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Discrete Mathematics Chapter II Sets Theory Lesson 4 Algebra of Sets

The document summarizes the algebra of sets, including laws for union, intersection, and complement operations on sets. It provides examples demonstrating idempotent laws, associative laws, commutative laws, distributive laws, De Morgan's laws, identity laws, complement laws, involution laws, and the Cartesian product of two sets. The document establishes these laws through formal proofs showing elements are or are not members of the resulting sets based on the defined operations.

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169 views9 pages

Discrete Mathematics Chapter II Sets Theory Lesson 4 Algebra of Sets

The document summarizes the algebra of sets, including laws for union, intersection, and complement operations on sets. It provides examples demonstrating idempotent laws, associative laws, commutative laws, distributive laws, De Morgan's laws, identity laws, complement laws, involution laws, and the Cartesian product of two sets. The document establishes these laws through formal proofs showing elements are or are not members of the resulting sets based on the defined operations.

Uploaded by

あなたを 食べたい鮎麻呂
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Discrete Mathematics

Chapter II Sets Theory Lesson 4 Algebra of Sets

Algebra of Sets
Sets under the operations of union, intersection, and complement satisfy
various laws (identities) which are listed in Table 1.
Table: Law of Algebra of Sets

Idempotent Laws (a) A ∪ A = A (b) A ∩ A = A

Associative Laws (a) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C) (b) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

Commutative Laws (a) A ∪ B = B ∪ A (b) A ∩ B = B ∩ A

Distributive Laws (a) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) (b) A ∩ (B ∪ C) =(A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

De Morgan's Laws (a) (A ∪B)c=Ac∩ Bc (b) (A ∩B)c=Ac∪ Bc

Identity Laws (a) A ∪ ∅ = A (c) A ∩ U =A


(b) A ∪ U = U (d) A ∩ ∅ = ∅

Complement Laws (a) A ∪ Ac= U (c) Uc= ∅


(b) A ∩ Ac= ∅ (d) ∅c = U

Involution Law (a) (Ac)c = A


Table 1 shows the law of algebra of sets.

Example 1: Prove Idempotent Laws:


1. (a) A ∪ A = A
Solution:
Since, B ⊂ A ∪ B, therefore A ⊂ A ∪ A
Let x ∈ A ∪ A ⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ A
∴A∪A⊂A
As A ∪ A ⊂ A and A ⊂ A ∪ A ⇒ A =A ∪ A. Hence Proved.

1. (b) A ∩ A = A
Solution:
Since, A ∩ B ⊂ B, therefore A ∩ A ⊂ A
Discrete Mathematics
Chapter II Sets Theory Lesson 4 Algebra of Sets

Let x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ A
⇒x∈A∩A ∴A⊂A∩A
As A ∩ A ⊂ A and A ⊂ A ∩ A ⇒ A = A ∩ A. Hence Proved.

Example 2: Prove Associative Laws:


1. (a) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)
Solution:
Let some x ∈ (A'∪ B) ∪ C
⇒ (x ∈ A or x ∈ B) or x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B or x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ A or (x ∈ B or x ∈ C)
⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B ∪ C
⇒ x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C).
Similarly, if some x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C), then x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C.
Thus, any x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C) ⇔ x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C. Hence Proved.

1. (b) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
Solution:
Let some x ∈ A ∩ (B ∩ C) ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B ∩ C
⇒ x ∈ A and (x ∈ B and x ∈ C) ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B and x ∈ C
⇒ (x ∈ A and x ∈ B) and x ∈ C) ⇒ x ∈ A ∩ B and x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∩ C.
Similarly, if some x ∈ A ∩ (B ∩ C), then x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∩ C
Thus, any x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∩ C ⇔ x ∈ A ∩ (B ∩ C). Hence Proved.
Discrete Mathematics
Chapter II Sets Theory Lesson 4 Algebra of Sets

Example3: Prove Commutative Laws


1. (a) A ∪ B = B ∪ A
Solution:
To Prove
A∪B=B∪A
A ∪ B = {x: x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
= {x: x ∈ B or x ∈ A} (∵ Order is not preserved in case of sets)
A ∪ B = B ∪ A. Hence Proved.

1. (b) A ∩ B = B ∩ A
Solution:
To Prove
A∩B=B∩A
A ∩ B = {x: x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
= {x: x ∈ B and x ∈ A} (∵ Order is not preserved in case of sets)
A ∩ B = B ∩ A. Hence Proved.

