Srinivas University BCA IInd Semester

Paper : 19BCASD23 Hours: 40

Basics of
Theory/Week:4 Hours IA : 50
Networking
Credits:4 Exam: 50

Unit – I
8 hrs
Introduction to Networks: Overview of Networking, Network communication
standards Network Topologies: Overview of Network Topologies, Basic topologies,
LAN Components: LAN Cables and connectors, LAN devices.
Unit – II
8 hrs
LAN Protocols: Lower-layer Protocols, Middle-layer Protocols, Higher-layer
Protocols,
Unit – III
8 hrs
Network Addressing - Introduction, TCP/IP Addressing scheme, IPX/SPX addressing,
NETBEUI addressing
Unit – IV
8 hrs
Introduction to WAN: Overview, WAN connectivity options, virtual private networks
Unit – V
8 hrs
WAN hardware and protocols: WAN devices, WAN Protocols
Reference Books
1 NIIT, Basics of Networking, PHI Learning Private ltd, 2010
Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data Communications and Networking, 4th Edition, Tata
2
Mcgraw Hill
Andrew S Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, 4th edition, Dorling Kindersley Pvt
3
Ltd
James Chellis, et al., MCSE: Networking Essentials Study Guide, 3 rd edition,
4
BPB
BASICS OF NETWORKING
Paper: 19BCASD23
TEACHING PLAN

UNIT- 1 8Hours

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Session 01: Overview of Networking

Session 02: Network communication standards
Session 03: Overview of Network Topologies
Session 04: Basic topologies, Limitations of the basic topology
Session 05: Complex topology
Session 06: LAN Cables and connectors
Session 07: LAN devices,
Session 08: Wireless LANs

UNIT-2 8Hours
Session 09: Lower-layer Protocols, ARC net
Session 10: Ethernet
Session 11: Ethernet Communication
Session 12: Token Ring FDDI
Session 13: Middle-layer Protocols TCP/IP
Session 14: IPX/SPX, NETBEUI
Session 15: Higher-layer Protocols HTTP, FTP
Session 16: SMTP

UNIT-3 8Hours
Session 17: Introduction to TCP/IP
Session 18: IP Address Classes
Session 19: IP Sub netting
Session 20: Communication across Subnets
Session 21: Sub netting Consideration
Session 22: VLSM
Session 23: Ipv6
Session 24: IPX/SPX Addressing, NETBEUI Addressing

UNIT-4 8Hours
Session 25: Introduction to WAN, WAN connectivity options
Session 26: POTS,
Session 27: Leased Lines
Session 28: ISDN
Session 29: VSAT
Session 30: Microwave, Radio, Infrared Session 31 VPN
Session 32: VPN Protocols

UNIT-5 8Hours
Session 33: Wan Devices

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Session 34: Bridges

Session 35: Transparent Bridges
Session 36: Spanning Tree Algorithm, Source Route Bridge
Session 37: Routers, Node based Routing
Session 38: Router based Routing, Routing Protocols
Session 39: WAN Protocols: PPP, X.25
Session 40: Frame Relay, ATM

Text Book:
NIIT, Basics of Networking, PHI Learning Private ltd, 2010

Reference Books:
1. Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data Communications and Networking, 4th Edition, Tata Mcgraw
Hill
2. Andrew S Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, 4th edition, Dorling Kindersley Pvt Ltd
3. James Chellis, et al., MCSE: Networking Essentials Study Guide, 3rd edition, BPB

Sl. No. CONTENT Page no.

UNIT 1
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKS
1.1 Overview of networking

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1.2 Need of networking

1.3 Hardware and software components
1.4 Network communication standards
1.5 Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) reference model
1.6 TCP/IP reference model
Chapter 2 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
2.1 Overview of network topologies
2.2 Basic topologies
2.3 Bus topologies
2.4 Ring topology
2.5 Star topology
2.6 Complex topologies
2.7 Mesh topology
2.8 Hybrid topology
Chapter 3 LAN COMPONENTS
3.1 LAN cables and connectors
3.2 Cables
3.3 Coaxial cables
3.4 Twisted-pair cables
3.4.1 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
3.4.2 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
3.5 Optical fiber cables
3.6 Connecters
3.7 LAN devices
3.8 Repeaters
3.9 Hubs
3.1 Switches
3.11 Network Interface Card (NIC)
UNIT 2
Chapter 4 NETWORK PROTOCOLS
4.1 Lower-layer protocols
4.1.1 ARC net
4.1.2 Ethernet
4.1.3 Token ring
4.1.4 Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)
4.2 Middle-layer protocols
4.2.1 Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
4.2.2 Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange
(IPX/SPX

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4.2.3 NETBIOS Enhanced User Interface (NETBEUI)

4.3 Higher-layer protocols
4.3.1 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
4.3.2 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
4.3.3 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
4.3.4 Post Office Protocol
4.3.5 Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP)
UNIT 3
Chapter 5 TCP/IP ADDRESSING SCHEME
5.1 Introduction to network addressing
5.2 TCP/IP addressing scheme
5.3 Components of IP address
5.4 IP address classes
5.5 IP subnetting
5.6 Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM)
5.7 Classless Inter Domain Routing (CIDR)
5.8 Internet Protocol Version 6 (iPV6)
5.9 IPX/SPX addressing
5.1 NETBEUI addressing
UNIT 4
Chapter 6 INTRODUCTION TO WAN
6.1 Overview of WAN
6.2 WAN connectivity options
6.2.1 Pots
6.2.2 Leased lines
6.2.3 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
6.2.4 Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT)
6.2.5 Virtual Private Networks (VPNS)
6.2.6 Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP)
6.2.7 Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP)
6.2.8 Internet Protocol Security (IPSec)
UNIT 5
Chapter 7 WAN HARDWARE AND PROTOCOLS
7.1 WAN devices
7.2 Bridges
7.2.1 Spanning tree algorithm
7.3 Routers
7.3.1 Routing protocols
7.3.2 Routing Information Protocol

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7.3.3 Open Shortest Path First

7.4 Gateways
7.5 WAN protocols
7.5.1 Point-to-Point Protocol
7.5.2 X.25
7.5.3 Frame relay
7.5.4 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

UNIT-I
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKS

OVERVIEW OF NETWORKING
Human communication is a process that involves people communicating with each other.
This process involves four components: the sender of the information, the receiver of the
information, the language, and the medium through which communication is established.
Networking is a concept of connecting multiple computers so that resources, such as printers,
hard disks, and files can be shared. A typical network is depicted in Figure 1.1.

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Figure: 1.1 Basic Networking

The users of these networked computers can share data and other information.
Organizations may use networks for many reasons besides the speed and reliability of data
transfer. The most obvious reason is that a network provides an improved communication link
between users, ensuring that information is available to users at the right time and the
right place. Following are some areas where networking plays a major role:

Need for Networking

 Speed: You can quickly access files and other resources available on the network. If the
network is not available, accessing the files will take time because you will require physical
media such as floppy or external device to transfer the data. For example, the head office
of an organization needs to retrieve some important data from one of its branches. It will
be less time consuming to access the data if the offices are connected through a network.
 Resource sharing: Most organizations have a large number of computers, and installing
software on each computer is expensive. To reduce this cost, you can install the software on
a one of the computers in the network, and allow the users to install the software from this
computer. In addition, networking helps in reducing the cost spent on purchasing new
hardware. Resources such as printers, fax machines, e-mail servers, Web servers, file
servers, and scanners are expensive, usually too expensive for small organizations.
Providing all the above equipments to each user in the organization is not feasible.
Therefore, the best option is to share, and make these resources accessible to every user on
the network.
 Communication facilities: Networking helps in sending and receiving e-mail messages
anywhere in the world. An e-mail message can contain voice, video, and pictures. The
service is more cost-effective and faster than postal services. With networking, you can also
communicate with people online using the chat service. Video conferencing and tale-
conferencing are also commonly used by people working in different locations.
 Backups and fail over: Networks provide an additional means for creating backups of
critical data. These backups can be used if the original data is lost or corrupted. In critical
environments, where the availability of computers is absolutely essential at all
times, if one computer fails, another computer on the same network can take over its
functions and workload even without the users being aware of the situation.

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HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE COMPONENTS

In a network, the communication between two computers occurs in the form of signals.
The data from a source computer is converted into signals and transmitted to the destination
computer. On the destination computer, these signals are converted back to data. To connect two
computers in a network, you need certain hardware and software components. The hardware
components used for networking include:

 Cables: Cables are commonly used as a medium for transmitting data across networks.
The most commonly used cables are coaxial, twisted-pair, and optical fiber cables.

Figure 1.2: Types of cables

 Network Interfacing Card (NIC): NIC is a hardware device that acts as an interface
through which a computer connects to a network. NIC is usually an expansion card on the
computer the computer with a port to plug a network cable. NIC converts the data into
electrical/optical signals and transfers them through cable from one computer to another
computer on the network. On receiving the data the NIC on the destination computer
converts the electrical signals back to data.

 Repeaters: The signal transmitted can be attenuated due to some problem in the
transmission media or the distance between the two locations. Attenuation of signal
means the gradual deterioration of signal strength across long distances. A repeater is an
electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher
power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer
distances. Repeaters are required in networks where the computers are apart from each
other that the signal from the source computer attenuates and does not reach the
destination computer.

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Fig 1.3: A signal repeater

 Hubs: A hub is a repeater with multiple ports. Hubs can be used to connect multiple
segments of the same network and transfer data from one segment to another. In a
network a hub acts like a central point for various devices such as computers, printers and
routers. However hubs can considerably increase network traffic because they broadcast
data to devices connected on all the ports.

Figure 1.4: A Hub

 Switches: In a network a switch acts as a central point for various devices such as
computers, printers and routers. When the data frame is sent using a switch the data frame
carries the address of the destination with it. The data frame contains the MAC address of
the destination computer. Switches can read this MAC address and as a result data is

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forwarded only to the intended computer rather than being forwarded to each computer
on the network. As a result switch reduces network traffic and therefore enhances the
network performances.

Fig 1.5: A network switch

 Routers: A router is a device that uses the network addresses for filtering and forwarding
information to different networks. A network address is the address of the computer on a
network. Routers store the network address of computers in different networks in a table
called routing table. In addition to the network addresses, the routing table also contains
information on the path that should be used to transmit data and any rules that have been
defined for filtering network traffic.

Figure 1.6: A Router

 Gateways: A gateway is a device or service that translates communication protocols and

enables two similar or dissimilar LAN s, such as Ethernet and Token Ring, to
communicate with each other.

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 Bridges: A bridge is a device that filters and forwards traffic between two or more
networks.

Fig 1.7: A Network bridge

The software components used in networking include:

 Protocols: Protocols are the set of rules that the computers on the network must follow to
communicate with each other.
 Device drivers: A device driver is a program that controls the functionality of the
hardware device. NIC driver controls the functionality of the NIC which acts as an
interface through which a computer connects to the network.

Network Communication Standards

For the two computers to communicate with each other, they need to follow certain
communication standards. The following topics in this section describe two such standards that
enable two computers to communicate with each other on a network.
OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECT (OSI) REFERENCE MODEL
The International Standards Organization (ISO) developed the OSI model in 1983. This
model connects systems that are open to communicate with each other regardless of the
protocols that each system uses. This model allows computers from different manufacturers to
communicate with each other without requiring any logical changes to the hardware and
software. The OSI model is represented in seven layers that define the entire process of
communication between two computers on a network.

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Figure: OSI program

At the physical layer, communication is direct: In below Figure device A sends a stream
of bits to device B (through intermediate nodes). At the higher layers, however, communication
must move down through the layers on device A, over to device B, and then back up through the
layers. Each layer in the sending device adds its own information to the message it receives from
the layer just above it and passes the whole package to the layer just below it. At layer I the
entire package is converted to a form that can be transmitted to the receiving device. At the
receiving machine, the message is unwrapped layer by layer, with each process receiving and
removing the data meant for it.

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Figure 1.8: Process of Data Transfer in the OSI Model

LAYERS of OSI MODEL

Physical Layer
The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical
medium. It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and
transmission medium. It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and
interfaces have to perform for transmission to Occur. Below Figure shows the position of the
physical layer with respect to the transmission medium and the data link layer.

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The physical layer is also concerned with the following:

 Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium. The physical layer defines the
characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission medium. It also
defines the type of transmission medium.
 Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of
0s or 1s) with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals
electrical or optical. The physical layer defines the type of encoding.
 Data rate. The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined by
the physical layer. In other words, the physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which
is how long it lasts.
 Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but
also must be synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the sender and the receiver
clocks must be synchronized.
 Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to
the media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a
dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several devices.
 Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a
network. Devices can be connected by using a mesh topology (every device is connected
to every other device), a star topology (devices are connected through a central device), a
ring topology (each device is connected to the next, forming a ring), a bus topology
(every device is on a common link), or a hybrid topology (this is a combination of two or
more topologies).
 Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission
between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In simplex mode, only one
device can send; the other can only receive. The simplex mode is a one-way
communication. In the half-duplex mode, two devices can send and receive, but not at the
same time. In a full-duplex (or simply duplex) mode, two devices can send and receive at
the same time.

Data Link Layer

The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable
link. It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer). Below
Figure shows the relationship of the data link layer to the network and physical layers.

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Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:

 Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer
into manageable data units called frames.
 Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network,
the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the
frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the sender's network, the receiver
address is the address of the device that connects the network to the next one.
 Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the
rate at which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control
mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
 Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to
recognize duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to
the end of the frame.
 Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link
layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any
given time.

Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet,
possibly across multiple networks (links). Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of
the packet between two systems on the same network (links), the network layer ensures that each
packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination. If two systems are connected to the
same link, there is usually no need for a network layer. However, if the two systems are attached
to different networks (links) with connecting devices between the networks (links), there is often
a need for the network layer to accomplish source-to-destination delivery. Below Figure shows
the relationship of the network layer to the data link and transport layers.

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Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:

 Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles
the addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another
addressing system to help distinguish the source and destination systems. The network
layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer that, among other things,
includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver. We discuss logical addresses
later in this chapter.
 Routing. When independent networks or links are connected to create internetworks
(network of networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or
switches) route or switch the packets to their final destination. One of the functions of the
network layer is to provide this mechanism.

Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message. A
process is an application program running on a host. Whereas the network layer oversees source-
to-destination delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize any relationship between
those packets. It treats each one independently, as though each piece belonged to a separate
message, whether or not it does. The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the whole
message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow control at the source-
to-destination level.

Other responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:

 Service-point addressing. Computers often run several programs at the same time. For
this reason, source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from one computer to
the next but also from a specific process (running program) on one computer to a specific
process (running program) on the other. The transport layer header must therefore include
a type of address called a service-point address (or port address). The network layer gets
each packet to the correct computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the

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correct process on that computer.

 Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into transmittable segments, with
each segment containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and
replace packets that were lost in transmission.
 Connection control. The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection
oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet
and delivers it to the transport layer at the destination machine. A connection oriented
transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine
first before delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is
terminated.
 Flow control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control.
However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single
link.
 Error control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error
control. However, error control at this layer is performed process-to-process rather than
across a single link. The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message
arrives at the receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss, or duplication). Error
correction is usually achieved through retransmission.

Session Layer
The services provided by the first three layers (physical, data link, and network) are not
sufficient for some processes. The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes,
maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems.

Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:

 Dialog control. The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the
communication between two processes to take place in either half-duplex (one way at a
time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.

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 Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or

synchronization points, to a stream of data. For example, if a system is sending a file
of2000 pages, it is advisable to insert checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that
each 100-page unit is received and acknowledged independently. In this case, if a crash
happens during the transmission of page 523, the only pages that need to be resent after
system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be resent.

Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems.

Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:

 Translation. The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging
information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information must
be changed to bit streams before layer is responsible for interoperability between these
different encoding methods. The presentation layer at the sender changes the information
from its sender-dependent format into a common format. The presentation layer at the
receiving machine changes the common format into its receiver-dependent format.
 Encryption. To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy.
Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to another form and
sends the resulting message out over the network. Decryption reverses the original
process to transform the message back to its original form.
 Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the
information. Data compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of
multimedia such as text, audio, and video.

Application Layer
The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network.
It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and

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transfer, shared database management, and other types of distributed information services.

Specific services provided by the application layer include the following:

 Network virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical
terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a remote host. To do so, the application creates
a software emulation of a terminal at the remote host. The user's computer talks to the
software terminal which, in turn, talks to the host, and vice versa. The remote host
believes it is communicating with one of its own terminals and allows the user to log on.
 File transfer, access, and management. This application allows a user to access files in
a remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for
use in the local computer, and to manage or control files in a remote computer locally.
 Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
 Directory services. This application provides distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services.

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TCP/IP PROTOCOL
The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model. Therefore, the layers in
the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network, internet, transport, and
application. However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the host-to-network
layer is equivalent to the combination of the physical and data link layers. The internet layer is
equivalent to the network layer, and the application layer is roughly doing the job of the session,
presentation, and application layers with the transport layer in TCP/IP taking care of part of the
duties of the session layer.

Application Layer
The application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP reference model. This layer
provides services that help the user application to communicate with the network. All the high-
level protocols, which ·help to deliver data over the network, reside within this layer. The
protocols that are available with the application layer are as follows:
• FTP: Used to transfer files from one computer to another on a network.
• Telnet: Used to access and operate a remote computer on a network.
• SMTP: Used to transfer e-mails between mail servers on a network. The e-mail messages
can be retrieved by the e-mail client by using Post Office Protocol (POP) or Internet Mail
Access Protocol (IMAP) services.
• HTTP: Used to exchange text, audio, video, and image files over the World Wide Web
(WWW).

Transport Layer

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The transport layer is responsible for reliable transfer of data from the source computer to
the destination computer. The transport layer interacts with the layers above and below the
transport layer using two core protocols, TCP and UDP. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol
that confirms the delivery of packets over the network. TCP transmits the data from the source
computer to the destination computer as a stream of characters. The destination computer
rearranges the data when it receives the data. UDP is a connectionless protocol and does not
confirm the delivery of packets over the network.

Internet Layer
The Internet layer is below the transport layer. This layer manages the connections across
networks to ensure that the transfer of data between the source and destination computers is
successful. The Internet layer accepts the data from the transport layer and passes it to the
network layer. This layer is also responsible for locating the shortest route for sending the data if
multiple routes are available. A route is a path taken by the packet to reach the destination
computer.

Network Access Layer

The network layer is the lowest layer in the TCP/IP reference model. In this layer, the
source computer connects with the destination computer using protocols such as Ethernet and
Token. This layer also contains the network devices that are attached to the network. Every data
packet moves through this layer before it goes out through the transmission medium to the
destination computer. The network layer of the TCP/IP model maps to the physical and the data
link layer of the OSI.

Chapter-2
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NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

OVERVIEW OF NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

The bus topology is the simplest of all the topologies. In this topology, all the
devices on the network are connected to each other through a central cable called the
bus. Using shared bandwidth and unable to support speeds beyond 10 mbps, the bus
topology is good for a small group of 15-20 computers. If the number goes above 20
computers, the network slows down to a crawl since only one machine can send data.

BUS TOPOLOGIES
The bus topology is economical because it uses a single coaxial cable, instead of several
cable for connecting all the computers. The bus topology uses a single length of cable and does
not use a concentrator (hub or switch); therefore, the cost is further reduced. The tradeoffs is low
speeds and any failure in the cable at any point can halt the entire network. Troubleshooting of
the network is also very troublesome since the point of failure cannot be directly pointed out.

Signals on coaxial cables can travel up to 500 m without amplification. Therefore,

computers in a bus topology can be used for connecting computers far apart from each
other. Because coaxial cables are used for the bus topology, the advantages of these cables
are available to networks that follow the bus topology. However, the same advantages will
be available to all network topologies that use these cables. Coaxial cables are resistive to
external electromagnetic interferences and therefore can be used in hostile environments. The
connection between the cable and the NIC of the computer is accomplished with the T connector.

In the bus topology, the data signals are available to all the computers along the bus.
This data signal carries the address of the destination computer. Each computer on the
network checks the destination address as the data signal that passes along the bus. The
computer in the network, whose address matches the destination address of the data
signal, makes a copy of the signal and converts it into data. The original signal still transmits
along the bus. If the signal is not absorbed or destroyed, it is reflected back onto the network.
This reflected signal interferes with the next data signal, and therefore the reflected signal
must be prevented from travelling back along the cable. To absorb such signals, a
device called terminator is attached at the ends of the bus network. Ethernet is the most
commonly used protocol in networks with bus topology. Ethernet uses Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMNCD) to provide media access.

