

If a non-void subset H of a group G is itself a group under the operation of G, we say H is a
subgroup of G.

Theorem: - A subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G if:

o the identity element a∈ H.

o H is closed under the operation of G i.e. if a, b∈ H, then a, b∈ H and
o H is closed under inverses, that is if a∈ H then a-1∈ H.

Cyclic Subgroup:-
A Subgroup K of a group G is said to be cyclic subgroup if there exists an element x∈ G such
that every element of K can be written in the form x n for some n ∈Z.

The element x is called generator of K and we write K= <x>

Cyclic Group:-
In the case when G=, we say G is cyclic and x is a generator of G. That is, a group G is said
to be cyclic if there is an element x∈ G such that every element of G can be written in the
form xn for the some n∈ Z.

Example: The group G= {1, -1, i,-i} under usual multiplication is a finite cyclic group with i
as generator, since i1=i,i2=-1,i3=-i and i4=1

Abelian Group:
Let us consider an algebraic system (G,*), where * is a binary operation on G. Then the
system (G,*) is said to be an abelian group if it satisfies all the properties of the group plus
a additional following property:
(1) The operation * is commutative i.e.,
a * b = b * a ∀ a,b ∈G

Example: Consider an algebraic system (G, *), where G is the set of all non-zero real
numbers and * is a binary operation defined by

Show that (G, *) is an abelian group.

Solution:

Closure Property: The set G is closed under the operation *, since a * b = is a real
number. Hence, it belongs to G.

Associative Property: The operation * is associative. Let a,b,c∈G, then we have

Identity: To find the identity element, let us assume that e is a +ve real number. Then e *
a = a, where a ∈G.

Thus, the identity element in G is 4.

Inverse: let us assume that a ∈G. If a-1∈Q, is an inverse of a, then a * a-1=4

Thus, the inverse of element a in G is

Commutative: The operation * on G is commutative.

Thus, the algebraic system (G, *) is closed, associative, identity element, inverse and
commutative. Hence, the system (G, *) is an abelian group.

Product of Groups:
Theorem: Prove that if (G1,*1)and (G2,*2) are groups, then G = G1 x G2 i.e., (G, *) is a
group with operation defined by (a1,b1)*( a2,b2 )=(a1,*1,a2, b1 *2 b2).

Proof: To prove that G1 x G2 is a group, we have to show that G1 x G2 has the associativity
operator, has an identity and also exists inverse of every element.

Associativity. Let a, b, c ∈ G1 x G2,then

So, a * (b * c) = (a1,a2 )*((b1,b2)*(c1,c2))

= (a1,a2 )*(b1 *1 c1,b2 *2 c2)
= (a1 *1 (b1 *1 c1 ),a2 *2 (b2 *2 c2)
= ((a1 *1 b1) *1 c1,( a2 *2 b2) *2 c2)
= (a1 *1 b1,a2 *2 b2)*( c1,c2)
= ((a1,a2)*( b1,b2))*( c1,c2)
= (a * b) * c.

Identity: Let e1 and e2 are identities for G1 and G2 respectively. Then, the identity for G 1 x
G2 is e=(e1,e2 ).Assume same a ∈ G1 x G2

Then, a * e = (a1,a2)*( e1,e2)

= (a1 *1 e1,a2 *2 e2)
= (a1,a2)=a

Similarly, we have e * a = a.

Inverse: To determine the inverse of an element in G1 x G2, we will determine it

component wise i.e.,
a-1=(a1,a2)-1=(a1-1,a2-1 )

Now to verify that this is the exact inverse, we will compute a * a -1 and a-1*a.

Now, a * a-1=(a1,a2 )*(a1-1,a2-1 )

= (a1 *1 a1-1,a2 *2 a2-1)=( e1,e2)=e

Similarly, we have a-1*a=e.

Thus, (G1 x G2,*) is a group.

In general, if G1,G2,....Gn are groups, then G = G1 x G2 x.....x Gn is also a group.

Cosets:
Let H be a subgroup of a group G. A left coset of H in G is a subset of G whose elements
may be expressed as xH={ xh | h ∈ H } for any x∈ G. The element x is called a
representation of the coset. Similarly, a right coset of H in G is a subset that may be
expressed as Hx= {hx | h ∈H } , for any x∈G. Thus complexes xH and Hx are called
respectively a left coset and a right coset.