Example 4: Prove Distributive Laws


1. (a) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
Solution:
To Prove
Let x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C) ⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B ∩ C
⇒ (x ∈ A or x ∈ A) or (x ∈ B and x ∈ C)
⇒ (x ∈ A or x ∈ B) and (x ∈ A or x ∈ C)
⇒ x ∈ A ∪ B and x ∈ A ∪ C
⇒ x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)

Therefore, A ∪ (B ∩ C) ⊂ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)............(i)
Discrete Mathematics
Chapter II Sets Theory Lesson 4 Algebra of Sets

Again, Let y ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) ⇒ y ∈ A ∪ B and y ∈ A ∪ C


⇒ (y ∈ A or y ∈ B) and (y ∈ A or y ∈ C)
⇒ (y ∈ A and y ∈ A) or (y ∈ B and y ∈ C)
⇒ y∈A or y∈B∩C
⇒ y ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C)
Therefore, (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) ⊂ A ∪ (B ∩ C)............(ii)

Combining (i) and (ii), we get A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C). Hence Proved

1. (b) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
Solution:
To Prove
Let x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C) ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B ∪ C
⇒ (x ∈ A and x ∈ A) and (x ∈ B or x ∈ C)
⇒ (x ∈ A and x ∈ B) or (x ∈ A and x ∈ C)
⇒ x ∈ A ∩ B or x ∈ A ∩ C
⇒ x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∪ C)

Therefore, A ∩ (B ∪ C) ⊂ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∪ C)............ (i)


Again, Let y ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∪ C) ⇒ y ∈ A ∩ B or y ∈ A ∩ C
⇒ (y ∈ A and y ∈ B) or (y ∈ A and y ∈ C)
⇒ (y ∈ A or y ∈ A) and (y ∈ B or y ∈ C)
⇒ y ∈ A and y ∈ B ∪ C
⇒ y ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C)
Therefore, (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∪ C) ⊂ A ∩ (B ∪ C)............ (ii)

Combining (i) and (ii), we get A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∪ C). Hence Proved


Discrete Mathematics
Chapter II Sets Theory Lesson 4 Algebra of Sets

Example 5: Prove De Morgan's Laws


(a) (A ∪B)c=Ac∩ Bc
Solution:
To Prove (A ∪B)c=Ac∩ Bc
Let x ∈ (A ∪B)c ⇒ x ∉ A ∪ B (∵ a ∈ A ⇔ a ∉ Ac)
⇒ x ∉ A and x ∉ B
⇒ x ∉ Ac and x ∉ Bc
⇒ x ∉ Ac∩ Bc
Therefore, (A ∪B)c ⊂ Ac∩ Bc............. (i)
Again, let x ∈ Ac∩ Bc ⇒ x ∈ Ac and x ∈ Bc
⇒ x ∉ A and x ∉ B
⇒ x∉ A∪B
⇒ x ∈ (A ∪B)c
Therefore, Ac∩ Bc ⊂ (A ∪B)c............. (ii)
Combining (i) and (ii), we get Ac∩ Bc =(A ∪B)c. Hence Proved.

(b) (A ∩B)c = Ac∪ Bc


Solution:
Let x ∈ (A ∩B)c ⇒ x ∉ A ∩ B (∵ a ∈ A ⇔ a ∉ Ac)
⇒ x ∉ A or x ∉ B
⇒ x ∈ Ac and x ∈ Bc
⇒ x ∈ Ac∪ Bc
∴ (A ∩B)c⊂ (A ∪B)c.................. (i)
Again, Let x ∈ Ac∪ Bc ⇒ x ∈ Ac or x ∈ Bc
⇒ x ∉ A or x ∉ B
⇒x∉ A∩B
⇒ x ∈ (A ∩B)c
∴ Ac∪ Bc⊂ (A ∩B)c.................... (ii)
Discrete Mathematics
Chapter II Sets Theory Lesson 4 Algebra of Sets

Combining (i) and (ii), we get(A ∩B)c=Ac∪ Bc. Hence Proved.

Example 6: Prove Identity Laws.