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Figure: Bus Topology

The advantages of the bus topology are as follows:
 All the computers in the bus topology network are connected to each other
through a cable. Therefore, this topology is easy to implement.
 This topology is extendable because new devices can be easily added to the
existing bus network.
 This topology is not very expensive because only one central cable is required for
setting up the network, therefore eliminating the cost of purchasing several cables.

The disadvantages of the bus topology are as follows:

 The network collapses if the cable is damaged.
 The limited length of the cable in a network may restrict the number of devices that
can be connected.
 The network slows down if additional computers are connected to the network. As
additional computers and devices are added, the amount of data transmitted increases
resulting in increase of the network traffic. High network traffic slows down the
network considerably.

RING TOPOLOGY
A ring network is a local area network (LAN) in which the nodes (workstations or other
devices) are connected in a closed loop configuration. Adjacent pairs of nodes are directly
connected. Other pairs of nodes are indirectly connected, the data passing through one or more
intermediate nodes. The ring topology may prove optimum when system requirements are
modest and workstations are at scattered points. If the workstations are reasonably close to the
vertices of a convex polygon (such as the pentagon shown in the illustration), the cost can be
lower than that of any other topology when cable routes are chosen to minimize the total length
of cable needed.

A break in the cable of a ring network may result in degraded data speed between pairs of
workstations for which the data path is increased as a result of the break. If two breaks occur and
they are not both in the same section of cable, some workstations will be cut off from some of

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the others. When system reliability is a critical concern, a bus network or star network may prove
superior to a ring network. If redundancy is required, the mesh network topology may be
preferable.

Figure: Ring Topology

The main advantage of the ring topology is that all the computers on the network
have equal access to the token. Each computer on ring network gets an opportunity to
transmit data signals because only the computer that has the token can transmit data, unlike
the Ethernet implementation where any computer can transmit data if the network is not being
utilized. The main disadvantage of the ring topology is that adding or moving devices affects
the entire network.

STAR TOPOLOGY
In the star topology, all the network devices are connected to each other through a
central concentrator forming a star-like structure. The common devices used as the central
concentrators are hubs or switches. The computers can be connected to the hub or switch using
UTP, STP, or optical fiber cables. The cost incurred to set up a star network is high compared
to a bus network since each device on the network will utilize an individual length of cable
from the concentrator to its location. Due to this layout, failure of a single device (except
the concentrator) does not halt the entire network, and troubleshooting is very easy. On the
downside, failure of the concentrator can halt the entire segment connected to it. The
concentrator at each location itself adds to the cost.

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Figure: star Topology

The advantages of the star topology are as follows:
 In this topology, you can extend the network by attaching new devices to the central
concentrator.
 Due to the star structure of this topology, there is no disturbance when devices are
added to or removed from the network.
 It is easy to troubleshoot the defects in the network. The defective device can be
removed without affecting the entire network.
 The failure of one device usually does not affect the network.

The disadvantages of the star topology are as follows:

 The length of cable required for this topology is greater than that required for the bus
topology.
 The entire network goes down if the central concentrator fails.

MESH TOPOLOGY
A mesh topology is a point-to-point connection where nodes are interconnected. In the
mesh topology, separate cables are used to connect individual devices on the network. This
topology is expensive because of the number of cables used in the network. The mesh
topology is of two types, full-mesh and partial-mesh.

Full-Mesh
In this topology, each device is interconnected with all the devices on the network, by a
dedicated cable. If one device fails, the data travelling along the network can be routed
through another device attached to the active device. The structure of the network is
complex because the devices in the network are interconnected.

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Partial-Mesh
In this topology, each device on the network is not connected to other devices. Only
a few devices on the network are connected using the full-mesh topology, and the others
are connected to one or more devices on the network.

Advantages of a mesh topology

 Manages high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can transmit data
simultaneously.
 A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or transmission of data.
 Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between other devices.

Disadvantages of a mesh topology

 The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies, making it a less desirable
option.
 Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.
 The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high costs and potential
for reduced efficiency.

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HYBRID TOPOLOGY
This topology is a combination of bus, star, and ring networks. In other words, this
topology combines multiple topologies to form a large topology. The hybrid topology is widely
implemented in Wide Area Networks (WANs).

Advantages:
 Reliable: It has far better fault tolerance. The section where fault is found could possibly
be singled out from the rest of network and required restorative steps could be taken,
without impacting the working of rest of the network.
 Effective: The most important advantage of this topology is that the weakness of the
different topologies connected are disregarded and only the strengths are taken into
consideration. For instance, ring topology has good data reliability and star topology has
high tolerance capability, so these two function quite well in hybrid star-ring topology.
 Flexible: One of the key advantages of this topology is its flexibility. The topology is
created, so that it can be implemented for a variety of distinct network environment.
Hybrid Network can be created in line with the demands of the corporation and by
maximizing the available resources.
 Scalable: Hybrid networks are built in a fashion which enables for easy integration of
new hardware components like additional concentration points. It’s quite simple to
extend the size of network with the addition of new elements, without disturbing existing
architecture.

Disadvantages:
 Complexity: Due to the fact that different topologies connect in a hybrid topology,
managing the topology gets challenging. It’s not easy to design this type of architecture
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and it’s a difficult job for designers. Configuration and installation process needs to be
very efficient.
 Expensive: The network hubs needed for hybrid topology networking are costly to
purchase and maintain. The cost of this topology is higher in comparison to the other
topologies. The hubs used to connect two distinct networks are expensive. These hubs
are not the same as usual hubs since they have to be smart enough to work with different
architectures and should be able to operate even when a portion of network is down. As
hybrid architectures are usually larger in scale, they may require a lot of cables,
advanced network devices, etc.

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CHAPTER-3
LAN COMPONENTS

LAN CABLES AND CONNECTORS

In the previous chapters, you learned about the need for networking, the communication
standards used in networks, and the topologies implemented in a network. You observed that a
topology defines the manner in which computers and devices are connected in a network. To
establish a connection between two computers or devices, you need hardware as well as software
components. The hardware components are usually cables, hubs, Network Interface Cards
(NICs), and switches; the software components are protocols such as Ethernet, Token Ring,
TCP/IP and IPX/SPX. In this chapter, you will learn about the different hardware components
used to connect computers and devices in networks, more specifically in a Local Area
Network (LAN). The next chapter will detail the protocols used in LAN.

The hardware components of a LAN are devices operating at the physical layer or the
data link layer and are responsible for transmission of electric signals from one device to
another. To transmit electric signals, the following devices are commonly used in LANs:
 Cables
 Repeaters
 Hubs
 Switches
 Network Interface Cards

CABLES

Bandwidth:
Bandwidth describes the maximum data transfer rate of a network or Internet connection.
It measures how much data can be sent over a specific connection in a given amount of time. For
example, a gigabit Ethernet connection has a bandwidth of 1,000 Mbps (125 megabytes per
second). An Internet connection via cable modem may provide 25 Mbps of bandwidth. While
bandwidth is used to describe network speeds, it does not measure how fast bits of data move
from one location to another. Since data packets travel over electronic or fiber optic cables, the
speed of each bit transferred is negligible. Instead, bandwidth measures how much data can flow
through a specific connection at one time.

When visualizing bandwidth, it may help to think of a network connection as a tube and
each bit of data as a grain of sand. If you pour a large amount of sand into a skinny tube, it will
take a long time for the sand to flow through it. If you pour the same amount of sand through a
wide tube, the sand will finish flowing through the tube much faster. Similarly, a download will

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finish much faster when you have a high-bandwidth connection rather than a low-bandwidth
connection.
Distance:
The bandwidth offered by a connectivity medium is limited by the distance over which
the medium needs to transmit the signal. When the distance between the devices is greater, the
bandwidth decreases because the signal needs to travel over a greater distance. A part of the
signal strength is utilized to overcome the resistance offered by the cable. Therefore, the signal
strength decreases as the length of the cable increases. Also, an increase in the distance increases
the chance of external disturbances such as Electromagnetic Interference (EMI), Radio
Frequency Interference (RFI), or physical stress. These external disturbances cause the signal to
deteriorate, and, therefore, the amount of data transferred decreases. The gradual deterioration of
signal strength across long distances is called attenuation, and the degradation of a signal due to
internal or external disturbances is called distortion.

Attenuation:
Signal attenuation is one of the most difficult problems faced by network administrators
when connecting computers and devices in a network. When a signal is transmitted across a
cable, the cable offers resistance to this transmission. This resistance consumes a part of the
signal strength, and as a result, the signal strength decreases. If the length of the cable is too
great, almost all of the signal strength is used to overcome the resistance. As a result, the
destination computer or device does not receive any data.

Attenuation is overcome in LANs by the following methods:

• Short cable lengths: The amount of resistance offered by the cable is less, and, therefore,
attenuation is reduced.
• Amplifiers: In practice, it may not be possible to use short cable lengths in a LAN. In
such cases, devices such as repeaters, active hubs, and switches are used to amplify the
attenuated signal so that the destination computer or device can receive the signal.

Distortion:
Unlike attenuation, which decreases the signal strength, distortion modifies the signal
itself. When a signal is modified, the data transmitted by the signal becomes corrupt. As a result,
the destination computer or device may not be able to interpret the signal and obtain the correct
data. Distortion usually occurs when signals from an external source such as a television
interferes with the signals being transmitted through the cable. For example, if the cable passes
through an area containing electronic devices such as televisions or air conditioners, the
electronic transmissions and fluctuations induced by the televisions or air conditioners may
interfere with the signal being transmitted through the cable. The modified signal does not
represent the actual data being transmitted and, therefore, cannot be interpreted by the
destination computer or device.
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The following methods are commonly used to prevent distortion:

• The possible causes and the effect of EMI or RFI in the network are analyzed, and
communication media that are resistant to interference are used.
• Cables are not passed through regions of high interference.
• Network protocols capable of detecting signal corruption are used to check errors during
transmission.

The common cable types used to connect computers and devices in a LAN are:
 Coaxial cables
 Twisted-pair cables
• Optical fiber cables

COAXIAL CABLES
A coaxial cable consists of two concentric conductors separated by insulation. The inner
conductor transmits electric signals, and the outer conductor acts as a ground. The entire
assembly is wrapped in a sheath of Teflon or PVC. The cross-section of a typical coaxial cable
is depicted in Figure. The conductor used in coaxial cables is copper wire. It is used for both the
inner and outer conductors. Because the signal is transmitted over the surface of the inner copper
wire, increasing the cross-section of the inner copper wire (and therefore, the entire coaxial
cable) increases the amount of signal that can be transmitted by the cable. Therefore, a thicker
coaxial cable can transmit more data than a thinner one.

Benefits or advantages of Coaxial Cable

Following are the benefits or advantages of Coaxial Cable:
• Due to skin effect, coaxial cable is used in high frequency applications (> 50 MHz) using
copper clad materials for center conductor. Skin effect is result of high frequency signals
propagating along outer surface of the conductor. It increases tensile strength of the cable
and reduces weight.
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• The cost of coaxial cable is less.

• The outer conductor in coaxial cable is used to improve attenuation and shield
effectiveness. This can be further enhanced with the use of second foil or braid known as
jacket (C2 as designated in the figure-1). The jacket is used as protective cover from the
environment and makes overall coaxial cable as flame retardant.
• It is less susceptible to noise or interference (EMI or RFI) compare to twisted pair cable.
• It supports high bandwidth signal transmission compare to twisted pair.
• It is easy to wire and easy to expand due to flexibility.
• It allows high transfer rates with coaxial cable having better shielding materials.

Drawbacks or disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

Following are the disadvantages of Coaxial Cable:
• It is bulky.
• It is expensive to install for longer distances due to its thickness and stiffness.
• As single cable is used for signal transmission across the entire network, in case of failure
in one cable the entire network will be down.
• The security is a great concern as it is easy to tap the coaxial cable by breaking it and
inserting T-joint (of BNC type) in between.
• It must be grounded to prevent interference.

TWISTED-PAIR CABLE
The pair of twisted is the simplest transmission medium. it consists of one or more pairs of
electrical son arranged spiral. This type of support is suitable for transmission both analog and
digital. Twisted pair is the ordinary copper wire that connects home and many business
computers to the telephone company. To reduce crosstalk or electromagnetic induction between
pairs of wires, two insulated copper wires are twisted around each other. Each connection on
twisted pair requires both wires. Since some telephone sets or desktop locations require multiple
connections, twisted pair is sometimes installed in two or more pairs, all within a single cable.
For some business locations, twisted pair is enclosed in a shield that functions as a ground. This
is known as shielded twisted pair (STP). Ordinary wire to the home is unshielded twisted pair
(UTP).

• SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR CABLE

In STP, an extra layer of metal foil is present between the twisted pairs of copper wires and the
outer sheath. The purpose of this layer is to provide additional protection from EMI and RFI.
However, this shielding reflects back the normal radiation emitted by the wires. This radiation
may interfere with the signal transmitted by the cable, and as a result, corrupt the signal. To
prevent this reflection, a coating of dielectric insulator, which absorbs the radiation, is provided
on the internal surface of the metal foil.

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STP is more expensive than UTP and is generally used in networks where cables
pass closer to devices that cause high EMI . In addition, the presence of shielding
increases the resistance to the signal and, therefore, restricts the cable length and the
throughput offered by STP

• UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR CABLE

Unshielded Twisted Pair cable is low-cost network cable built with a pair of insulated
conductors twisted together and covered with a plastic jacket for protection. It is called
unshielded because it has no additional foil wrap, or shield, which is added to cables when
electromagnetic shielding is required. UTP cabe is used extensively in local area networks, or
LANs.

Inside a UTP cable is up to four twisted pairs of copper wires, enclosed in a protective

plastic cover, with the greater number of pairs corresponding to more bandwidth. The two
individual wires in a single pair are twisted around each other, and then the pairs are twisted
around each other, as well. This is done to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic interference,
each of which can degrade network performance. Each signal on a twisted pair requires both
wires.

UTP cables are capable of supporting different bandwidths and transmission speeds. Depending
on the bandwidth offered, the following categories of UTP cables are defined:

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 Category 1 (Cat-I): Cat-l supports analog voice data and is commonly used for telephone
communication. Cat-l is also used in Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), a
type of WAN connectivity option.
 Category 2 (Cat-2): Cat-2 supports digital voice communication up to a speed of 4 Mbps.
Cat-2 cables are commonly used in IBM Token Ring networks.
 Category 3 (Cat-3): The maximum data transfer rate supported by the Cat-3 is 16 Mbps.
However, Cat-3 is generally used to transmit data at 10 Mbps. Cat-3 is also represented
as base T.
 Category 4(Cat-4): Cat-4 supports a maximum data transfer rate of 20 Mbps, which is
only slightly higher than that offered by Cat-3. Therefore, Cat-4 is rarely used.
 Category-5 (Cat-5): Cat-5 is used for networks that require data transfer rates higher
than that supported by Cat-3. Cat 5 supports data transfer rates up to 100 Mbps and is
used with Fast Ethernet.

In addition to these category specifications, Cat-6 and Cat-7, which support higher
bandwidth and data transfer rates, have also been developed. Like Cat-5E, Cat-6 also
supports data transfer rates of up to 1,000 Mbps. However, Cat 6 works at a different frequency
range than Cat-5E. In a network, a cable may sometimes pickup a signal intended for another
cable. This is called crosstalk. Cat-6 is more resistant to crosstalk than Cat-5E.

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OPTICAL FIBER CABLE

Optical fiber cables transmit data in the form of light. Optical fiber cables contain long thin
strands of pure glass, called the fiber, with each strand having a diameter of about 5 microns.

Figure: Optical Fiber cable

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A typical optical fiber cable consists of the following three components:

• Core: The core contains the optical fiber conductor (glass) that transmits light.
• Cladding: The core is surrounded by another optical material to prevent any light from
escaping the core. The function of cladding is to reflect the light back into the core.
• Sheath or outer jacket: The core and cladding are covered with a sheath, usually made
of plastic, to protect the fiber from damage.

Unlike coaxial cables and twisted-pair cables, which transmit data in the form of electric
signals, optical fiber cables transmit data in the form of light. Therefore, the data to be
transmitted is converted into light by a codec (coder and decoder) present at each end of
the fiber. The codec converts the data from the computer into light, and the light is then
transmitted across the cable with the help of either a Light Emitting Diode (LED) or an
Injection Laser Diode (ILD). At the destination computer, a decode receives the light beam
and converts it into data. If an LED is used to transmit light, the transmission is called
multimode transmission, whereas and ILD is used or single-mode transmission. These
transmissions are detailed in the following sub-topics.

Multi-Mode Transmission
A mode is defined as the' angle at which a ray of light enters the core of the optical
fiber cable. If the light enters the core at different angles, it is called multi-mode transmission.
Multi-mode transmission occurs when an LED is used as the light source. An LED is not a
concentrated light source, and, therefore, the rays of the light beam disperse after traveling a
certain distance through the fiber. However, not all the rays of the light beam disperse. The rays
in the center of the beam do not disperse whereas the rays on the circumference of the light beam
disperse and hit the cladding. This effect is similar to the dispersion of light from a flashlight or
the headlights of an automobile.

Figure: Multi Mode Transmission

The dispersed light rays hit the cladding of the cable and are reflected back into the core.
The dispersion and reflection occurs at different angles, or modes, resulting in multi-mode
transmission. This dispersion and reflection of light rays does not affect their strength. However,
the rays on the circumference of the light beam travel a greater distance than the rays in the

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center of the beam. Therefore, for a given signal, the dispersed light beams arrive later than the
un-dispersed ones, a delay which can result in slower transmission rates. Another disadvantage
of multi-mode transmission is the collision of light beams due to dispersion and reflection. These
collisions weaken the signal strength, resulting in attenuation.

Multi-mode transmission is inexpensive because the cost of LED is less than that of an
ILD. Multi-mode transmission is preferred in LANs and in networks that connect computers in a
large college or school campus, which may be spread across a few miles. The drawbacks of
multimode transmission such as delay and attenuation occur only when the distance between the
devices is more than a few miJ.es. Therefore, multi-mode transmission is not suited for WANs.

SINGLE-MODE TRANSMISSION
In single-mode transmission, an ILD is used to emit a light beam (laser) that carries data.
ILD is an extremely concentrated light source, and, therefore, the laser beams do not disperse
when traveling through the fiber. As a result, all the light beams reach the destination at the same
time. In addition, the beams do not collide, thereby preventing any attenuation of the light
signals. However, the equipment required for single-mode transmission, such as the grade of
fiber used and the ILD, are expensive. Therefore, single-mode transmission is used to connect
computers that are part of a LAN backbone or in large WANs spanning across a country or a
continent.

Figure: single-mode transmission

CONNECTERS
Connectors act as an interface between the NIC of the computer and the cable that
transmits the signal. As a result, the type of connector depends on the cable type used to connect
computers or devices in the network. To connect a coaxial cable to an NIC, the following
connectors are required:

• Coaxial cable connector

The end of the coaxial cable that plugs into a computer is connected to a BNC
connector. A BNC connector connects the coaxial cable to the T-connector, which is
plugged the end of the coaxial cable that plugs into a computer is connected to a BNC
connector. A BNC connector connects the coaxial cable to the T-connector, which is
plugged.

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Figure: BNC Connector

• Twisted-Pair Cable Connectors:

UTP and STP use different connectors to connect with the NIC. A UTP cable connects to
an NIC with an RJ-45 connector, whereas an STP cable uses a D-shell (or DB-9) connector.
Shows the DB-9 connector, which is used with STP and an RJ-45 connector used with UTP.

Figure: Twisted- Pair Cable Connectors

• Optical Fiber Connectors:
Optical fiber cables use either screw-mounted adapters (SMA) or spring-load twist (ST)
connectors. SMA uses a screw to connect to the end of the cable, and ST claps to connect to the
end of the cable. ST connectors are more popular than SMA connectors because connector loss
due to ST connectors is less than SMA connectors. Connector loss is defined as the loss of signal
at the interface between the connector and the NIC. Connector loss occurs if the end of the
connector is not tightly plugged to the port on the NIC. ST connectors are spring-loaded, and
therefore, plug tightly into the NIC.