If the group operation is additive (+) then a left coset is denoted as x + H={x+h | h ∈H}
and a right coset is denoted by H + x = {h+x | h ∈ H}
Lesson IV: Normal SubGroup:
Let G be a group. A subgroup H of G is said to be a normal subgroup of G if for all h∈ H and
x∈ G, x h x-1∈ H

If x H x-1 = {x h x-1| h ∈ H} then H is normal in G if and only if xH x-1⊆H, ∀ x∈ G

Statement: If G is an abelian group, then every subgroup H of G is normal in G.

Proof: Let any h∈ H, x∈ G, then

x h x-1= x (h x-1)
x h x-1= (x x-1) h
x h x-1 = e h
x h x-1 = h∈ H

Hence H is normal subgroup of G.

Group Homomorphism:
A homomorphism is a mapping f: G→ G' such that f (xy) =f(x) f(y), ∀ x, y ∈ G. The mapping
f preserves the group operation although the binary operations of the group G and G' are
different. Above condition is called the homomorphism condition.

Kernel of Homomorphism: - The Kernel of a homomorphism f from a group G to a group

G' with identity e' is the set {x∈ G | f(x) =e'}

The kernel of f is denoted by Ker f.

If f: G→G' is a homomorphism of G intoG', then the image set of f is the range, denoted by f
(G), of the map f. Thus

Im (f) = f (G) = {f(x)∈ G'| x ∈G}

If f (G) =G', then G' is called a homomorphic image of G.

Isomorphism:
Let (G1,*) and (G2,0) be two algebraic system, where * and 0 both are binary operations.
The systems (G1,*) and (G2,0) are said to be isomorphic if there exists an isomorphic
mapping f: G1→G2

When two algebraic systems are isomorphic, the systems are structurally equivalent and
one can be obtained from another by simply remaining the elements and operation.

Example: Let (A1,*) and (A2,⊡) be the two algebraic systems as shown in fig. Determine
whether the two algebraic systems are isomorphic.

Solution: The two algebraic system (A1,*) and (A2,⊡) are isomorphic and (A2,⊡) is an
isomorphic image of A1, such that

f( a)=1
f (b)=w
f (c)= w2

Automorphism:
Let (G1,*) and (G2,0) be two algebraic system, where * and 0 both are binary operations on
G1 and G2 respectively. Then an isomorphism from (G1,*) to (G2,0) is called an
automorphism if G1= G2

Rings:
An algebraic system (R, +,) where R is a set with two arbitrary binary operations + and ., is
called aring if it satisfies the following conditions

1. (R, +) is an abelian group.

2. (R,∙) is a semigroup.
3. The multiplication operation, is distributive over the addition operation +i.e.,
a (b+c)=ab +ac and (b+c)a = ba + ca for all a, b, c ∈ R.
Example1: Consider M be the set of all matrices of the type over integers under
matrix addition and matrix multiplication. Thus M form a ring.

Example2: The set Z9 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} under the operation addition and

multiplication modulo 9 forms a ring.

Types of Rings:
1. Commutative Rings: A ring (R, +,) is called a commutative ring if it holds the
commutative law under the operation of multiplication i.e., a. b = b. a, for every a, b∈ R

Example1: Consider a set E of all even integers under the operation of addition and
multiplication. The set E forms a commutative ring.

2. Ring with Unity: A ring (R, +,) is called a ring with unity, if it has a multiplicative
identity i.e,

Example: Consider a set M of all 2 x 2 matrices over integers under matrix multiplication

and matrix addition. The set M forms a ring with unity .

3. Ring with Zero Divisions: If a.b=0, where a and b are any two non-zero elements of R
in the ring (R, +) then a and b are called divisions of zero and the ring (R, +) is called ring
with zero division.

4. Rings without Zero Division: An algebraic system (R, +) where R is a set with two
arbitrary binary operation + and is called a ring without divisors of zero if for every a, b ∈R,
we have a.b≠0 ⟹a≠0 and b ≠0

SubRings:
A subset A of a ring (R, +) is called a subring of R, if it satisfies following conditions:

(A, +) is a subgroup of the group (R,+)

A is closed under the multiplication operation i.e., a.b ∈A,for every a,b ∈A.

Example: The ring (I, +) of integers is a subring of ring (R, +) of real numbers.