1. (a) A ∪ ∅ = A
Solution:
To Prove A ∪ ∅ = A
Let x ∈ A ∪ ∅ ⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ ∅
⇒x∈A (∵x ∈ ∅, as ∅ is the null set )
Therefore, x ∈ A ∪ ∅ ⇒ x ∈ A
Hence, A ∪ ∅ ⊂ A.
We know that A ⊂ A ∪ B for any set B.
But for B = ∅, we have A ⊂ A ∪ ∅
From above, A ⊂ A ∪ ∅ , A ∪ ∅ ⊂ A ⇒ A = A ∪ ∅. Hence Proved.

1. (b) A ∩ ∅ = ∅
Solution:
To Prove A ∩ ∅ = ∅
If x ∈ A, then x ∉ ∅ (∵∅ is a null set)
Therefore, x ∈ A, x ∉ ∅ ⇒ A ∩ ∅ = ∅. Hence Proved.

1. (c) A ∪ U = U
Solution:
To Prove A ∪ U = U
Every set is a subset of a universal set.
∴ A∪U⊆U
Also, U ⊆ A ∪ U
Therefore, A ∪ U = U. Hence Proved.
Discrete Mathematics
Chapter II Sets Theory Lesson 4 Algebra of Sets

1. (d) A ∩ U = A
Solution:
To Prove A ∩ U = A
We know A ∩ U ⊂ A................. (i)
So we have to show that A ⊂ A ∩ U
Let x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ U (∵ A ⊂ U so x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ U )
∴ x∈A⇒x∈A∩U
∴ A ⊂ A ∩ U................. (ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get A ∩ U = A. Hence Proved.

Example7: Prove Complement Laws


(a) A ∪ Ac= U
Solution:
To Prove A ∪ Ac= U
Every set is a subset of U
∴ A ∪ Ac ⊂ U.................. (i)
We have to show that U ⊆ A ∪ Ac
Let x ∈ U ⇒ x ∈ A or x∉ A
⇒ x∈A or x ∈ Ac ⇒ x ∈ A ∪ Ac
∴ U ⊆ A ∪ Ac................... (ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get A ∪ Ac= U. Hence Proved.

(b) A ∩ Ac=∅
Solution:
As ∅ is the subset of every set
∴ ∅ ⊆ A ∩ Ac..................... (i)
We have to show that A ∩ Ac ⊆ ∅
Let x ∈ A ∩ Ac ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ Ac
Discrete Mathematics
Chapter II Sets Theory Lesson 4 Algebra of Sets

⇒ x ∈ A and x ∉ A
⇒x∈∅
∴ A ∩ Ac ⊂∅..................... (ii)

From (i) and (ii), we get A∩ Ac=∅. Hence Proved.

(c) Uc= ∅
Solution:
Let x ∈ Uc ⇔ x ∉ U ⇔ x ∈ ∅
∴ Uc= ∅. Hence Proved. (As U is the Universal Set).

(d) ∅c = U
Solution:
Let x ∈ ∅c ⇔ x ∉ ∅ ⇔ x ∈ U (As ∅ is an empty set)
∴ ∅c = U. Hence Proved.

Example8: Prove Involution Law


(a) (Ac )c A.
Solution:
Let x ∈ (Ac )c ⇔ x ∉ Ac⇔ x ∈ a
∴ (Ac )c =A. Hence Proved.
Duality:
The dual E∗ of E is the equation obtained by replacing every occurrence of ∪, ∩,
U and ∅ in E by ∩, ∪, ∅, and U, respectively. For example, the dual of
1. (U ∩ A) ∪ (B ∩ A) = A is (∅ ∪ A) ∩ (B ∪ A) = A
It is noted as the principle of duality, that if any equation E is an identity, then
its dual E∗ is also an identity.
Discrete Mathematics
Chapter II Sets Theory Lesson 4 Algebra of Sets

Principle of Extension:
According to the Principle of Extension two sets, A and B are the same if and
only if they have the same members. We denote equal sets by A=B.
1. If A= {1, 3, 5} and B= {3, 1, 5}, then A=B i.e., A and B are equal sets.
2. If A= {1, 4, 7} and B= {5, 4, 8}, then A≠ B i.e.., A and B are unequal sets.
Cartesian product of two sets:
The Cartesian Product of two sets P and Q in that order is the set of all ordered
pairs whose first member belongs to the set P and second member belong to set
Q and is denoted by P x Q, i.e.,
1. P x Q = {(x, y): x ∈ P, y ∈ Q}.
Example: Let P = {a, b, c} and Q = {k, l, m, n}. Determine the Cartesian product
of P and Q.
Solution: The Cartesian product of P and Q is

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