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Figure: ST and SMA Connectors

LAN DEVICES
A concentrator is a device with two or more ports through which computers and devices
can be connected. The following are the two main functions of a concentrator:
• To boost the signal to restore its original strength.
• To provide an interface to connect multiple computers and Devices in a network.
Imagine, for example, an office spread across three floors in a building. The length of the
cable required to connect computers on different floors may be more than the maximum
supported length. In such cases, the signal needs to be amplified. The simplest
concentrator that can be used to boost signals over long distances is a repeater.

REPEATERS
Repeaters amplify a weak signal so that the signal stays as strong as the original one. For
example, imagine a network in which two computers about 300 m apart are connected with a
UTP cable. If one computer sends a signal to the other, the signal starts attenuating, and after a
distance of 185 m, the signal strength falls to such an extent that the second computer may not
receive any signal at all. In such cases, you can use a repeater every 185 m between the
computers to boost the signal.

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In addition, repeaters can also be used to connect two segments of the same network.
Segments refer to logical sections of the same network, whereas different networks means that
the networks are located in geographically different areas. For example, suppose an
organization has offices on the first and fifth floors of a building, and the computers on both
the floors are connected in the same network. In this case, the computers on the first floor
form a segment, and the computers on the fifth floor form another segment. A repeater
can be used on one of the intermediate floors to connect the segments.

HUBS
A hub is like a repeater but with multiple ports. Hubs operate at the physical layer of the
OSI reference model. Hubs can be used to connect multiple segments of the same network
and transfer data from one segment to another .Also, hubs are used to connect computers
to a server in networks that use the star topology. Therefore, it is important to determine the
type of cables in the network before you purchase a hub. you also need to determine the
number of network segments (or the number of computers to be connected so that you can
purchase a hub with the required number of ports. The type of cables used (and, therefore,
the type of ports on the hub) and the number of ports usually determine the cost of a hub.

Based on their functions, hubs can be classified as follows:

• Passive hub: A passive hub does not regenerate or amplify the signal. It only acts as an
interface between two segments of a network or between different computers in a
network. A passive hub is used when the network is divided into multiple segments, but
the segments are sufficiently close to prevent signal attenuation. Passive hubs
generally do not require electrical power.
• Active hub: An active hub is a powered device that amplifies the signal to its
original strength. Active hubs are the most common type of hubs used in networks.
They are useful when the segments of the network are not close to one another and
the signals may require amplification.
• Intelligent (or Manageable) hub: An intelligent hub is an active hub with additional
features such as network monitoring capabilities. For example, an intelligent hub
supporting Simple Network Management Protocol(SNMP)can provide information
about such things as activity on each port or network error logs. In addition, an
intelligent hub can also be used to prevent unauthorized computers from
connecting to the segments of the network

Hubs are inexpensive devices. However, hubs can considerably increase network
traffic because they broadcast data to the devices connected on all the ports.

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Figure: segments of Network Connected using Hub

In Figure if Node A (in Segment1) sends data to Node D (in Segment 2), the data
reaches Port 1 of the hub. The hub then transmits the signal to all the ports, therefore, to all
computers in Segment 2. Node D in Segment 2 picks up the signal, which is then converted into
data. In the preceding example, you can see that although the signal was addressed to only one
computer in a particular segment, it is transmitted to all the computers in the segment. If there
are multiple segments connected, the signal is transmitted to all the segments, resulting in
increased network traffic. In Ethernet LANs, unnecessary network traffic increases the chances
of collisions, and degrades network performance.

SWITCHES
Like hubs, switches also connect computers in a network or different segments of
the same network. However, unlike hubs, which work at the physical layer, switches work at
the data link layer of the OSI reference model. Therefore, switches treat data in the form of
frames and not as signals, which is the case with physical layer devices like hubs. A data
frame contains information about the MAC address of the destination computer (Refer to
Topic, Network Interface Cards, for information on MAC address.) Switches can read this
MAC address and, as a result, forward the data only to the port that is associated with this
MAC address. For this purpose, switches maintain a list of MAC addresses and the port
number associated with each MAC address.

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Figure: computers connected using switch

Figure shows a network in which four computers are connected using a switch. Assume
that Node A sends data to Node C. The data from Node A reaches the switch from Port 1 in
the form of a data frame. The switch then reads the destination MAC address, and from
the list of MAC addresses, the switch knows that the data is meant for Node C. As
Node C is associated with Port 3, the switch forwards the data only to Port 3. The data is
converted back into a signal and transmitted to Node C.

Switches use any of the following two methods to transmit data:

• Cut-through switching: In this method, the switch reads the destination MAC address
of a data frame and immediately forwards the frame to the respective port.
• Store-and-forward switching: In this method, the switch receives all the data
frames corresponding to a particular transmission. The frames are then checked for
integrity and errors. If the frames are found to be error-free, the switch forwards the
frames to the respective port. If the frames are corrupt, they are not forwarded to
the destination, and the source device has to resend the frames.

Depending on the requirements of the network, you can select an appropriate method of
switching. For example, if the speed of the network is the primary concern, you can select cut-
through switching. Most switches, however, have the ability to select an appropriate switching
method depending on the network conditions. Initially, the switch uses cut-through switching,
but if it finds that the number of corrupt data frames is high, it automatically selects store
and- forward switching. After some time, if the switch observes that the number of corrupt data
frames is lower, the switch reverts back to cut-through switching. This is called as auto
switching.

Network Interface Card (NIC):

NIC is a hardware device that acts as an interface through which a computer connects to
a network. NIC is usually an expansion card on the computer with a port to plug in the network

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cable. NIC converts the data into electrical optical signals and transfers them through cables
from one computer to another on the network. On receiving the data, the NIC on the destination
computer converts the electrical signals back to data. An NIC is a hardware device that acts as an
interface through which a computer connects to a network. NICs work at both the data link and
the physical layers of the OSI reference model. At the data link layer, the NIC converts the
data packets into data frames and adds the MAC address to the data frame; at the physical
layer, it is responsible for convert in the data into signals, and transmitting them across the
communication medium. The MAC address is a unique hardware number present on the NIC and
is specified by the NIC manufacturer. MAC addresses are globally unique.
When a computer needs to send data, the NIC receives data packets from the
computer, converts them into data frames, and passes them across the cable as signals.
This role of the NIC in most PC environments can be divided into the following tasks:
• Host-to-card communication: The NIC communicates with the computer using IRQ
(Interrupt Request) and receives data present in the memory of the computer for
transmission.
• Buffering: The data received from the computer is not immediately transmitted. Instead,
all the data is buffered, or stored temporarily, on the NIC before transmission.
Buffering ensures that the NIC has the complete data packet before converting it into
frames, thus preventing incomplete data transmissions.
• Frame creation: Once the NIC has all the data that needs to be transmitted, it divides the
data into frames. A frame has three parts: header, data, and trailer. The header
contains the source and destination MAC addresses; the data part contains the
actual data being transmitted across the network; and the trailer contains error
checking information such as Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC).
• Parallel-to-serial conversion: The NIC receives data from the computer in parallel
form. For example, a PCI card receives 32 or 64 bits simultaneously. The number of
bits depends on the motherboard bus architecture. However, the data must be
converted into serial form because LANs generally transmit data bit after bit, and
not multiple bits at a time.
• Encoding: The serial bits are converted into electrical signals for transmission across
the cable.

In addition, the NIC also needs to have an appropriate connector to access the cable. For
example, coaxial cables use BNC and DT -connectors, whereas UTP cables use RJ -45
connectors. Most NICs provide only one type of connector. However, NICs with multiple
connectors, such as one T-connector and one RJ-45 connector, are also available. NICs
are also responsible for determining the speed of the data transfer. NICs may support different
data transfer speeds, for example, 10 Mbps or 100 Mbps. Therefore, when you select an NIC,
the cables used in a network, the speed of the network, and the layer 2 protocol used in the
network must be considered.
QUESTION BANK
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(Questions for Remembering)

1. What do you mean by computer Networking?

a. Collection of hardware component and computer
b. Interconnected by communication channels
c. Sharing of resources and information
d. All the above

2. What do you think is NIC.

a. Network Interfacing Card
b. Network Interacting Circuit
c. Network Interfacing Circuit
d. Network Interacting Card

3. Which of the following leads to need of networking?

a. Speed
b. Resource sharing
c. Backups and failover
d. All the above

4. Can you illustrate 10 base 5 from below?

a. Thinnet
b. Weaknet
c. Thicknet
d. Strongnet

5. Can you illustrate Modification of signals from below?

a. Attenuation
b. Distortion
c. Fluctuation
d. Corruption

6. What is degradation of signals due to internal/external disturbance?

a. Attenuation
b. Distortion
c. Fluctuation
d. Corruption

7. Can you Name the device used to filter and forward traffic between 2 or more
networks.

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a. Switches
b. Hub
c. Bridge
d. Gateways

8. What do you think is OSI?

a. Open System Interconnection
b. Open source Interface
c. Open source Interconnect
d. Open system Interface

9. What is protocol?
a. Set of rules
b. Set of computers
c. Set of hardware’s
d. Set of software’s

10. What do you think is EMI?

a. Electro Magnetic Induction
b. Electro Magnetic Interface
c. Electro Magnetic Interference
d. Electro Managerial Interface

(Questions for understanding)

11. How many layers does the OSI Reference Model have?
a. 6
b. 7
c. 5
d. 4

12. Which OSI layer performs Data Compression?

a. Physical
b. Transport
c. Presentation
d. Application

13. Which category of UTP cable is used to support digital voice communication upto
speed of 4 Mbps?.
a. Cat-1

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b. Cat-2
c. Cat-3
d. Cat-4

14. Which is the device used to amplify a weak signal?

a. Hubs
b. Repeaters
c. Switches
d. NIC

15. Can you name the device used to translate communication protocols and enables 2
similar/ dissimilar LAN's.
a. Routers
b. Gateways
c. Bridges
d. Hubs

16. Which layer of OSI has dialog control?

a. Session
b. Physical
c. Transport
d. Presentation

17. Can you name the protocol(s) that are available with application layer.
a. FTP
b. Telnet
c. SMPT
d. All the above

18. Which layer of OSI has Encryption feature in it?

a. Session
b. Physical
c. Transport
d. Presentation
19. Which is the Inner most part of optical fiber cable?
a. Core
b. Cladding
c. Sheath
d. None of the above

20. Coaxial cable can travel up to how many meters without amplification?
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a. 500
b. 600
c. 700
d. 300

21. Which is the protocol used commonly in bus topology?

a. Ethernet
b. Telnet
c. FTP
d. SMTP

22. Which protocol is used to exchange files over network?

a. Ethernet
b. Telnet
c. FTP
d. SMTP

23. Which protocol is used to access remote computer?

a. Ethernet
b. Telnet
c. FTP
d. SMTP

24. TCP protocol is used in which layer of TCP/IP reference model?

a. Application
b. Transport
c. Internet
d. Network access

25. ICMP protocol is used in which layer of TCP/IP reference model?

a. Application
b. Transport
c. Internet
d. Network access

(Questions for Remembering)

1. Can you name and explain the hardware components of networking.
2. What are the uses of computer networking?
3. Find the definition of all the layers of ISO OSI reference model.
4. Find the definition of all the layers of the TCP/IP model.

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5. Can you Explain Bus topology with its advantages and disadvantages.
6. Can you Explain Star topology with its advantages and disadvantages
7. Can you Explain Ring topology with its advantages and disadvantages.

(Questions for Understanding)

8. Can you explain different layers of TCP/IP reference model?

9. Can you explain different layers of OSI reference model?
10. Can you explain in your own words about optical fiber cables?
11. How do you explain the features of coaxial cables?
12. Can you illustrate is the session and Presentation layer of OSI reference model.
13. Can you illustrate is the Application and Transport layer of OSI reference model.
14. Can you illustrate is the Physical and data link layer of OSI reference model.
15. How would you explain hubs?
16. How would you explain Switches?
17. How would you explain NIC?
18. Can you write a brief outline about hybrid topologies.

UNIT 2

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Chapter-4 NETWORK PROTOCOLS

In the previous chapter, you learned about the different hardware components used in
LAN s, such as cables, hubs, and switches, to establish connectivity among computers. You
observed that these devices transmit signals between computers and sometimes increase the
signal strength. In a LAN, there are multiple computers that need to communicate with one
another. For example, consider the network represented in Figure in which five computers are
connected by using a switch.

Figure: Computer connected using a switch

Suppose Node A sends data to Node B. In this case, Node A is the source node, and Node
B is the destination node. Therefore, when sending data, the source node should provide the
address of the destination node so that data reaches the destination correctly. In addition, the
destination node should be able to inform the source node about the receipt of data. This
addressing and transmission of data between computers on a network is handled by network
protocols.
A network protocol is defined as the rules, or communication formats, that have been agreed
upon by the devices that need to communicate. Network protocols mainly define the following
aspects of communication:
 Addressing method used by the devices: For example, in above Figure, the computers
can address each other by their names or by the address assigned to each computer. Node
A can be addressed as 1, Node B as 2, and Node C as 3.
 Data format: Computers and devices should send and receive data in a format that can
be understood by one another.
 Reliability of data transfer: In some cases, network protocols ensure that data transfers
on a network are reliable.
 Speed of communication: Network protocols play an important role in determining the
speed of data transfer on the network.

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In addition, some network protocols define the manner in which users access network data.
For example, if a user visits a Web site on the Internet, data is transmitted between the Web site
and the user's computer. Network protocols such as HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) define
the manner in which the data is presented to the user.
As network protocols need to perform multiple tasks, it is practically impossible to develop a
single protocol that can manage all these tasks. Therefore, different protocols have been
developed to operate at various layers of the OSI reference model. For example, protocols at the
transport layer ensure reliable transmission of data on the network, whereas the network layer
protocols are responsible for addressing data to computers on a network. Protocols at the
application, session, and presentation layers determine the kind of data that is accessible to users
and the manner of accessing the data. Based on the layers at which the protocols operate,
network protocols are broadly classified as follows:
 Lower-layer protocols
 Middle-layer protocols
 Higher-layer protocols

LOWER-LAYER PROTOCOLS
Lower-layer protocols operate at the physical and the data-link layers of the OSI reference
model and perform the following functions:
• Transmitting data between two devices on a network on a point-to-point basis.

• Ensuring that the data transmission between the devices on a network is error free.

When a device sends data to another device on a network, the data is converted into data
packets at the network layer and then passed on to the data-link layer. The protocol operating at
the data link layer converts these packets into frames and then reads the destination address on
the data packets. The protocol then adds the MAC address of the destination device to the data
frames and passes the frames to the physical layer. At the physical layer, the frames are
converted into signals and transmitted across the network. On reaching the destination, signals
are converted back into data frames. If the data frames are received correctly, an
acknowledgement frame may be sent to the source. If the acknowledgement frame is not
received, the source resends the data frames for a fixed number of retries, after which the
connection is timed out.
Lower-layer protocols also provide media access to the devices when they need to send data.
The media used on a network can be physical media, such as cables or wireless media, such as
infrared and radio waves. For a device to transmit data, it needs to access the transmission
medium on the network. However, there may be multiple devices that need to send data, and all
these devices may access the cable simultaneously. Media access on a network needs to be
regulated because multiple devices may transmit signals simultaneously over the cable, resulting
in a collision of signals. This collision results in corruption of signals and loss of data.

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Following are the common lower-layer protocols used in LANs:

• ARC net

• Ethernet

• Token Ring

• Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

1. ARC net

ARC net or Attached Resource Computer Network is one of the oldest lower-layer protocols
used in LANs. ARC net was developed in the late 1970s by an organization called Data point.
Initially, ARC net used to support data transmission rates from 156 Kbps to 2.5 Mbps. Later,
however, ARC net supported speeds of up to 10 Mbps. ARC net uses the token-passing scheme
to provide media access to the devices on the network.
The frame format used by ARC net to transmit data can be broadly divided into the following
three parts:
• Header: Contains information about the source and destination nodes.

• Data: Contains information about the size of data and the actual data.

• Trailer: Contains Cyclic Redundancy Checks (CRCs) for error detection.

Figure: ARC net DATA Frame

In Figure you can observe that the header consists of three components: SOH (Start of
Header), SID (Source ID), and DID (Destination ID). To a destination device, the SOH indicates
the beginning of the header. The SID contains the address of the source device, whereas the DID
contains the address of the destination device.
Data part consists of two components, Count and Data. The Count component contains
information about the size of data while the Data component contains the actual information to
be transmitted. For example, a value of 56 in the Count Field indicates that the frame contains 56
bytes of data. The destination devices use the information in the Count Field to check whether
the entire data is received.
The following are the main features of ARC net:
• ARC net supports coaxial and twisted-pair cables as well as optical-fiber cables.

• ARC net supports the star, bus, and ring topologies. Depending on the requirement of the
network, an appropriate topology can be selected, thereby optimizing cable lengths.

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• ARC net uses the token passing system, which prevents collisions on the network. As a
result, there is no data loss due to collisions.

• It is extremely reliable.
• ARC Net is easy to install and troubleshoot.
• It has an excellent track record of interoperability for those using ARCNet components
from various manufacturers.
• ARC Net supports a variety of cable types including coaxial, UTP and Fiber Optics.
• It is inexpensive and built to stay that way.

ARC net has the following disadvantages:

• The maximum frame size supported by ARC net is 508 bytes. Therefore, multiple data
frames need to be generated if the amount of data to be transferred is large. For example,
to transfer a 20 KB file, ARC net generates approximately 40 frames.
• ARC net requires an ACK frame in response to every Data frame. Therefore, if the .
Amount of data transferred is large, the number of ACK frames is also high, resulting in
increased network traffic. In addition, the time required for a data transfer increases
because the source node releases the token only after it receives the ACK frames for all
the Data frames sent. Therefore, other devices on the network need to wait longer for the
token.
• The maximum number of nodes supported in a single ARC net LAN is 255.
• ARC net supports a maximum data-transfer speed of 10 Mbps. The disadvantages of
ARC net severely affect the network performance if the amount of data transferred is
high, and the traffic generated in ARC net LANs may slow down the network
considerably. Therefore, newer protocols such as Ethernet and Token Ring are preferred
over ARC net.

ETHERNET
Ethernet is the most popular lower-layer protocol used in LANs. Ethernet was first
developed in 1972 at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). This version of Ethernet
supported a data transfer speed of 2.94 Mbps. There have been several enhancements to the
original version of Ethernet, and the current versions support network transmission speeds
ranging from 10 Mbps to 1,000 Mbps. Ethernet uses a technique called the Carrier Sense
Multiple Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD), also known as IEEE 802.3, to provide media
access to devices on the network.
A carrier is a signal containing some specific data. CSMA/CD works in the following manner:

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 The device that needs to send data checks the cable for any signals. This is called the
Carrier Sense.

 If no carrier is found, the device accesses the medium and transmits data signals, but it is
possible that multiple devices start transmitting signals simultaneously. This is called
Multiple Access.

 When multiple devices transmit signals simultaneously, a collision occurs. The device
nearest to the point of collision detects the collision and informs all the devices about the
collision, which is called Collision Detection. The devices then wait for a random period
of time before retransmitting the data.

Figure: Media Access in Ethernet

In above Figure, Node A as well as Node C needs to send data. In Step 1, both these
computers check for any signals in the cable. The nodes do not detect any signal and begin data
transfer simultaneously, as shown by Step 2. This results in a collision, as shown by Step 3.
When a collision occurs, the device nearest to the point of collision, which is Node B, informs all

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the devices on the network about the collision. As a result, Nodes A and C wait for a random
period of time, before retransmitting the data.
From the above example, it is clear that a device in an Ethernet LAN cannot send and
receive data simultaneously. For example, when Node A transmits data, the cable carries the
signal and therefore, the other devices cannot transmit simultaneously. This type of
communication is called half-duplex communication, which means that a device on a network
can either send data or receive data, but cannot send and receive different data simultaneously.
Half-duplex communication can be extremely slow if the network contains a large
number of nodes. For example, imagine an Ethernet LAN with 150 computers. Each computer
needs to send as well as receive data from other computers or devices on the network. As there
are 150 computers on the network, the probability of the cable carrying a signal at a given point
of time is high. Therefore, the nodes need to wait for an additional time period before they can
access the cable. In addition, the increase in the number of nodes also increases the probability of
collisions. To overcome these limitations of half-duplex communication, full-duplex
communication was introduced.
In full-duplex communication, the nodes on the network can send and receive data
simultaneously. However, full-duplex communication does not use the CSMA/CD technology
for providing media access to devices. Instead, full-duplex communication is accomplished with
the help of a device that can transmit data based on the destination address. Usually, a switch is
used in full-duplex communication.

Figure: Full-Duplex Communication in Ethernet

Above Figure represents a LAN in which four computers are connected by using a
switch. Consider the segment of the network between Nodes A and the switch. The cable in this
segment is used either by Node A or the switch but not by other devices on the network. In full-
duplex communication, one pair of the UTP cables is used for transmitting data from Node A to
the switch while the other pair transmits data from the switch to Node A. As separate pairs are
used for sending and receiving data, collisions can be completely avoided. The other nodes on

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the network communicate with the switch in a similar manner, and therefore, collisions are
prevented in the entire network.
From Figure you can observe that the switch plays an important role in forwarding data
frames to their destination. All the computers on the network send data frames to the switch. The
switch checks the destination MAC addresses of these data frames and forwards them to the
corresponding ports. For example, the data for Node A is forwarded to Port 1 while the data for
Node B is forwarded to Port 2. In addition, full-duplex communication doubles the effective
throughput because sending and receiving of data takes place simultaneously. For example, a 10
Mbps UTP cable can produce an effective throughput of 20 Mbps.
ETHERNET COMMUNICATION
In Ethernet LANs, the source node sends data to all the nodes on the network and not
only to the destination node. This process is known as broadcasting. All the nodes check the
destination MAC address on the data frame. The device with the corresponding MAC address
accepts the data while the other devices ignore it.

Figure: Data Frames Broadcast in Ethernet LAN

In above Figure, Node A needs to send data to Node B. Node A creates a data frame and
includes the destination MAC address of Node B in the frame and broadcasts the frame across
the network. All the devices check the destination MAC address of the data frame. As the
destination, MAC address corresponds to Node B, only Node B accepts the data.
Although the original Ethernet standards provides speeds of up to 10Mbps, newer developments
to the Ethernet standard have resulted in speeds of 100 Mbps, called Fast Ethernet, and 1000
Mbps, called Gigabit Ethernet.
There are several types of Ethernet networks, such as Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, and Switch
Ethernet. A network is a group of two or more computer systems connected together.

1. Fast Ethernet

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The fast Ethernet is a type of Ethernet network that can transfer data at a rate of 100 Mbps
using a twisted-pair cable or a fiber-optic cable. The older 10 Mbps Ethernet is still used, but
such networks do not provide necessary bandwidth for some network-based video applications.
Fast Ethernet is based on the proven CSMA/CD Media Access Control (MAC) protocol, and
uses existing 10BaseT cabling. Data can move from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps without any protocol
translation or changes to the application and networking software.

When compare to a 10 mb port, a 100 Mb port is theoretically 10 times faster than the
standard port. Therefore, with a 100 Mb port more information can stream to and from your
server. This will be of great help to you if you really need to explore very high speed, but not if
you are under DDOS attack because you will find yourself running out of traffic allocation very
fast.

If you are doing standard web hosting, the bigger 100 Mbps pipe will not offer true benefit to
you because you may not even use more than 1 mbps at any given time. If you are hosting games
or streaming media, then the bigger pipe of 100 Mbps would indeed be helpful to you. With a 10
mbps pipe, you can transfer up to 1.25 Mbps, while a 100 mbps pipe, would allow you to transfer
up to 12.5 Mbps. However, if you leave your server unattended and running at full steam, a 10
Mbps pipe can consume about 3,240 GB a month and a 100 Mbps pipe can consume up to
32,400 GB a month. It would be really disgusting when you receive your bill.

2. Gigabit Ethernet
The Gigabit Ethernet is a type of Ethernet network capable of transferring data at a rate of
1000 Mbps based on a twisted-pair or fiber optic cable, and it is very popular. The type of
twisted-pair cables that support Gigabit Ethernet is Cat 5e cable, where all the four pairs of
twisted wires of the cable are used to achieve high data transfer rates. The 10 Gigabit Ethernet is
a latest generation Ethernet capable of transferring data at a rate of 10 Gbps using twisted-pair or
fiber optic cable.

3. Switch Ethernet
Multiple network devices in a LAN require network equipments such as a network switch
or hub. When using a network switch, a regular network cable is used instead of a crossover
cable. The crossover cable consists of a transmission pair at one end and a receiving pair at the
other end. The main function of a network switch is to forward data from one device to another
device on the same network. Thus a network switch performs this task efficiently as the data is
transferred from one device to another without affecting other devices on the same network. The
network switch normally supports different data transfer rates. The most common data transfer
rates include 10 Mbps – 100 Mbps for fast Ethernet, and 1000 Mbps – 10 Gbps for the latest
Ethernet. Switch Ethernet uses star topology, which is organized around a switch. The switch in

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a network uses a filtering and switching mechanism similar to the one used by the gateways, in
which these techniques have been in use for a long time.

The features of Ethernet are as follows:

 Through Ethernet network, data can be sent and received at very high speed.
 Ethernet network is less expensive.
 With the help of Ethernet networking, your data is secured as it protected your data.
Suppose that someone is attempting on your network, and then all of the devices in your
network stop processing instantly and wait until the user attempts to transmit it again.
 Ethernet facilitates us to share our data and resources like printers, scanners, computers
etc.
 Ethernet network quickly transmits the data. That’s why, nowadays most of the
universities and college campuses make use of Ethernet technology, which is based upon
the Gigabit Ethernet.
 Supports coaxial, twisted-pair, and optical-fiber cables.
 Supports the bus and star network topologies.
 Costs less to set up than ARC net, Token Ring, or FDDI LANs.
 In most LANs, devices need to transmit data intermittently and not on a continuous
basis.

The following are the disadvantages of Ethernet:

 It is impossible to predict the exact period of time a node needs to wait before it can start
transmitting data. Therefore, Ethernet cannot be used in LANs where the delays can be
predicted. This is an inherent limitation of Ethernet.
 Nodes in an Ethernet LAN broadcast data across the network, resulting in an increase of
network traffic. In networks with a large number of computers, broadcasting significantly
increases network traffic. The network needs to be divided into multiple broadcast
domains to overcome this issue. This issue is usually overcome with the help of switches
for interconnecting nodes and segments.

In most LAN s, speed is the primary consideration, and therefore, the disadvantages of
Ethernet are not felt. As a result, Ethernet remains the most popular protocol for LAN s. For
LAN s that requires better performance in terms of data transfer, protocols such as Token Ring
and FDDI are preferred.

TOKEN RING
Token Ring was developed by IBM in the 1970s as an alternative to Ethernet and to
overcome the disadvantages of Ethernet. Initially, Token Ring offered speeds of 4 Mbps, which
was later updated to 16 Mbps. Like ARC net, Token Ring also uses the token-passing scheme to
provide media access to the network devices. However, Token Ring manages the token access to

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the network devices in a different manner.

In Token Ring LANs, an empty token circulates among the different devices on the
network. On receiving the token, a device appends data to the token and transmits it across the
network. The other devices on the network check the destination address, and the device with the
corresponding destination address makes a copy of the data. The original data frame continues
circulating on the network and reaches the source device. The source device checks the data
frame and recognizes that the data had originated from it and then releases the token for other
devices to use. Therefore, in Token Ring LANs, a device can hold the token only until the
original data frame comes back to the source device. As a result, it is possible that a device may
need to release ' the token before it is able to transmit all the data frames, The device then waits
for its turn and the remaining frames, This in contrast to ARC net where the token is released
only after the data transfer is complete, In Figure the media access and data transmission occur
as follows:

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Figure: Media Access in token Ring

 Step 1: Node A needs to transmit data frames P, Q, R, and S to Node D. Node A receives
the empty token anti starts transmitting the frames one after the other.

 Step 2: Frame P is read by Node D, which makes a copy of the frame. In the meantime,
Node A has already transmitted frames Q and R.

 Step 3: Frame P reaches Node A before it can transmit frame S. Node A releases the
token, and frame R needs to wait till Node A receives the empty token again.

The Token Ring LAN represented in Figure above uses the ring topology. However, Token
Ring LANs can support the star topology too. In fact, most Token Ring LANs are implemented
using the star topology with the help of devices called Multistation Access Units (MAUs),
which are the Token Ring equivalent of Ethernet hubs.Below Figure represents a Token Ring
LAN in which computers are connected using MAUs

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Figure: Token Ring LAN with MAUs

Token Ring Frame Format Token Ring uses two types of frames to transmit data across the
network: token and data frame. The token is the empty frame that circulates around the network
to provide media access. Devices that need to send data convert the token into a data frame and
send it across the network. When the data transmission is complete, the source device destroys
the data frame and releases a new token frame. The token consists of the following components:
 Starting delimiter: Indicates the beginning of the token.
 Access control field: Defines the access of devices to the token. This field, in turn,
consists of the following:
o Priority field: Contains a value between 000 and 111, which is set by the device that
releases the token into the network. For a network that is set up for the first time, this
value is set by the network server. Only devices whose priority value is greater than
this value may use the token. For example, if the token circulating on the network has
a priority value of 001, only those devices with an equal or higher priority value may
use this token. The priority values of devices are assigned by the network
administrator.
o Token field: On receiving an empty token, a device modifies this field before
sending the data to indicate that the token is not empty. This field can take a value of
either 0 or 1. 0 indicates an empty frame while 1 indicates that the token is in use.
o Monitor field: The network server, or the Active Monitor, uses this field to monitor
the token activity. The Active Monitor sets this value to 1 when generating a token.
The value is reset to 0 when a device uses the frame. Therefore, an empty token can
be recognized by a token field value of 0 and a monitor field value of 1.
o Request Priority field: On a network, there may be devices that may need to send
high priority information. Such devices can use this field to get faster access to the
token. A device can change the Request Priority field to its priority value and inform

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the device that is releasing the token to increase the value of the Priority field to equal
its priority value. Thus, intermediate devices with lower priority cannot use this
token.
 Ending delimiter: Indicates the end of the token.

Starting Access control field Ending

delimiter delimiter
Priority Token field Monitor field Request
field Priority field

Figure: Token Frame Format

FAULT MANAGEMENT AND TOLERANCE

Fault management refers to the techniques used to monitor and troubleshoot networks,
and fault tolerance refers to the ability of the network to function smoothly in spite of faults, such
as device or link failures. In Token Ring LAN s, fault management and fault tolerance are
accomplished by designating a computer as an Active Monitor that performs the following
functions:
 Maintains the master clock of the network whereas other devices synchronize the time to
this master clock.

 Detects any lost tokens or frames on the network.

 Detects frames and tokens that circulate on the network more than once. This usually
happens when the device that has to accept the frames or tokens fails.

In addition to an Active Monitor, Token Ring LANs also have a Standby Monitor. The Standby
Monitor constantly checks whether the Active Monitor is functioning correctly. If it detects that
the Active Monitor has failed, the Standby Monitor performs the functions of the Active
Monitor. The Active Monitor and Standby Monitor perform fault management in a Token Ring
LAN. Fault tolerance, however, is achieved with the help of a process called beaconing.
To understand the process of beaconing, consider the Token Ring LAN shown in Figure.

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Figure: Token Ring LAN

If Node A fails, any frames addressed to Node A continue to circulate on the network
because Node A is not available to accept the frame. The frame circulates on the network more
than once, and is therefore, detected by the Active Monitor. The Active Monitor first checks the
integrity of the data frame to make sure that the frame is not corrupted. It then checks the
destination address and interprets that Node A is not available to accept data. The Active
Monitor sends out a beacon frame containing information about the device failure to all the
devices on the network, resulting in auto reconfiguration.
Auto reconfiguration is a process by which devices on a network eliminate the
malfunctioning device and form a ring, as shown in Figure.

Figure: Auto reconfiguration Due to Device Failure

The following are its main advantages:

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 Token Ring employs fault-tolerance systems and is therefore, extremely resistant to

device failures.
 The performance of a Token Ring LAN can be predicted accurately by calculating the
time taken by a token to circulate on the network.
 As the token passes from one device to another in an orderly manner, collisions are
completely avoided.

Token Ring, however, has the following disadvantages:

 The cost of setting up a Token Ring LAN is higher than that for an Ethernet LAN.
 Token Ring LANs are more difficult to install and maintain than Ethernet LANs.
 The maximum speed offered by Token Ring LANs is 16Mbps, compared to 1,000 Mbps
offered by Ethernet. However, a standard, IEEE 802.5v, called Gigabit Token Ring with
a speed of 1,000 Mbps has been proposed.

FIBER DISTRIBUTED DATA INTERFACE (FDDI)

FDDI was developed in the 1980 with data transfer rates of 100 Mbps, rates which had
not been available up to that time. (Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet were developed in the
1990s.) FDDI also uses a token-passing system similar to the one used by Token Ring to provide
media access to devices. FDDI, however, uses two concentric and counter-rotating rings to
provide media access. One ring is the primary ring that provides media access to the device and
transmits data, and the second ring is used as a backup and takes over in case the primary ring
fails.

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is usually implemented as a dual token-passing

ring within a ring topology (for campus networks) or star topology (within a building). The dual
ring consists of a primary and secondary ring. The primary ring carries data. The counter-rotating
secondary ring can carry data in the opposite direction, but is more commonly reserved as a
backup in case the primary ring goes down. This provides FDDI with the degree of fault
tolerance necessary for network backbones. In the event of a failure on the primary ring, FDDI
automatically reconfigures itself to use the secondary ring as shown in the illustration. Faults can
be located and repaired using a fault isolation technique called beaconing. However, the
secondary ring can also be configured for carrying data, extending the maximum potential
bandwidth to 200 Mbps.

Stations connect to one (or both) rings using a media interface connector (MIC). Its two fiber
ports can be either male or female, depending on the implementation. There are two different
FDDI implementations, depending on whether stations are attached to one or both rings:

 Single-attached stations (SAS): Connect to either the primary or secondary ring using

M ports. Single-attached FDDI uses only the primary ring and is not as commonly

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deployed for network backbones as dual-attached FDDI. Single-attached stations are used
primarily to connect Ethernet LANs or individual servers to FDDI backbones. 

 Dual-attached stations (DAS): Connect to both rings. The A port is the point at which
the primary ring enters and the secondary ring leaves; the B port is the reverse. M ports
provide attachment points for single-attached stations. Dual-attached FDDI uses both
rings, with the secondary ring serving as a backup for the primary. Dual-attached FDDI is
used primarily for network backbones that require fault tolerance. Single-attached
stations can be connected to dual-attached FDDI backbones using a dual-attached device
called a concentrator or multiplexer.
 Dual-Attached Concentrator (DAC): Connects to both the rings. The primary purpose
of DAC is to connect SASs to the primary ring. DAC is the FDDI equivalent of an
Ethernet hub.

Figure: FDDI LAN

Following are the main advantages of FDDI:

 FDDI uses dual-ring technology and is therefore, more reliable than Token Ring LANs.
 FDDI uses the token-passing system for media access and data transmission. Therefore,
collisions are avoided.
 It offers higher bandwidth (upto 250 Gbps). Hence it can handle data rates upto 100
Mbps.
 It offers high security as it is difficult to eavesdrop on fiber optic link.
 Fiber optic cable does not break as easily as other types of cables.

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 Fiber optic cables are not susceptible to EMI (Electromagnetic Interference).

 Fiber optic cables transmit signals over greater distances of about 200 Kms.
 Fiber optic cables weigh less compare to copper wire of similar bandwidth.
 FDDI uses multiple tokens to improve network speed.
 It is possible to provide priority to the work stations connected in the chain. Hence based
on the requirement some stations are bypassed to provide faster service to the rest.
 FDDI can isolate faulty nodes with use of wiring concentrators for instantaneous re-
routing. Wiring concentrators function as centralized cabling connection devices for
workstations.

The disadvantage of FDDI is the cost incurred in setting up an FDDI LAN. FDDI uses
optical fiber cables and DACs, which are costlier than the UTP cables and hubs or MSAUs used
by Ethernet and Token Ring. Therefore, FDDI finds limited application in LANs and is mainly
used to connect computers on a LAN backbone, where both speed and reliability are required.

MIDDLE-LAYER PROTOCOLS
Middle-layer protocols are network protocols that operate at the network and transport layers
of the OSI reference model. Middle-layer protocols are responsible for ensuring reliable transfer
of data between two devices on a network. The transport layer protocols ensure reliable delivery
of data whereas the network layer protocols are responsible for correct addressing of the data.
The common middle-layer protocols used in LANs are:
 Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

 Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange (IPX/SPX)

 NetBIOS Enhanced User Interface (NETBEUI)

TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL/INTERNET PROTOCOL (TCP/IP)

TCP/IP was developed by the Department of Defense Advanced Researched Project
Agency (DARPA) in 1969 to connect the Army, Naval, and the Air Force networks of the United
States. The interconnection of these networks was called ARPANET or Advanced Research
Projects Agency Network. ARPANET has since then undergone several changes, modified
several times, and evolved into today's Internet.
TCP/IP is a protocol suite with protocols that operate at the different layers of the OSI
reference model. The TCP/IP reference model was developed based on the operation of the
different protocols that are part of the TCP/IP protocol suite. TCP/IP includes protocols to
operate at all layers, except the network-interface layer, of the TCP/IP reference model (Refer to
Section, Network Communication Standards for information on TCP/IP reference model in
Chapter 1). At the Internet layer, TCP/IP contains protocols that are responsible for addressing
data, converting the data into packets, and routing the data packets. The protocols that operate at

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this layer are:

 IP: Responsible for addressing, fragmentation, and re-assembling of data packets. If the
data is too large to be transferred in a single data packet, it is divided into multiple
packets. This is called fragmentation. At the destination device, these packets are re-
assembled to obtain the complete data.

 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): Translates the network address of a computer to a

MAC address to be used by the network interface layer protocol.

 Internet Control Message Protocol (lCMP): Provides diagnostic capabilities, such as

error reporting and delivery conditions for the data packets.

 Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP): Used when a single data packet
needs to be sent to computers located in different networks.

The transport layer is responsible for ensuring reliable delivery of data from a source device to a
destination device. TCP/IP consists of the following protocols at the transport layer:
 TCP: A connection-oriented protocol responsible for sequencing and acknowledgement
of the data packets. Data is broken down into multiple packets and sent to the destination.
These packets may not be sent in the actual sequence. TCP ensures that the packets are
assembled in the correct sequence before passing them on to the higher layer. In addition,
TCP requires an acknowledgement from the destination device for data that has been
sent. This ensures reliability and integrity of data during transmission.

 User Datagram Protocol (UDP): A connectionless protocol that is less reliable than
TCP. UDP is used when the data transferred is sufficiently small so that it can be
accommodated in a single packet, and therefore, sequencing is not required. UDP is also
used when protocols at other layers, such as the application layer, can ensure reliable
data delivery. For example, UDP is also used in real-time applications such as transfer of
video and audio where speed of data transfer is a priority rather than reliability and
integrity of the data.

The application layer protocols provide the user with an interface to access the services of the
other layers in the TCP/IP reference model. TCP/IP contains several application layer protocols,
and newer protocols are continually being developed. The most common application layer
protocols are:
 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): Used to transfer data and files pertaining to
Web pages on the Internet.

 File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Provides an interactive method of transferring files

between two devices.

 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): Used to transfer mail and attachments.

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 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP): Used to monitor and manage

network devices and their functions (For details on the working of SNMP.

 Telnet: A terminal emulation protocol that allows users to log in to remote computers.

INTERNETWORK PACKET EXCHANGE/SEQUENCED PACKET EXCHANGE

(IPX/SPX)
IPX/SPX was developed by Novell during the early 1980s as an equivalent of TCP/IP for
computers that use Novell NetWare. Like TCP/IP, IPX/SPX is also a protocol stack and has a
reference model that resembles the TCP/IP reference model. IPX is the network layer of the
IPX/SPX protocol and SPX is the transport layer. IPX has a similar function to the IP protocol
and defines how data is sent and received between systems. The SPX protocol is used to
establish and maintain a connection between devices. Together, the two protocols can be used to
create a network connection and transfer data between systems. IPX is connectionless, meaning
it does not require a consistent connection to be maintained while packets are being sent from
one system to another. It can resume the transfer where it left off when a connection is
temporarily dropped. IPX only loads when a network connection is attempted, so it does not take
up unnecessary resources.

Figure: The IPX/SPX reference model with the OSI reference model
The Medium Access and Data Link layers of the IPX/SPX reference model are
equivalents of the physical and data link layers of the OSI/ISO reference model. The Internet
layer is the equivalent of the network and transport layers, whereas the application layer
encompasses the functionality of the application, presentation, and session layers of the OSI/ISO
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reference model. IPX, operating at the Internet layer, is a connectionless protocol, and is
responsible for addressing the data packets. IPX is the Novell equivalent of IP, whereas SPX is
the Novell equivalent of TCP. SPX is responsible for ensuring delivery, fragmentation, and re-
assembly of the data packets. SPX is a connection-oriented protocol, and therefore, requires
acknowledgements for each data packet transferred across the network.
At the application layer, IPX/SPX defines the following protocols:
 NetWare Core Protocol (NCP): Allows NetWare users to share devices, such as
printers on the network. NCP is also responsible for sending and receiving e-mail
between two NetWare computers.

 Service Advertising Protocol (SAP): Used by computers and devices on the network to
update one another about the network status. This helps the network server detect any
device failures or line failures

NETBIOS ENHANCED USER INTERFACE (NETBEUI)

NETBEUI was developed by IBM in 1985 as an equivalent of TCP/IP and IPX/SPX
protocol suites for IBM computers. NETBEUI operates at the transport and network layers of the
OSI reference model and is responsible for addressing as well as reliable delivery of the data
packets. NetBEUI (NetBIOS Extended User Interface) is a new, extended version of NetBIOS,
the program that lets computers communicate within a local area network. NetBEUI
(pronounced net-BOO-ee) formalizes the frame format (or arrangement of information in a data
transmission) that was not specified as part of NetBIOS. NetBEUI was developed by IBM for its
LAN Manager product and has been adopted by Microsoft for its Windows NT, LAN Manager,
and Windows for Workgroups products. Hewlett-Packard and DEC use it in comparable
products.

NetBEUI is the best performance choice for communication within a single LAN.
Because, like NetBIOS, it does not support the routing of messages to other networks, its
interface must be adapted to other protocols such as Internetwork Packet Exchange or TCP/IP. A
recommended method is to install both NetBEUI and TCP/IP in each computer and set the server
up to use NetBEUI for communication within the LAN and TCP/IP for communication beyond
the LAN.

The main advantage of NETBEUI is its speed. In fact, NETBEUI was the fastest network
layer protocol, faster than TCP/IP or IPX/SPX, at the time of its introduction. The main
disadvantage of NETBEUI is that it cannot transmit data across different networks. In addition,
speeds offered by protocols, such as TCP/IP and IPX/SPX have improved considerably since the
time of their introduction. Therefore, NETBEUI is best suited for isolated LAN segments and
finds limited use in today's LANs.

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HIGHER-LAYER PROTOCOLS
Higher-layer protocols operate at the session, presentation, and application layers of the OSI
reference model. The higher-layer protocols provide users with an interface to access network
data and resources. These protocols also determine the manner in which the data is presented to
the user. The common higher-layer protocols used are:
 HTTP

 FTP

 SMTP

Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

HTTP is the protocol used to access resources, usually Web sites, present on the Internet.
HTTP uses TCP for transmission of data between the user's computer and the Web site. When a
user keys in the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) of a Web site in the browser's address bar, an
HTTP request is generated. The browser is an HTTP client, and requests of HTTP clients are
handled by the HTTP daemon that resides on the Web server. A Web server is a computer on
which the files pertaining to a Web site are located. Once the HTTP daemon accepts the client
request, the user can view the Web page in the browser.
The HTTP daemon processes the request and mayor may not accept it. Usually, most
Web sites allow public access, and therefore, the requests are accepted. Certain Web sites,
however, contain private information and are not accessible to all users. Such Web sites may ask
the user to enter a username and password (which would be pre-assigned by the Web site
administrator) to access the website. HTTP is a connectionless protocol. However, HTTP uses
TCP, which ensures that the data transfer between the two connected computers is reliable. In
addition, HTTP is a stateless protocol. A stateless protocol means that the connection between
the two computers is terminated as soon as a data transfer ends. As a result, every time a user
requests data from a Web site, a new connection is established.
HTTP is used to handle data transfers over the Internet. It is possible that confidential
data, the security of which cannot be compromised, is being transmitted. For example, users may
use credit cards to shop online. However, credit card information is very sensitive and needs to
be protected. To ensure secure transmission of data over the Internet, HTTPS (HTTP over Secure
Socket Layer) was introduced. HTTPS encrypts all data that travels over the Internet so that the
data is not read by unauthorized sources. The data is decrypted by the Web server so that the
information is read only by the Web server.

FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (FTP)

FTP, as the name suggests, is a protocol specifically designed to handle file transfers
between two computers, usually over the Internet. HTTP is a protocol that can be used to display
the information contained in the files, whereas FTP can be used to actually transfer the files
between two computers. To use FTP for transferring files, you need a client as well as a server.

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An FTP server, or an FTP Web site, is a computer on which FTP is installed and contains the
files to be copied or downloaded. An FTP client is computer that downloads files from the FTP
server. An FTP client can also upload files to an FTP server. When an FTP client requests access
to an FTP server, the server authenticates the client with the help of a username and password.
The FTP client connects to an FTP server with the help of FTP client software such as Cute FTP
or WS_FTP. The Microsoft Windows family of operating systems includes a default FTP client
software, available through the MS-DOS window, to connect to FTP servers.
To access an FTP server on a computer running Windows 9x/ME/2000IXP, perform the
following steps:
1. Click Start, Run.

2. Type command, and click OK. For Windows 20001XP, type cmd, and click OK.

3. Type ftp, and press Enter. The command prompt changes to ftp, indicating that the
default FTP client software is active.

4. Type open ftp.xyz.com, and press Enter. ftp.xyz.com is the FIP URL of the website
http://www.xyz.com.umber list item 3.

You are connected to the FIP server of the Web site. You will be asked to enter the username and
password. On authenticating the username and password, you can access the files and folders
present on the Web site and download files to your computer.

Figure: FTP Commands

SIMPLE MAIL TRANSFER PROTOCOL (SMTP)

SMTP is a protocol used for sending and receiving e-mail messages between two

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computers on a network. SMTP uses the concept of servers and mailboxes to deliver e-mail
messages. For example, consider the e-mail address [email protected]. In this e-mail address,
network is the mailbox name, and itt.com is the domain name or the mail server name. A domain
is defined as a set of network resources allocated for a particular group of users. The users need
to log in to the domain and access these resources. For example, a domain may be a network
with 10 computers, 2 printers, and a scanner where one of the computers may control
permissions to access the network resources.
The computer that controls the network access permissions is called a server. Configuring
SMTP involves creating different mailboxes in the SMTP server. A network server on which
SMTP is installed and configured is called an SMTP server. For example, there may be multiple
mailboxes under itt.com, such as network1, network2, or network3. These mailboxes are
represented as network1 @itt.com, [email protected], and [email protected], respectively.
When a user sends an e-mail, it reaches the SMTP server on the domain.
The SMTP server breaks the destination e-mail address into the mailbox name and the
domain name, and delivers these messages to the SMTP server on the destination domain and
stores them separately depending on the mailbox name. Therefore, on the SMTP server, e-mails
received by network1, network2, and network 3 are stored separately. However, SMTP can send
the e-mails only as far as the SMTP server on the destination domain. In practice, however, the
mail recipients may not access their mailbox from the SMTP server directly. Instead, users may
need to configure their computers so that their mails from the mailbox on the SMTP server can
be received on their local computers. This functionality is not provided by SMTP, and protocols
such as Post Office Protocol (POP) and Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) are used for
this purpose.

Figure: Functions of SMTP and POP

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POST OFFICE PROTOCOL (POP)

POP is the most commonly used protocol for fetching mails from the mml server to a
user's computer in a domain. By providing the destination address of the POP server, the e-mail
client on the computer automatically retrieves any mail received on the server. The mail
retrieved from the server is stored on the local computer and can be accessed any number of
times in the future.
Retrieving e-mails from the mail server and storing them on the local computer offers the
following advantages:
 The e-mail can be organized according to the preferences of the users, thereby facilitating
easy retrieval in future.

 Mailboxes present on the servers usually have limited storage space, typically I MB to 5
MB. Leaving all the e-mails on the server may take up a significant portion of the disk
space on the serve, This problem is compounded by the fact that a mail server typically
handles multiple mailboxes. These problems can be prevented by continually retrieving
mails from the server.

POP downloads the e-mails onto the local computer, and therefore, the user need not remain
connected to the mail server to read the messages. This is extremely helpful when users connect
to mail servers over the Internet (usually the ISP's mail server) because it reduces the ISP access
charges. In fact, the ability to read and modify mails without remaining connected to the Internet
is the main advantage of POP.
POP has the following disadvantages:
 All the e-mail messages are downloaded onto a single computer, and therefore, a user can
access the mail from the same computer. If a need arises to access mails stored on a
different computer, it is not possible with POP.

 As e-mail messages are stored in a single computer, a virus attack or a hard-disk crash
may wipe out all the messages, unless a backup is made regularly.

 POP uses five default folders to handle e-mails: Inbox, Outbox, Drafts, Sent Items, and
Deleted. POP does not allow users to create any customized folders for sorting e-mail
messages on the mail server.

 A user can access only one mailbox on a server at a given time. For example, imagine a
mail server, Goal.com, with two mailboxes, John and Joe. Using POP, you can access
either John's mailbox or Joe's mailbox but not both simultaneously.

Internet Message Access Protocol (I MAP)

IMAP is a protocol developed to overcome the disadvantages of POP. Like POP, IMAP
also allows users to download e-mail messages from a mail server to a local computer. However,

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IMAP always maintains a copy of the e-mail messages on the mail server, unless the user
explicitly deletes them. In addition, IMAP also allows users to synchronize the e-mails on the
mail server with the e-mails on the local computer. For example, suppose a user has downloaded
an e-mail from the mail server and modified it. Synchronizing the e-mails on the mail server and
the local computer ensures that the e-mails on the server also contain the updated information.
IMAP allows users to access e-mail messages from the mail server in any of the following
modes:
 Online: The e-mail messages exist on the mail server (not downloaded to the user's
computer), and the user can access mails from a remote computer.

 Offline: The user downloads the e-mail messages from the server to the local computer,
and the e-mail messages are deleted from the server.

 Disconnected: The user downloads the messages from the server to the local computer.
However, a copy of the messages is retained on the server. Every time the user connects
to the server, the messages on the server are synchronized with the messages on the local
computer.

IMAP offers more flexibility than POP in managing e-mails and has the following advantages:
 Allows users to access multiple mailboxes simultaneously.

 Allows users to create customized mailboxes on the mail server.

 Allows users to access e-mails from multiple locations.

 Compatible with non-e-mail data, such as files and documents.

IMAP has the following disadvantages:

 Using the Online mode to access e-mail messages may use a considerable amount of disk
space on the mail server.

 IMAP is useful only if the user needs to access e-mails from multiple locations. If only a
single computer is used, the advantages of IMAP are not felt.

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QUESTION BANK

(Questions for Understanding)

1. What do you think CRC is meant by?

a. Cyclic Redundancy Check
b. Cyclic Redundancy Correction
c. Cyclic Repetition Check
d. Cyclic Repetition Correction

2. ARC net supports a max data transfer speed of _____MBPS?

a. 10
b. 20
c. 8
d. 15

3. What do you think FDDI is meant by?

a. Fiber distributed Data Interface
b. Fiber distributed Data Interchange
c. Fiber distributed Data Interconnect
d. None of the above

4. What do you think ARP is meant by?

a. Address Resolution Protocol
b. Address Reverse Protocol
c. Address Reserve Protocol
d. None of the above

5. What do you think ICMP is meant by?

a. Internet Control Management Protocol
b. Internet Control Message Protocol
c. Internet Connection Management Protocol
d. None of the above

6. Can you give the full Form of HTTP?

a. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
b. Hyper Text Transfer Program
c. Hyper Text Training Protocol
d. None of the above

7. What do you meant by IGMP?

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a. Internet Group Management Protocol

b. Internet Group Message Protocol
c. Internet Group Management Program
d. Internet Group Message Program

8. What is the maximum number of nodes supported in a single ARC net LAN?
a. 200
b. 225
c. 255
d. 250

9. Which year was Ethernet First developed?

a. 1972
b. 1982
c. 1975
d. 1985

10. Can you illustrate a terminal emulation protocol that allows user to log in remote computers?
a. Telnet
b. SMTP
c. FTP
d. HTTP

11. Which of the following doesn’t come under Lower-layer protocol?

a. Arc net
b. Ethernet
c. Token ring
d. TCP/IP

12. Which of the following doesn’t come under Middle-layer protocol?

a. Arc net
b. TCP/IP
c. IPX/SPX
d. NETBEUI

13. Which of the following doesn’t come under High-layer protocol?

a. Token ring
b. HTTP
c. FTP
d. SMTP
14. What is the maximum frame size supported by Arc net?
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a. 5008 bytes
b. 58 bytes
c. 508 bytes
d. 805 bytes

15. Can you illustrate the device that needs to send data checks the cable for any signals?
a. Carrier sense
b. Carrier Detection
c. Checking sense
d. None of the above

16. Why Ethernet is popular protocol used in LAN?

a. It supports Coaxial, twisted-pair and optical-fiber Cable
b. Supports bus and star topologies
c. Costs less to set up than ARC net, Token Ring or FDDI LANs
d. All the above

17. Can you tell the of value Priority field in Token ring?
a. 000 and 111
b. 010 and 111
c. 001 and 111
d. 011 and 111

18. The Internet layer is equivalents of which layers?

a. Network and Transport
b. Network and Data link
c. Transport and Data link
d. Transport and Session

19. Which of the following default folder POP doesn’t use to handle email?
a. Inbox
b. Important
c. Outbox
d. Drafts

20. Which section of ARC net frame format has CRC?

a. Header
b. Data
c. Count
d. Trailer

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21. Token ring has how many fields in access control field?
a. 4
b. 3
c. 5
d. 6
22. How many layers does IPX/SPX reference model have?
a. 7
b. 5
c. 6
d. 4

23. Which among the following is not the application layer protocol?
a. HTTP
b. FTP
c. TCP
d. SMTP

24. Application layer of IPX/SPX is equivalent to which of the following layers?

a. Application, Presentation and session
b. Application and Session
c. Presentation and Session
d. None of the above

25. Medium Access layer of IPX/SPX is equivalent to which layer of OSI Reference model?
a. Physical
b. Data link
c. Network
d. Transport

(Questions for Understanding)

1. Can you write in your own words about the lower layer protocols?
2. Can you Explain the different aspects of communication in network protocols
3. Can you write in your own words about ARC net
4. Can you write in your own words about the Ethernet communication along with its
drawbacks?
5. Can you write in your own words about the FDDI?
6. Can you write in your own words about Ethernet
7. Can you write in your own words about the FTP?
8. How would you explain the fault management and tolerance in token ring network?

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9. Can you explain in your own words about IPX/SPX.

10. Can you illustrate the features of ARC net
11. Can you explain in your own words about the I MAP?

(Questions for Applications)

1. Analyze the working of token ring.
2. Analyze the working of HTTP protocol.
3. Analyze the working of POP protocol.
4. Analyze the components a token.
5. Analyze the protocols that work at TCP/IP layer
6. Analyze the working of SMTP

UNIT 3
CHAPTER-5
TCP/IP ADDRESSING SCHEME

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TCP/IP uses a 32 bit addressing scheme to identify the devices on a network. These 32
bits are divided into four octets, of eight bits each. Each of these four octets is represented in a
decimal form, and separated by a dot. For example, 198.l72.l68.10 is an IP address. This format
of representing an IP address is called the dotted-decimal format.

TCP/ IP ADDRESSING SCHEME

The octets in an IP address can take a decimal value from 0 to 255 because the largest
decimal value that can be represented by eight binary bits is 255 (11111111 in binary).
For example,
01111101 00001101 01001001 00001111
These binary numbers translate into:
125.13. 73. 15

The two parts of an Internet address are the network address portion and the host address
portion. This allows a remote host to specify both the remote network and the host on the remote
network when sending information. By convention, a host number of 0 (zero) is used to refer to
the network itself.

An IP address serves two principal functions. It identifies the host, or more specifically

its network interface, and it provides the location of the host in the network, and thus the
capability of establishing a path to that host. Its role has been characterized as follows: A name
indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get
there. The header of each IP packet contains the IP address of the sending host, and that of the
destination host.
COMPONENTS OF IP ADDRESS
To locate a building in a locality, you need information about the locality as well as the
specific location of the building within that locality. Similarly, to locate a computer on a
network, information about the network as well as the specific computer is required. Therefore,
the 32 bits in an IP addresses are used to identify the network as well as the computer on the
network. An IP address can be divided into the following two components:
 Host address: This is the address of the device within the network.

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 Network address: This is the address of the network itself, and is used by other
networks to identify this network. Figure represents the host address and the network
address components of a typical IP address.

Figure: IP Address
198.172.168 is the network address and 10 is the host address. There may be several
computers in this network. The IP addresses of all these computers would begin with
198.172.168 but the value in the fourth octet would be unique for each of the computers. For
example, 198.172.168.11, 198.172.168.12, and 198.172.168.13 are different hosts of the same
network. However, this IP address has the limitation of not being able to address more than 256
computers on the network because one octet can only take values from between 0 and 255.
One possible solution to overcome this problem is to reduce the number of octets for
identifying the network, to two or one, and as a result, increase the number of octets for the host
address. For example, if 198.172 represents the network address and 168.10 represents the host
address, then the number of hosts per network can be increased. Similarly, if 198 represents the
network address and 172.168.10 represents the host address, the number of hosts per network
can be even higher. However, this solution would fail if the number of networks were large.
For example, if two octets are used to represent the network address, such an addressing
scheme could identify only 65536 (256*256) networks. Although 65,536 is a large number, in
the context of LANs, there are literally hundreds of thousands of networks that form the Internet.
Therefore, a compromise has to be reached between the number of octets used for the network
and host addresses. TCP/IP allows network administrators the flexibility to decide the number of
octets for the network and host addresses with the help of IP address classes.
IP ADDRESS CLASSES
IP address classes provide network administrators with the flexibility to select an IP
addressing format depending on the needs of the network. For example, on a network with 50
computers it is sufficient that only the last octet be used to represent the host address. On the
other hand, if a network has 2000 computers, then the last two octets should be used to represent
the host address. The process of determining the octets that represent the network and host
addresses is standardized with the use of IP address classes.

FEATURES OF IP ADDRESS CLASSES

IP offers the following address classes for network administrators to choose from in

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designing networks:
 Class A: In this class, the first octet is used for the network address, and the remaining
three octets can represent a host address. Therefore, a Class A network can have up to
16,777,216 (256*256*256) devices. The first octet can take a value between 1 and 127
while the remaining octets can take values from 0 to 255. The range of Class A is from
1.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255. For example, 10.35.4.186 and 126.254.186.99 are examples
of Class A addresses. Class A networks are used by large organizations and large ISPs
with a large number of hosts. In fact, very few organizations have networks with more
than 65,536 devices, in which case Class A is used.
 Class B: Class B uses the first two octets for the network address and the last two octets
for the host address. Class B networks can have up to a maximum of 65,536 hosts. The
first octet of a Class B address can range from 128 through 191. The remaining octets,
however, can range from 0 through 255. Class B networks are also used by large
organizations and universities. In fact, most organizations do not have a network with
more than 65,536 devices, and therefore, use Class B. Class B addresses range from
128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255. Examples of Class B addresses are 130.59.5.34 and
168.192.220.10.
 Class C: The first, second, and third octets are used to denote the network address in
Class C while the fourth octet denotes the host address. As a result, a Class C network
can accommodate only 255 hosts. The first octet of a Class C address can take a value
between 192 and 223. Class C is the most commonly used IP address class in LANs
because most LANs do not have more than 255 hosts. The range of Class C is from
192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255. For example, 192.168.10.20 is a Class C IP address.
 Class D: Class D addresses are not provided for addressing networks. Class D addresses
are used for multicast, the process of sending the same data to the multiple computers on
a network or across different networks. Class D, in fact, is completely different from the
previous three classes. The first four bits of the first octet of a Class D address are always
1, 1, 1, and 0. The remaining three octets identify the devices on a network. The values of
1. 1· 1. and 0 for the first four bits of the octet mean that the first octet should be a
decimal value between 224 and 239. Therefore, Class D addresses range from 224.0.0.0
to 239.255.255.255. An example of a Class D IP address is 225.38.254.254.
 Class E: Like Class D addresses, Class E addresses are also not available for network
addressing. In fact, Class E addresses are reserved for experimental purposes. These
addresses may be made available for normal use in the future. The first four bits of a
Class E address are 1, 1, 1, and 1. Therefore, the range of Class E addresses is between
240.0.0.0 and 255.255.255.255.

Any organization (or individual) that needs to connect to the Internet must obtain a block
of IP addresses from their local governing body that oversees Internet access, such as the
InterNIC. Depending on the size and need of the organization, the governing body allocates a

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particular IP address range. However, not all organizations need to contact InterNIC for IP
addresses. InterNIC usually allocates a block of IP addresses to ISPs, which in turn allocate this
block in parts to subscribers connecting through them. For example, an ISP may obtain a Class C
address block of 199.120.35.0, and in turn, allocate the address block of 199.120.35.1-15 to one
subscriber, and 199.120.35.40-60 to another subscriber.
Moreover, the IP addresses are allocated only to those hosts that connect to the Internet, and not
all hosts on the network. For example, an organization may have a network of 200 computers.
However, only two computers, which are set up as network servers, connect to the Internet. In
such cases, the ISP allocates IP address only to these computers.

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Limitations of IP Address Classes

Although the IP address classes provide the flexibility of selecting a class depending on
the number of computers, the performance of the network goes down if all the computers are
connected in a single network. For example, imagine an Ethernet LAN with 3,000 computers.
Ethernet broadcasts data to all hosts, and therefore, the traffic in this LAN would be extremely
high resulting in poor network performance. One way to overcome the problem of poor
performance is to divide the network into multiple broadcast domains with the help of devices
such as switches or bridges. Although this reduces the network traffic, the computers across the
broadcast domain are part of the same network. As a result, the performance of the network
router decreases because it needs to process information pertaining to all the computers.

In fact, router performance is an important consideration when the computers in a LAN

need to communicate with computers outside the LAN or on the Internet. Another limitation
with IP address classes, mainly Class A and Class B, is the huge number of hosts per network
that increases the difficulty of managing a network. For example, consider an organization with
offices at Tokyo, Shanghai, London, Paris, Florida, and Chicago. Assume that each office has
approximately 200 computers that access the Internet directly, and therefore, the organization
uses a Class B addressing scheme, 145.68.23.0. If the computers in all the six locations are
included as part of a single network, it would be extremely difficult for the network administrator
to monitor the network performance. It would be easier if the networks were logically separated
based on their geographical location.

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To prevent poor router performance of network routers, and to improve the network
management, networks are usually divided into subnets.

IP SUBNETTING
Subnets are an efficient method for logically dividing a network into segments, such that
the network performance is optimized. Subnets are defined as the segments of a network that use
addressing schemes different from one another but corresponding to the addressing scheme used
by the main network. Therefore, devices in one subnet cannot directly communicate with devices
in another subnet. Usually, a router is used to establish communication between subnets.
To understand the definition of a subnet, and the process of subnetting, consider a Class
C network represented by 192.168.30.0, in which 192.168.30 represents the network address,
and the value in the fourth octet would represent the host on the network. For example, the
address of a particular host in this network would be 192.168.30.4. The fourth octet in a Class C
address can take a value between 0 and 255, and therefore, this network can have up to 256
hosts. However, configuring 255 computers in a single network would significantly degrade the
performance of the network as well as the network router. Therefore, the network, 192.168.30.x
can be divided into subnets, with each subnet consisting of, say, 16 computers.
On a network without subnets, a device outside the network can identify a host with the
help of the network and host addresses. On a network with subnets, however, an additional piece
of information, called the subnet mask, is needed to identify a host. The network address helps
determine the network in which the host is located, whereas the subnet mask is responsible for
locating the subnet on the network to which the host belongs. The host address identifies the
individual host.
However, the addressing scheme used by IP has only four octets that can be used to
represent the network address or the host address depending on the IP address class. It is not
possible to include information on the subnet in the IP address itself, and therefore, the subnet
mask is a separate 32 bit address, accompanying the IP address of a device.
The default subnet mask values for Class A, Class B, and Class C IP addresses are listed
in Table

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The default subnet masks are used when a network does not have any subnets. For
creating subnets, the default values are modified to obtain customized subnet masks. When
subnet masks are customized, only the octets that denote the host address are modified, and not
the octet(s) that represent the network address. For example, 255.224.0.0 is a valid subnet mask
for a Class A network but not 252.124.0.0. In fact, 252.124.0.0 is not a valid subnet mask for a
network of any IP address class.
The subnet masks and IP addresses on the network are dependent on one another because
a network that belongs to a particular IP address class can accommodate only a particular
number of devices irrespective of the number of subnets. For example, a Class B network can
have a maximum of only 65,536 devices irrespective of the number of subnets that are created.
Therefore, the subnet mask values are derived from the IP address of the network. Below
Figure represents the components of a typical IP address further divided to depict the subnet
address.

Figure: Subnet Address Component of IP Address

As represented in above Figure, the bits of the octet(s) representing the host address are
subdivided to represent the subnet address and the host address. For example, in a Class C IP
address, the bits of the last octet represent the subnet address as well as the host address. The first

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three bits may represent the subnet address and the last five bits may represent the host address.
The number of bits used by the subnet address, and the number of bits used by the host address
are determined by the subnet mask.

CREATING SUBNETS IN NETWORKS

To understand the process of creating a subnet mask, consider the Class C IP address,
192.168.30.0, and the Class C default subnet mask in the binary form, as shown in Figure.

Figure: Class C IP Address and Default Subnet Mask

Assume that the network represented by 192.168.30.0 through 192.168.30.255 needs to
be divided into four subnets. To create a subnet, you modify the digits in the octet that represents
the host address. 192.168.30.0 is a Class C IP address, and only the last octet represents the host
address. Therefore, the subnet address can be created by modifying the bits of the last octet. The
number of bits that represent the subnet mask is determined by the number of subnets into which
the network is divided. When subnets are created, the number of subnets is a power of 2. The
value of the exponent gives the number of bits that represent the subnet mask.
Therefore, in this example, the number four is two raised to the power of 2 (22). As a
result, the first two bits of the last octet are modified to obtain four subnets, as shown in Table
below

The subnets listed in Table 5.3 obtained by modifying the last octet of the network
193.168.30.0 can also be represented as 192.168.30.0/26, 192.168.30.64/26, 192.168.30.128/26,

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and 192.168.30.192/26, respectively. The number 26 indicates that 26 bits in the subnet mask
have been utilized, instead of 24 used by the default subnet mask for Class C IP address

The subnet addresses are created for the network 192.168.30.0, and you now need to
create host addresses within each subnet. The maximum number of hosts that a subnet can have
is 2 raised to the power of 6 minus 2 (26-2, which is 62) because there are six bits that can be
used for the host address. The devices in the first subnet will have addresses between
192.168.30.1 and 192.168.30.63. Similarly, the second sub net contains devices with addresses
from 192.168.30.65 to 192.168.30.127, the third with addresses from 192.168.30.129 to
192.168.30.191, and the fourth from 192.168.30.193 to 192.168.30.255.

COMMUNICATION ACROSS SUBNETS

The network 192.168.30.0 has been divided into subnets, and the devices in each subnet
have been assigned IP addresses. However, hosts in one subnet cannot directly communicate
with hosts in another subnet. The router attached to a subnet needs to forward such data across
subnets. Therefore, the router first needs to determine whether the source and destination hosts
are in the same subnets. To understand the process of filtering and forwarding, consider the
network 198.168.30.0 divided into subnets, as shown in Figure below:

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Figure: Subnets on a Network

Assume that, in Figure Node A with an IP address of 198.168.30.4 sends data to Node N
with an IP address 198.168.30.164. The data also includes the subnet mask information of the
source and destination host. The data reaches the router of sub net O. The router uses the subnet
mask to determine whether the destination host is in the same subnet or not. The router compares
the bits of the last octet in the IP address and the last octet in the subnet mask, using the logical
AND operator. The AND operator states a condition to be true if all the factors affecting the
condition are true. For example, if the first bit of the IP address is 1, and the first bit of the subnet
mask is 0, then, according to the AND operator, the resultant value is 0.
However, if the first bit of the IP address as well as the subnet mask is 1, then the
resultant value is 1 too. Similarly, if corresponding bits of the IP address as well as the subnet
mask are o and1, 1 and 0, or 0 and 0, then the resultant value for that bit is 0. The AND resultant
of the IP address and subnet mask of Node A is 11000000.10101000.00011110.11 000000, and
the resultant of Node N is 11000000.10101000.00011110.10000000. The results of the AND
operation is different for Node A and Node N. Therefore, the router on subnet 0 concludes that
the hosts are part of different subnets, and forwards the data to the router on subnet 2, which is
the corresponding subnet of Node N.

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Figure represents the calculation performed by the router on subnet 0 to check where Node A
and Node N are part of the same subnet.

Figure: Calculation performed by router on Subnet 0

The subnets on a network are not visible to devices that are outside the network. For
example, the IP address of a device on a network could be 192.168.30.68/26, indicating that it is
part of the subnet 192.168.30.64. However, any data sent to this host from an external source
would be addressed only as 192.168.30.68 (with no information on the subnet). Any data from
external sources with destination address of 192.168.30.0-255 reaches the main router on the
network 192.168.30.68. A main router is defined as the network router that interfaces with
external networks. This router contains information about different subnets on the network, and
the list of hosts that are part of a given subnet. The main router, therefore, determines that
192.168.30.68 is part of the subnet 192.168.30.64 and forwards the data to the router on subnet
1.

SUB NETTING CONSIDERATIONS

You have learned about the advantages of sub netting, and the process of creating subnets
on a network. You also learned how a subnet router determines whether the hosts on a network
are part of the same subnet or not. The following factors are to be considered before dividing a
network into subnets:
 Number of subnets required: Devices on a network are usually grouped into subnets
based on a common factor. For example, suppose an organization has three departments:
Finance, Operations, and Sales. It is logical to create three subnets, one for each
department, because the computers within the departments may need to communicate more
frequently with one another than with the computers in other departments. Therefore, the number
of subnets required on the network should first be clearly defined. You have already observed
that the number of subnets required should be defined as an exponent of 2. However, 3 cannot be

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expressed as an exponent of two. The closest larger power of 2 is 4 (22). Therefore, four subnets
need to be created in this scenario.

 Number of subnets required in the future: When a computer network is designed, it is

necessary to ensure that the network can accommodate additional devices in the future,
and therefore, be expandable. In the previous example, if it appears that an organization
might have new departments in the future, the network administrator needs to provide for
this. Therefore, the network administrator may consider dividing the network into six or
seven subnets. Although this means that a set of IP address cannot be used, it is
important to make provisions for network expansions. In the preceding example, the
administrator may decide to create eight (23) subnets.
 Number of hosts in the largest subnet: You have observed that some of the bits
reserved for the host address by the IP address class are used for the subnet address too.
Therefore, the maximum number of hosts possible in a subnet is determined by the
number of bits used by the subnet mask.

For example, imagine that in a Class C network, the number of hosts required in the
largest subnet is 32 (25). Therefore, five bits of the last octet are required for the host address,
and only three bits are available for the subnet address. As a result, the maximum possible
number of subnets on the network is 8 (23). In some cases, the administrator may need to
compromise either on the number of subnets, or on the number of hosts in the largest sub net
depending on their relative priorities. In addition, the administrator also needs to consider the
future requirement on the number of hosts in the largest subnet.
You have learned about the need to divide a network into subnets, and the advantages of
subnetting. You also learned the steps to divide a network into subnets, and the factors to be
considered for subnetting. You observed that some of the factors conflict with one another and
thereby limit the advantages offered by subnetting,
SUBNETTING LIMITATIONS
Imagine an organization having 12 departments. The largest department has 50
computers while the other departments have 10 computers each (a total of 160 computers). The
organization opts for Class C IP addressing because the number of computers is less than 255.
The organization also needs to divide the network into logical subnets to optimize network trafic.
Therefore, 12 subnets need to be created and the largest subnet should accommodate 50
computers. However, it is possible to create only 8 or 16 subnets (23 or 24). As the requirement
is 12 subnets, the administrator opts to create 16 subnets. This implies that the maximum number
of hosts per subnet is 16, whereas the requirement is 50. In addition, only 10 addresses are
utilized against the available 16 addresses in the other subnets.
The preceding example represents two major limitations of IP subnetting:
 Limitation on the number of hosts that can be accommodated in a single subnet.
 Wastage of host addresses in subnets.

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This example represents a common problem encountered by most administrators when

subnetting the network. This problem can be overcome if the number of hosts per subnet can be
varied. For example, if one subnet car' handle 50 computers while the others handle 10
computers, the problem can be resolved. Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM) is based on this
principle of variable computers per subnet. VLSM was developed to overcome the limitations of
the standard method of IP sub netting.

VARIABLE LENGTH SUBNET MASK (VLSM)

VLSM allows administrators to create subnets of varying sizes depending on the need of
a network. To understand the concept of VLSM, consider the example of the Class C network,
198.162.30.0, discussed in the previous topic. With the help of subnetting, this network was
divided into four subnets of 64 computers each. In VLSM, you can divide the network into
subnets with varying size. Assume, for example, that the network needs to be divided into eight
subnets, but one of the subnets should be able to handle 60 hosts, which cannot be obtained by
the standard method of IP subnetting. To identify 60 hosts, six bits of the last octet are required
(26 :;: 64). As a result, the remaining two bits can be used to identify the subnet. Therefore, the
subnet address would be 192.168.30.0/26.

The network, 198.162.30.0, is a Class C network, and can handle 256 hosts, and 64 hosts
are already allocated as a part of the first subnet. The remaining 192 computers can be spread
across multiple subnets. For example, another subnet can be created to handle 32 hosts. The
subnet address would then be 192.168.60.65/27 because the values 0 to 64 in the last octet are
already part of the first subnet, and 5 bits are required to identify 32 (25) hosts. As a result, three
bits are available to represent the subnet address. You can observe that the length of the second
subnet mask is 27 bits whereas the length of the first one is 26 (therefore, the name VLSM). The
remaining hosts can be accommodated into subnets of varying sizes (defined as an exponent of
2).

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Figure: Network Divided into Subnets with VLSM

To divide a network into subnets with VLSM, the routers and the routing protocols used
on the network should be VLSM –enabled. In addition to the advantage of allowing customized
subnet sizes, VLSM also allows administrators to further divide subnets into additional subnets,
a process known as recursive subnetting. For example, a Class B network, 132.64.0.0, can be
divided into, say, four subnets: 132.64.0.0/18, 132.64.64.0/18, 132.64.128.0/18, and
132.64.192.0/18. Each of these subnets can now handle 16,384 hosts. Using VLSM, these
subnets can be further subdivided. The subnet, 132.64.64.0/ 18 can be divided into four subnets:
132.64.64.0/26, 132.64.64.64/26, 132.64.64.128/26, and 132.64.64.192/26. This feature of
dividing subnets into further subnets is extremely useful in Class A and Class B networks
because the networks are so large that the first-level subnet would be as large as a Class C
network. In addition to VLSM, another popular method for preventing wastage of host address is
called Classless Inter Domain Routing (CIDR).
Procedure of implementing VLSM
In VLSM, subnets use block size based on requirement so subnetting is required multiple
times. Suppose there is an administrator that has four departments to manage. These are sales
and purchase department with 120 computers, development department with 50 computers,
accounts department with 26 computers and management department with 5 computers.

If the administrator has IP 192.168.1.0/24, department wise IPs can be allocated by

following these steps:
1. For each segment select the block size that is greater than or equal to the actual
requirement which is the sum of host addresses, broadcast addresses and network
addresses. Make a list of subnets possible:

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2. Arrange all the segments in descending order based on the block size that is from highest
to lowest requirement.
Sales and Purchase: 120
Development: 50
Accounts: 26
Management: 5
3. The highest IP available has to be allocated to highest requirement so the sales and
purchase department gets 192.168.1.0/25 which has 126 valid addresses that can easily be
available for 120 hosts. The subnet mask used is 255.255.255.128
4. The next segment requires an IP to handle 50 hosts. The IP subnet with network number
192.168.1.128/26 is the next highest which can be assigned to 62 hosts thus fulfilling the
requirement of development department. The subnet mask used is 255.255.255.192
5. Similarly the next IP subnet 192.168.1.192/27 can fulfill the requirements of accounts
department as it has 30 valid hosts IP which can be assigned to 26 computers.The mask
used is 255.255.255.224
6. The last segment requires 5 valid hosts IP which can be fulfilled by the subnet
192.168.1.224/29 which has the mask as 255.255.255.248 is chosen as per the
requirement. The IP with the mask 255.255.255.240 could be chosen but it has 14 valid
hosts IPs and the requirement is less in comparison so the one that is comparable with the
requirement is chosen.

Benefits of VLSM
VLSM provides the ability to subnet an already subnetted network address. The benefits
that arise from this behaviour include:
 Efficient use of IP addresses: IP addresses are allocated according to the host space
requirement of each subnet. IP addresses are not wasted; for example, a Class C network
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of 192.168.10.0 and a mask of 255.255.255.224 (/27) allows you to have eight subnets,
each with 32 IP addresses (30 of which could be assigned to devices). What if we had a
few WAN links in our network (WAN links need only one IP address on each side, hence
a total of two IP addresses per WAN link are needed). Without VLSM that would be
impossible. With VLSM we can subnet one of the subnets, 192.168.10.32, into smaller
subnets with a mask of 255.255.255.252 (/30). This way we end up with eight subnets
with only two available hosts each that we could use on the WAN links. The /30 subnets
created are: 192.168.10.32/30, 192.168.10.36/30, 192.168.10.40/30, 192.168.10.44/30,
192.168.10.48/30, 192.168.10.52/30, 192.168.10.56/30 192.168.10.60/30.
 Support for better route summarization: VLSM supports hierarchical addressing
design therefore; it can effectively support route aggregation, also called route
summarization. The latter can successfully reduce the number of routes in a routing table
by representing a range of network subnets in a single summary address. For example
subnets 192.168.10.0/24, 192.168.11.0/24 and 192.168.12.0/24 could all be summarized
into 192.168.8.0/21.

CLASSLESS INTER DOMAIN ROUTING (CIDR)

CIDR, as the name suggests, does not follow the convention of IP address classes. In fact,
the use of IP addresses class’s results in lots of wasted addresses. For example, imagine an
organization with 300 hosts. The maximum number of hosts handled by a Class C network is
255, and therefore, the organization is forced to use a Class B network, resulting in wastage of
65236 (65,536 minus 300) IP addresses. The wastage of IP address is greater in the case of Class
A networks. Although the wastage of IP addresses was not a threat in the late 1980s and the early
1990s, the growth of the Internet in the mid- and late-1990s resulted in a possible shortage of IP
addresses. In fact, the shortage of IP addresses was prevented only by the introduction of CIDR.
Problems with Class-Based IP Addressing
The old method of IP addressing came with inefficiencies that exhausted the availability
of IPv4 addresses faster than it needed to. The classful routing system included classes A, B, and
C:
 Class A - Over 16 million host identifiers
 Class B - 65,535 host identifiers
 Class C - 254 host identifiers

The problem would commonly occur when an organization required more than 254 host
machines and therefore would no longer fall into class C but rather class B. This means that the
organization would use a class B license even though they had far less than 65,535 hosts.
Therefore if an organization only required 2,500 hosts, they would be wasting about 63,000 hosts
by holding a class B license which would greatly decrease the availability of IPv4 addresses
unnecessarily

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Unlike IP address classes, which used 8, 16, or 24 bits to represent a network address,
CIDR allows a variable number of bits to represent a network address. Therefore, CIDR provides
more flexibility in allocating IP addresses for networks than classful addressing. For example,
using CIDR, 18 bits can be used to represent the network address, -and 14 bits can be used to
represent the host address. The CIDR address also contains the information about the number of
bits used for the network address. For example, a CIDR address of 130.168.26.32/18 indicates
that the first 18 bits represent the network address, and the last 14 bits represent the host address.
This network can therefore accommodate 16,384 (214) hosts. You can observe that this IP
address cannot be categorized as Class A, Class B, or Class C.
CIDR allows allocation of IP addresses that are suited to the actual requirement of the
network. For example, imagine a network with 32 hosts. If classful IP addressing were used, the
network would need to use a Class C address, such as 198.168.30.0, and as a result, 223 IP
addresses would be wasted. On the other hand, with CIDR, only the last five bits (25= 32) are
allocated for the host addresses. Therefore, a CIDR address such as 198.168.30.160/27 can be
assigned to the network. Another network, which consists of 64 hosts, will be allocated a CIDR
address of 198.168.30.192126.
From the preceding example, you can observe that CIDR is an extension of subnetting
and VLSM to the network level. In classful addressing, 198.168.30.160127 and
192.168.30.192/26 represented subnets of the network 192.168.30.0, whereas in CIDR, the
addresses 198.168.30.160/27 and 192.168.30.192/26 represent different networks.
Rules for forming CIDR Blocks:
1. All IP addresses must be contiguous.
2. Block size must be the power of 2 (2n). If the size of the block is the power of 2, then it
will be easy to divide the Network. Finding out the Block Id is very easy if the block size
is of the power of 2.
3. First IP address of the Block must be evenly divisible by the size of the block. in simple
words, the least significant part should always start with zeroes in Host Id. Since all the
least significant bits of Host Id is zero, then we can use it as Block Id part.

INTERNET PROTOCOL VERSION 6 (IPV6)

IPv6 was developed to address the limitations of IPv4 caused by the increased
requirement of IP addresses across the world in the late 1990s. Although several techniques such
as VLSM and CIDR have been introduced to address the limitations of IPv4, the limitation of IP
addresses still remains. The limitation ofIPv4 is that it uses 32 bit addressing, and, as a result, the
maximum number of hosts that can be identified is approximately 4 billion (232 = 4294967296).
With the increase in the number of Internet users and corporate networks, it is quite possible that
there are more than 4 billion users connected to the Internet at a given point of time. IPv4 cannot
handle such a situation.

To overcome this address space limitation of IPv4, IPv6 uses a 128 bit addressing
scheme. Therefore, the maximum number of hosts that can be identified at a given point of time
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is 2128, or340,282,366,920,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456. However, currently only 15

percent of theIPv6 address space is available for use. The remaining will be made available over
a period of time.

In addition to using a 128 bit addressing scheme, IPv6 offers the following advantages
over IPv4:
 Offers built-in support to IPSec (Internet Protocol Security), a protocol used to ensure
data security in VPNs.
 Unlike IPv4, which assumes that the users connect to the Internet from the same location,
IPv6 supports mobile users. Therefore, a user can use the same IP address to connect
from different locations.
 Provides built-in support for auto configuration. Therefore, IPv6 compatible devices,
such as routers or computers with IPv6 installed on them can create their own IP address
using the MAC address and obtaining the network address from the network router. This
greatly reduces the work of the network administrator.
 Supports anycasting. Anycasting is used to regulate traffic as well as to increase the
speed of accessing Web sites. Most Web sites have multiple copies, called mirrors,
located on different servers across the world. For example, the website
http://www.great.com may have mirrors in the United States, England, France, and Japan.
If a user accesses' the Web site from China, the request is automatically transferred to the
mirror site is Japan. This process of redirecting a user request to the nearest server is
called anycasting.

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Figure: IPv6 Anycasting.

Although IPv6 offers several advantages over IPv4, and was officially released in 1999,
the migration to IPv6 from IPv4 has been slow due to the fact that the addressing schemes are
not interoperable. However, IPv6 is backward compatible with IPv4. Therefore, a network that
uses IPv6 can recognize IPv4 addresses but not vice versa. In this section, you learned the
addressing scheme used by IP. You also learned the different methods used to optimize network
traffic and utilization of host addresses. In addition, you understood the advantages of IPv6 over
IPv4.

CIDR provides numerous advantages over the “classful” addressing scheme, whether or
not subnetting is used:
 Efficient Address Space Allocation:
i. Instead of allocating addresses in fixed-size blocks of low granularity, under
CIDR addresses are allocated in sizes of any binary multiple.
ii. So, a company that needs 5,000 addresses can be assigned a block of 8,190
instead of 65,534. Or, to think of it another way, the equivalent of a single Class B
network can be shared amongst 8 companies that each need 8,190 or fewer IP
addresses.
 Elimination of Class Imbalances:
i. There are no more class A, B and C networks, so there is no problem with some
portions of the address space being widely used while others are neglected.
 Efficient Routing Entries:
i. CIDR's multiple-level hierarchical structure allows a small number of routing
entries to represent a large number of networks.
ii. Network descriptions can be “aggregated” and represented by a single entry.
iii. Since CIDR is hierarchical, the detail of lower-level, smaller networks can be
hidden from routers that move traffic between large groups of networks.
 No Separate Subnetting Method:
i. CIDR implements the concepts of subnetting within the internet itself.
ii. An organization can use the same method used on the Internet to subdivide its
internal network into subnets of arbitrary complexity without needing a separate
subnetting mechanism.

Difference Between IPv4 and IPv6 Addresses

IPv4 & IPv6 are both IP addresses that are binary numbers. IPv4 is 32 bit binary number while
IPv6 is 128 bit binary number address. IPv4 address are separated by periods while IPv6 address
are separated by colons. Both are used to identify machines connected to a network. In principle,
they are the same, but they are different in how they work.

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Basis for IPv4 IPv6

differences
Size of IP address IPv4 is a 32-Bit IP Address. IPv6 is 128 Bit IP Address.
Addressing IPv4 is a numeric address, and its IPv6 is an alphanumeric
method binary bits are separated by a dot address whose binary bits are
(.) separated by a colon (:). It also
contains hexadecimal.
Number of 12 8
header fields
Length of header 20 40
filed
Checksum Has checksum fields Does not have checksum fields
Example 12.244.233.165 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:ff0
0:0042:7879
Type of Unicast, broadcast, and multicast. Unicast, multicast, and anycast.
Addresses
Number of IPv4 offers five different classes lPv6 allows storing an
classes of IP Address. Class A to E. unlimited number of IP
Address.
Configuration You have to configure a newly In IPv6, the configuration is
installed system before it can optional, depending upon on
communicate with other systems. functions needed.
VLSM support IPv4 support VLSM (Virtual IPv6 does not offer support for
Length Subnet Mask). VLSM.
Fragmentation Fragmentation is done by sending Fragmentation is done by the
and forwarding routes. sender.
Routing RIP is a routing protocol RIP does not support IPv6. It
Information supported by the routed daemon. uses static routes.
Protocol (RIP)
Network Networks need to be configured IPv6 support auto-configuration
Configuration either manually or with DHCP. capabilities.
IPv4 had several overlays to
handle Internet growth, which
require more maintenance efforts.
Best feature Widespread use of NAT (Network It allows direct addressing
address translation) devices which because of vast address Space.
allows single NAT address can
mask thousands of non-routable
addresses, making end-to-end
integrity achievable.
Address Mask Use for the designated network Not used.
from host portion.

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SNMP SNMP is a protocol used for SNMP does not support IPv6.
system management.
Mobility & Relatively constrained network IPv6 provides interoperability
Interoperability topologies to which move restrict and mobility capabilities which
mobility and interoperability are embedded in network
capabilities. devices.
Security Security is dependent on IPSec(Internet Protocol
applications - IPv4 was not Security) is built into the IPv6
designed with security in mind. protocol, usable with a proper
key infrastructure.
Packet size Packet size 576 bytes required, 1208 bytes required without
fragmentation optional fragmentation
Packet Allows from routers and sending Sending hosts only
fragmentation host
Packet header Does not identify packet flow for Packet head contains Flow
QoS handling which includes Label field that specifies packet
checksum options. flow for QoS handling
DNS records Address (A) records, maps Address (AAAA) records,
hostnames maps hostnames
Address Manual or via DHCP Stateless address auto-
configuration configuration using Internet
Control Message Protocol
version 6 (ICMPv6) or
DHCPv6
IP to MAC Broadcast ARP Multicast Neighbour
resolution Solicitation
Local subnet Internet Group Management Multicast Listener Discovery
Group Protocol GMP) (MLD)
management
Optional Fields Has Optional Fields Does not have optional fields.
But Extension headers are
available.
IPSec Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) Internet Protocol Security
concerning network security is (IPSec) Concerning network
optional security is mandatory
Dynamic host Clients have approach DHCS A Client does not have to
configuration (Dynamic Host Configuration approach any such server as
Server server) whenever they want to they are given permanent
connect to a network. addresses.
Mapping Uses ARP(Address Resolution Uses NDP(Neighbour
Protocol) to map to MAC address Discovery Protocol) to map to
MAC address

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Combability with IPv4 address uses the dot-decimal IPv6 address is represented in
mobile devices notation. That's why it is not hexadecimal, colon- separated
suitable for mobile networks. notation. IPv6 is better suited to
mobile networks.

IPX/SPX ADDRESSING
Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) is the network layer protocol in
the IPX/SPX protocol suite. IPX is derived from Xerox Network Systems' IDP. It may act as
a transport layer protocol as well. The IPX/SPX protocol suite was very popular through the late
1980s into the mid-1990s because it was used by the Novell NetWare network operating system.
Because of Novell NetWare popularity, the IPX became a prominent internetworking protocol. A
big advantage of IPX was a small memory footprint of the IPX driver, which was vital
for DOS and Windows up to the version Windows 95 because of limited size of the conventional
memory. Another IPX advantage is an easy configuration of the client computers. However, IPX
does not scale well for large networks such as the Internet, and as such, IPX usage decreased as
the boom of the Internet made TCP/IP nearly universal. Computers and networks can run
multiple network protocols, so almost all IPX sites will be running TCP/IP as well to allow
Internet connectivity. It is also possible to run later Novell products without IPX, with the
beginning of full support for both IPX and TCP/IP by NetWare version 5 in late 1998.

Like TCP/IP, IPX/SPX also uses a two-level hierarchy to identify a host, the network
address, and the host address. However, IPX uses 80 bit (10 octet) addressing scheme instead of
the 32 bit addressing scheme used by IP. The first 32 bits, or 4 octets, represent the network
address, and the next 48 bits, or 6 octets, represent the host address. Moreover, IPX addresses are
denoted in hexadecimal form and not in the decimal form of IP. Therefore, the addressing
scheme used in IPX is referred to as a dotted hexadecimal notation. Figure below shows the
network address and host address components of a typical IPX address.

Figure: Components of IPX Address

An IPX network address can contain up to eight hexadecimal digits. The zeroes at the
beginning of the address, however, are not included. For example, if 0084973A the address of a

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network, it is represented only as 84973A. IPX reserves the following three addresses for use by
the protocol:
 OxO: Represents the local network. When an IPX router receives a data packet having a
destination network address of 0, the router interprets that the source and destination
hosts are part of the same network.
 OxFFFFFFF: Used by IPX routers to communicate route information between them.
When a router receives a data packet with the destination network address as
OxFFFFFFF, it forwards information on all available routes to the source router.
 OxFFFFFFE: Represents the default route on a network. Whenever a host on a network
does not know the destination address for a data packet, this address is selected as the
destination address. This address is generally assigned to the network router, which then
forwards the data packets to their destinations.
An organization that wishes to use IPX addresses in its network and connect to other
networks needs to obtain a registered block of addresses from Novell. However, if the network
does not communicate with external networks, then the administrator can assign IPX addresses
for the host. IPX addressing is used in networks that run Novell NetWare, and are limited in their
application. IP is far more popular than IPX, and is commonly used in networks. In fact, Novell
has identified IP as the default protocol for its latest and future versions of Novell Netware.
IPX can be transmitted over Ethernet using one of the following 4 frame formats or
encapsulation types:
 802.3 (raw) encapsulation comprises an IEEE 802.3 frame header (destination MAC,
source MAC, length) immediately followed by IPX data. It is used in legacy systems, and
can be distinguished by the first two bytes of the IPX header always containing a value of
0xFFFF, which cannot be interpreted as valid LLC Destination and Source Service Access
Points in this location of the frame.
 802.2 (LLC or Novell) comprises an IEEE 802.3 frame header (destination MAC, source
MAC, length) followed by an LLC header (DSAP 0xE0, SSAP 0xE0, control 0x03)
followed by IPX data. The 0xE0 fields of the LLC header indicate "NetWare".
 802.2 (SNAP) comprises an IEEE 802.3 frame header, an LLC header (DSAP 0xAA,
SSAP 0xAA, control 0x03), a SNAP header (OUI 0x000000, type 0x8137), and IPX data.
The 0xAA fields of the LLC header indicate "SNAP", and the OUI 0x000000 in the
SNAP header indicates an encapsulated EtherType.
 Ethernet II encapsulation comprises an Ethernet II frame header (destination MAC, source
MAC, EtherType 0x8137) followed by IPX data.

NETBEUI ADDRESSING
Unlike IP and IPX, NETBEUI uses the names of the computers to identify them within
the network. NETBEUI supports names of up to 16 bytes (128 bits) long. NETBEUI does not
use any mechanism to identify the network itself, but only identifies the hosts within a network.

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NETBEUI is a popular choice for LANs for the following reasons:

 NETBEUI uses lesser computer memory than IP and IPX.
 NETBEUI employs several error-detection and prevention mechanisms. Therefore, the
probability of transmission errors in NETBEUI LANs is very low.
 NETBEUI offers faster communication within LANs than IP and IPX.

Working of NETBEUI protocol

NetBEUI assigns a name to each application to be used within it. It then displays the
name or IP address of each computer connected over a network as well as the name of each
application on those computers to all who are connected over the same network and using
NetBEUI. A user can then select the person and application that he/she wishes to communicate
with and share information with them in the form of data transmissions. While NetBEUI users
are not able to communicate through words, they can share important application data that
multiple programs can use.

NetBEUI Frame is an enhanced implementation of the NetBEUI protocol that is available

on Microsoft Windows NT operating systems. Some of the enhancements and special features of
NetBEUI Frame (NBF) include the following:
 Support for network driver interface specification (NDIS) version 3 for full 32-bit
asynchronous transport layer communication using the transport driver interface (TDI)
layer as a NetBIOS emulator
 Support for automatic memory tuning through dynamic memory allocation
 Support for dial-up clients through the Remote Access Service (RAS)
 An extension of NetBEUI’s limit of 256 concurrent NetBIOS sessions to more than 1000
sessions

Advantages:
 Netbeui has several important advantages over NetBIOS.
 NetBEUI is faster than NetBIOS and uses less system resources.
 NetBEUI is also easy to configure, has a relatively user friendly graphical interface, and
corrects errors that NetBIOS cannot detect.
 NetBEUI is highly efficient and includes a transport layer that NetBIOS does not have.
 NetBEUI is also specifically designed for use with LANs and generally performs very
well.
Disadvantages
 While NetBEUI is fast and performs well on LANs, it performs poorly when used across
WANs (Wireless Area Networks).
 NetBEUI is also strictly limited to the same network and cannot be routed to external
networks, even with the use of TCP/IP or other networking protocol.

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 NetBEUI requires each computer that is accessing it to have a unique name and does not
allow users to stream across multiple user accounts.
The main disadvantage of NETBEUI is that it cannot communicate between networks.
For example, suppose two networks, Network A and Network B, use NETBEUI for
communication. NETBEUI does not provide for storing the network name, and therefore, it is
not possible for a computer in Network B to address a computer in Network A. As a result,
NETBEUI cannot be used in a WAN, which is an interconnection of LANs. This limitation can
be overcome by installing a routable protocol, such as IP or IPX over NETBEUI. In this case,
NETBEUI would be used for communication within the network, while IP or IPX would be used
for communication between networks.

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QUESTION BANK
(Questions for Application)

1. In TCP/IP 32 bits are divided into how many octets?

a. 2
b. 3
c. 4
d. 5

2. 4 octets are represented in decimal form are separated by which operator?

a. .
b. :
c. ;
d. ,

3. How is VLSM similar to?

a. Variable length Subnet mask
b. Variable length Subnet message
c. Varying length Subnet mask
d. Varying length Subnet message

4. How is CIDR similar to?

a. Classless Inter Domain Routing
b. Classless Internal Domain Routing
c. Class full Inter Domain Routing’
d. Class full Internal Domain Routing

5. How is IPSec similar to?

a. Internet Protocol Security
b. Internal Protocol Security
c. Internet Protocol Section
d. Internal Protocol Section

6. Can you illustrate the values of 1 lies between?

a. 0 to 255

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b. 0 to 225
c. 0 to 555
d. 0 to 525

7. What is the range of the first octet of class B address?

a. 128 to 191
b. 0 to 128
c. 0 to 225
d. 0 to 255

8. What is the number of network possible in Class C addressing system?

a. 2097152
b. 16384
c. 640
d. 128

9. How many bits are used in IPX addressing scheme?

a. 80
b. 32
c. 64
d. 70

10. What are the various classes of IP addressing in classful addressing scheme?
a. X, Y, Z, A and B
b. A, B, C, D, and E
c. M, N, G, O and P
d. A, B, C, M and N

11. What do you think by broadcasting?

a. Sending the packet to every workstation of all the neighboring networks.
b. Sending the copy of the message packet to all the workstations of a given
network.
c. Sending a msg packet to an individual workstation.
d. Sending the copy to a specific host.

12. 10.35.4.186 belongs to which class?

a. Class A
b. Class B
c. Class C
d. Class D

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13. Which are the octets of Class C denote host address?

a. 1st octet
b. 2nd octet
c. 3rd octet
d. 4th octet

14. Which class address do not provide addressing networks?

a. Class A
b. Class B
c. Class C
d. Class D

15. Which class address are reserved for experimental purposes?

a. Class A
b. Class B
c. Class D
d. Class E

16. 255.0.0.0 is default subset mask of which IP address class?

a. Class A
b. Class B
c. Class C
d. Class D

17. 255.255.0.0 is default subset mask of which IP address class?

a. Class A
b. Class B
c. Class C
d. Class D

18. 255.255.255.0 is default subset mask of which IP address class?

a. Class A
b. Class B
c. Class C
d. Class D

19. 192.168.30.0 Subnet address in dotted decimal format belongs to which subnet?
a. 0
b. 1
c. 2
d. 3
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20. 192.168.30.64 Subnet address in dotted decimal format belongs to which subnet?
a. 0
b. 1
c. 2
d. 3

21. 192.168.30.128 Subnet address in dotted decimal format belongs to which subnet?
a. 0
b. 1
c. 2
d. 3

22. 192.168.30.192 Subnet address in dotted decimal format belongs to which subnet?
a. 0
b. 1
c. 2
d. 3

23. What do you think by Unicasting?

a. Reply from the specific workstation to specific destination in the network.
b. Reply from all to a specific destination
c. Reply from a specific to all.
d. Reply from all to all.

24. Can you give the representation of default route on network?

a. 0x0
b. 0xFFFFFFF
c. 0xFFFFFFE
d. None of the above

25. 130.59.5.34 belongs to which class addressing?

a. A
b. B
c. C
d. D

(Questions for Understanding)

1. Can you explain components of IP address with example

2. How would you explain the creation of subnet in network

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3. How would you explain the communication across subnets are done
4. Can you give the limitation of IP address class
5. Can you illustrate the IPv6?
6. Can you illustrate the CIDR?
7. Can you illustrate the VLSM
8. Can you explain the limitation of subnetting with example

(Questions for Application)

1. List and Analyze the features of IP address class

2. Analyze IPX/SPX Addressing with explanation
3. Analyze NETBEUI Addressing with explanation
4. Can you differentiate IPv6 and IPv4
5. What are some of the factors to be considered before dividing network to subnet?
Explain.
6. Describe the Sub netting Considerations

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UNIT-IV
CHAPTER-6
INTRODUCTION TO WAN

OVERVIEW OF WAN
A Wide Area Network (WAN) is defined as a network that connects computers
spread across a large geographical area. WAN s may spread across a country, a continent, or
the Earth. In practice, WANs are essentially an interconnection of LANs and, therefore, WANs
extend the benefits offered by LANs across large areas. Consider the previous example of
an organization with offices in London, Chicago, and Shanghai. If a LAN is set up in London,
only the computers in the London office can share the data and resources. However, by
setting up LANs in all the three locations, and interconnecting these LAN s, the data and
resources can be shared among all the three locations. This ability to share data over
vast geographical areas is the most important benefit of WAN as illustrated by the
Internet. Internet is a WAN that is spread across the Earth.
Although WANs serve a purpose similar to that of local area networks (LANs), WANs
are structured and operated quite differently. The user of a WAN usually does not own the
communications lines that connect the remote computer systems; instead, the user subscribes to
a service through a telecommunications provider. Unlike LANs, WANs typically do not link
individual computers, but rather are used to link LANs. WANs also transmit data at slower
speeds than LANs. WANs are also structurally similar to metropolitan area networks (MANs),
but provide communications links for distances greater than 50 kilometres.
WANs have existed for decades, but new technologies, services, and applications have
developed over the years to dramatically increase their efficacy for business. WANs were
originally developed for digital leased-line services carrying only voice, rather than data. As
such, they connected the private branch exchanges (PBXs) of remote offices of the same
company. WANs are still used for voice services, but today they are used more frequently for
data and image transmission (such as video conferencing). These added applications have
spurred significant growth in WAN usage, primarily because of the surge in LAN connections
to the wider networks.
Because of the huge difference in the geographical areas covered by LAN s and
WAN s, the characteristics and implementations of LAN and WAN differ greatly. The
following are some of the important differences between LAN and WAN technologies:
 Ownership: LANs are generally owned, and maintained by a single person or small
organizations. However, WANs are owned, and maintained by a large number of
individuals, or large organizations. The sheer size of WAN makes it impossible
for a single person or a small organization to maintain it.

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 Connectivity: The devices in a LAN are connected using coaxial cables, twisted
pair cables, or optical fiber cables. However, to connect devices, and computers in
WAN, connectivity options such as POTS, leased lines, ISDN, VSAT, Microwave, and
Infrared, are used. Although the connectivity options used in WAN may, in turn,
include coaxial, twisted pair, or optical fiber cables, the technology used to
establish the connection is different.
 Hardware: In addition to cables, the hardware devices used to establish connection
in WAN are different from those used in LAN. For example, computers in a LAN are
connected by devices such as hubs, switches, and repeaters whereas devices such as
routers, bridges, and gateways are used to establish connectivity in a WAN.
 Protocols: Computers in a LAN communicate among themselves using protocols
such as Ethernet, Token king, or FDDI. Computers in a WAN use protocols such as
Frame Relay, ATM, or X.25, for communication.
 Speed: The speed of data transfer is high in case of LANs. For example, Ethernet can
transfer data at the rate of 10 Mbps. However, devices in a WAN communicate at
relatively lower speeds, such as 1.544 Mbps in case of leased lines because of
the distance involved and technologies used between the locations.

WAN CONNECTIVITY OPTIONS

In LANs, the connectivity is owned by the organization that sets up the LAN. For
example, the cables used to connect computers in a LAN are purchased by the organization.
In case of WAN, however, the cost of the connectivity is high. Imagine, for example, an
organization having LANs in London, and Chicago. The cost required to purchase the
appropriate type of cables to connect these LANs would be expensive. Therefore, connectivity
in WANs is not owned by the organization but obtained from service providers for a fee,
known as access charges.
The access charges typically depend on the following factors:
 Bandwidth required (or the data transfer rate)
 Type of connectivity (for example, leased lines, switched circuits, or ISDN)
 Distance between the locations to be connected (for example, a leased line
connection between London, and Chicago would cost more than one between
London and Paris)
 WAN protocols
 Additional services offered by the service provider, such as security, mentioned in the
Service Level Agreements (SLA) In addition to being expensive, the connectivity
options in WAN are different from those used in LAN because WANs spread across a
vast geographical area. In the previous example, to connect LAN s in London and
Chicago, it is not possible to establish a connection using coaxial or twisted pair
cables because of the distance between the two LANs.

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Differences between LAN and WAN

LAN WAN
WANs uses technologies like Frame Relay
Tend to use specific connectivity and X.25 for connectivity for the longer
technologies, like Ethernet and token. distances

LAN is a computer network that covers a WAN is a computer network that covers a
small geographic area, like a home, office, broad area. For example, any network
or group of buildings. whose communications links cross-regional
and metropolitan boundaries over a long
distance.
There is a need to set up a couple of extra In WAN networks as remote areas have to
devices on the network, so it is not very be connected, hence the set-up costs are
expensive. higher.

LAN has a higher data transfer rate. WAN has a lower data transfer rate as
compares to LAN.
Ownership of LAN is private. WAN's ownership can be private or public.
The speed of LAN is high. The speed of WAN is slower than LAN.
The propagation delay time is short in LAN. The propagation delay in WAN is
long(longer than LAN).
It offers more fault tolerance. It offers less fault tolerance in WAN.
Its design and maintenance is easy. Its design and maintenance is difficult.

The following are some of the popular connectivity options used to set up a WAN:
 POTS
 Leased lines
 ISDN
 VSAT
 Microwave
 Radio
 Infrared

POTS
A Plain Old Telephone System or Plain Ordinary Telephone System (POTS) is
an analog technology that provides data transfer rates up to 33.6 Kbps. In POTS, the
connection among different LANs is established with the help of telephone lines. This

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connection between LANs is called a circuit. The circuit is made available for the LANs for
communication and terminated when the communication ends. This process of making the
circuit available only when the LANs communicate is called circuit switching.
Circuit switching works exactly in the same manner as the telephone system for voice
communication. For example, when two LAN s communicate, a circuit is established between
them. The circuit is dedicated as long as the communication is in progress. After the
communication ends, the circuit is made available for other LAN s to communicate.
In POTS, the connection between the two LANs can either be established
directly, or over the Internet with the help of an ISP. To connect the LAN s directly,
however, Remote Access Service (RAS) should be installed on the servers of one of
the LANs. For example, if two LANs need to connect directly using POTS, the
server on one of the LAN, say LAN A, dials the telephone connected to the server on
the other LAN, say LAN B. The server on LAN B should have RAS installed to
accept the incoming call from the server on LAN A. Figure represents a direct connection
between two LANs with the help of POTS.

Figure: LANs Connected Directly with POTS

Consider the LAN s represented in Figure Assume that LAN A needs to send data to
LAN B. The server on LAN A dials the server on LAN B, which accepts the call, and a
connection is established between the two networks. Now, the data originating from the
server on LAN A passes through the modem where it is converted into an analog
form for transmission over the telephone line. The data in the analog form reaches the
modem on LAN B, which then converts the data back to digital from and passes it on
to the server.
POTS are an inexpensive method of establishing connection between LANs. As the
circuit between the LAN s is shared, the access charges are calculated on the basis of the
actual time for which the circuit was utilized. However, the bandwidth provided by POTS
is limited to 33.6 Kbps, which is the maximum possible data transfer rate on a telephone
line. Therefore, POTS cannot be used if the data to be transmitted between the LAN s is
high. For example, if two networks need to set up video conferencing, POTS cannot be used
because the data transmitted by the video conferencing application is high.

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To overcome the disadvantages of POTS, witched 56, which is a digital technology

implemented of POTS, was introduced. Switched 56 operate in the same manner as POTS
but for the fact that the communication between the telephone exchanges takes place in
the digital form.
Therefore a Switched56connection is possible only if the telephone exchanges
corresponding to the networks to be connected are digital. Figure represents two LANs
connected using Switched 56.

Figure: LAN Connected with switched 56

In Switched 56, the data is converted to analog at the customers' location and back
to digital at the telephone exchange. The data then travels in the digital form between the two
exchanges.
At the recipient exchange, the data is converted back to analog and transmitted to the
modem on the destination network. The modem converts the analog data back into the digital
form and transmits it across the network.
Switched 56 uses digital transmission between the telephone exchanges, and therefore,
provides a more reliable means of data transfer compared to POTS. In addition, the Switched
56 allows the use of terminal equipments to combine multiple telephone lines and, therefore,
provides higher bandwidth compared to POTS. For example, if an organization has three
telephones, the terminal equipment can be used to combine these three lines to create a
single logical line with a bandwidth of 168 Kbps. However, the connectivity charges will also
increase three times.
Switched 56 is an ideal option for small businesses as it provides a cost-effective
solution. The cost of the terminal equipment required to set up a Switched 56 connection is
lower than other connectivity options such as leased lines, or ISDN. The access charges
for Switched 56 are also lower compared to those of leased lines, or ISDN.
The main disadvantage of Switched 56 is the maximum data transfer rate limit of 56
Kbps per line. While two or three lines are generally sufficient for small businesses, it may not
be sufficient to transmit data pertaining to high-speed applications such as video-
conferencing, or CAD/ CAM applications, which require bandwidths in the range of 1-2
Mbps. In addition, the access charges would be higher than that of leased lines or

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VSAT, if the connection is used on a regular basis for data transfers.

LEASED LINES
Leased lines are also known as dedicated lines or private lines. Leased lines are
dedicated point- to-point circuits provided by a telecommunications carrier for a fee. Unlike
POTS and Switched 56, that remains active only when the communication is in progress,
leased lines are always available, and are dedicated to the organization that has leased them.
Figure represents two networks connected with the help of leased lines.

Figure: Networks Connected by Leased Lines

In Figure when LAN A needs to transfer data to LAN B, LAN A can Immediately
begin the data transfer, and need not wait for the circuit to be available. The data passes
through the leased lines, and reaches LAN B.
T-1 lines are the most commonly used type of leased lines in the United States. T-1 lines offer a
data transfer rate of 1.544 Mbps. A T -1 line consists of 24 channels, and each channel supports
a data transfer rate of 64 Kbps. It is possible to divide the T-l line into individual 64 Kbps
channels, or channels that are multiples of 64 Kbps, with a process called multiplexing.
 T -1 line is a digital technology, and therefore, provides better error performance and
network capabilities when compared to analog technologies, such as POTS.
 T-1 lines are medium independent and can work with Un shielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
cables, Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cables, coaxial cables, optical fiber cables,
microwave, and infrared media.
 T-1 lines support the symmetric full duplex method of transmission. Symmetric full
duplex means that data transfer can simultaneously occur in both directions at the same
rate.

A variant of T -1 line, called fractional T -1, is also a popular connectivity option.

When a T= 1 line is leased, an organization needs to pay for the entire 1.544 Mbps
bandwidth irrespective of how much traffic is actually transmitted across the line.
Fractional T -1 allows organizations to lease only the required number of channels (out of the
24 channels). For example, an organization may lease 10 channels to obtain a combined
bandwidth of 640 Kbps. Fractional T -1 is usually preferred by organizations when leasing an

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entire T -1 line is unaffordable, or when the bandwidth offered by the entire T -1 line is not
required.
In addition to the T -1 lines, a newer line, T -3, that offers data transfer rates of
44.736 Mbps, is also available. T -3 lines are preferred by organizations that require
extremely high data transfer rates for applications such as video conferencing, data transmitted
on a carrier network, or ERP access. However, T-3 lines run only on optical fiber, and
microwave media because coaxial cables, and twisted pair cables do not support high
signaling rate over long distances.
Leased lines offer faster data transfer rates, and are cost-effective when the data
transmitted over the networks is high, and on a continuous basis. The cost of a leased line
typically depends on the distance between the two end points, the speed of the circuit,
and the Quality of Service Leased lines are generally used by organizations that have their
business offices spread across significant geographical regions, and require high-speed
connections.
The main disadvantage with leased line is that the access charges for a line are constant,
irrespective of the actual bandwidth used. For example, the cost of a T -1 line over a distance
of five miles remains the same even if the organization uses only a bandwidth of 1 Mbps
for data transfer. To overcome this drawback of leased lines, ISDN was introduced, in
which the organization or the subscriber has to pay depending on the amount of
bandwidth used.

Advantages of using a leased line

 Reliable service: One of the key benefits of using a leased line is the fact that it is
dedicated rather than shared. This results in reliable and secure connectivity which does
not fluctuate or lull in busy usage periods.
 Connection support: Unlike leased lines, most broadband solutions do not offer SLA
(service level agreements). At Structured Communications, all fibre leased lines are
fully managed by experienced engineers within the premium SLA and guaranteed fix
time. This means that any connectivity issues will be a priority and resolved promptly.
 Higher symmetric speeds: Leased lines frequently provide quicker upload and
download speeds compared to alternative connection methods, as they are symmetric
and dedicated. This works in your favour when staff are consistently telephoning,
backing up data, sending larger files or uploading web pages regularly. Often with
leased lines, there is unlimited usage on both downloads and uploads whilst speeds are
steadier.
 Business flexibility: In a world which is rapidly increasing its data consumption, a
leased line is scalable, adaptable and easier to manage. You can grow your data usage
in correlation with your business requirements.

Disadvantages of using a leased line

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 Additional expense:
Although pricing has decreased over time, the cost of installation, combined with the
ongoing monthly rental fees of a leased line, remain significantly higher than that of
other connection alternatives, such as ADSL or FTTC. It can be an expensive form of
data connectivity.
 Longer set-up:
When installing a leased line, it can be a lengthier process. Firstly, the waiting time for
a quote can be prolonged as a communications company should want to assess what
best suits your specific requirements. The physical installation process can be complex
as it involves creating a new circuit and therefore some possible building work in
different locations. Installing an ADSL or FTTC broadband typically takes up to three
weeks as there is already an existing network in the area whereas a leased line can take
around three months to put in place.

INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK (ISDN)

ISDN is a set of standards specified by International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
for digital transmission over ordinary telephone copper wire as well as other media. Like
Switched 56, ISDN also uses terminal equipments to provide digital connectivity between
LANs. The features of ISDN are detailed in the following sub topic.
Features of ISDN
An ISDN line consists of two types of channels: Bearer channel (B channel), and Data
channel (D channel). The B channel transmits user information whereas the D channel
contains the setup and signaling information. Depending on the number of Band D channels
present in an ISDN line, two user interfaces are defined:
 Basic Rate Interface (BRI)
 Primary Rate Interface (PRI)

Basic Rate Interface (BRI)

The BRI consists of two B channels and one D channel, and therefore, the BRI is also
represented as 2B+D. The B channels transmit data at a rate of 64 Kbps, while the D
channel transmits the setup and signaling information at a rate of 16 Kbps. The two 64
Kbps B channels can be combined to form a single logical connection and offer a
cumulative rate of 128 Kbps. In addition, the D channel can also be used to transmit
user data along with the setup and signaling information resulting in an overall data
transfer rate of 144 Kbps. However, the D channel is reserved for setup and signaling
information in most circumstances, and does not transmit user data.

Primary Rate Interface (PRI)

The PRI offers a data transfer rate of 1.544 Mbps in the United States, and
2.048 Mbps in Europe. In the United States, the PRI consists of 23 B channels and one D

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channel whereas in Europe, the PRI consists of 30 B channels and one D channel. The B
channels transmit data at a rate of 64 Kbps while the D channel also transmits setup
and signaling information at 64 Kbps. The PRI is also represented as 23B+D or 30B+D,
as the case may be. The PRI is preferred by organizations that periodically need to transmit
large amounts of data across their networks. For example, imagine an organization has offices
in New York and Hollywood, and important updates should be transferred between
the New York and Hollywood offices every hour. In this case, an ISDN
connection is preferred over a leased line because the access charges for ISDN are
based on the actual time for which the connection is utilized. You have learned
about the features of ISDN, and the different interfaces offered by ISDN.

Working of ISDN

Figure: Computers Connected Using ISDN

In Figure Network Terminator (NT1) is a device provided by the ISDN service provider
that divides the incoming BRl144 Kbps data stream into two B and one D channels. The Band
D channels are transmitted to the Terminal Adapter (TA). The TA distributes these
signals among the Terminal Equipment (TE) connected to it. The TEs include devices such as
computers in a network, fax machines, and telephones. TEs are divided into two types
depending on their compatibility with ISDN: TEl and TE2.
TEl devices are compatible with an ISDN network whereas TE2 indicates that the
devices are not compatible with an ISDN network. TEl devices can directly connect to NT
while a TA is required to connect a TE2 device to NTI. However, most TEs are TE2 devices,
and therefore, a TA is considered part of the standard ISDN setup.
ISDN was developed as a cost-effective alternative to leased lines. ISDN also provides
the same data transfer rates of leased lines but at a lower cost because the access charges
of ISDN are determined by the actual time for which the connection was used. Therefore,
ISDN is commonly used by home users as well as small and medium businesses that require
high data transfer rates but not on a regular basis.
The only disadvantage with ISDN is the cost required to install the terminal
equipments, such as network terminators and terminal adapters. However, this cost is usually
offset by the savings made on the access charges of the ISDN connection as compared to
leased lines, and therefore, ISDN is a popular WAN connectivity option.
ISDN Advantages

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 The basic advantage of ISDN is to facilitate the user with multiple digital channels.
These channels can operate concurrently through the same one copper wire pair.
 The digital signals broadcasting transversely the telephone lines.
 ISDN provides high data rate because of digital scheme which is 56kbps.
 ISDN network lines are able to switch manifold devices on the single line such as
faxes, computers, cash registers credit cards readers, and many other devices. These all
devices can work together and directly be connected to a single line.
 ISDN takes only 2 seconds to launch a connection while other modems take 30 to 60
second for establishment.

 
ISDN Disadvantages
 The disadvantage of ISDN lines is that it is very costly than the other typical telephone
system.
 ISDN requires specialized digital devices just like Telephone Company.

VERY SMALL APERTURE TERMINAL (VSAT)

VSAT is a technology used to connect computers, or networks that are located in
geographically remote locations where terrestrial connectivity options are not available or not
reliable. In VSAT, the computers or networks that are connected communicate with the help of
a satellite. To send and receive data from the satellite, the computers or networks should have a
VSAT device installed. The functions of a VSAT device are explained in the following sub
topics.
VSAT Devices
A VSAT device consists of two units, an outdoor unit and an indoor unit. The outdoor
unit, also known as an earth station, or a dish antenna, is a metal disk typically one meter in
diameter. The outdoor unit has a receiver and a transmitter to receive and send satellite signals.
The indoor unit is a box containing the receiver and transmitter boards. One end of the
indoor unit is connected to the computers and other devices in the network. The other end of
the indoor unit is connected to the outdoor unit. Figure represents a VSAT earth station.

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Figure: VSAT Device

VSAT devices are categorized into two types depending on their operational
capabilities, receive- only devices and bi-directional devices. Receive-only VSAT devices
can only receive data from the network but cannot send any data whereas bi-directional
devices can receive as well as send data to the network.

VSAT Networks
A typical VSAT network consists of three components, a central hub that is connected
to the master earth station, the satellite that transmits data across different earth stations, and
the VSAT earth stations located in different geographical area (also known as remote VSATs).
The central hub is located at the VSAT service provider’s premises, and all
communication between the VSAT earth stations passes through this central hub. The central
hub has a very large dish antenna, usually 15 to 36 feet in diameter.
Whenever one remote VSAT station wants to transmit data to another, the source
VSAT station transmits the data to the transponder on the satellite. The transponder receives
the signal, amplifies the signal, and beams the signal to the central hub. The central hub
checks the destination address of the data to ensure that the destination is valid. If the
destination address is valid, the central hub transmits the data back to the satellite. The satellite
then beams the data to the destination VSAT station.

Figure: Components of VSAT Network

In Figure you can observe that the communication between different networks occurs
with the help of a satellite. This communication between the satellite and VSAT earth stations

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occur at different frequency bands. The commonly used frequency bands for VSAT
communication are:
 C-band
 Extended C-band (also known as XC band)
 Ku-band

The frequencies offered by the C band and XC band are very close to the frequencies
used by terrestrial radio waves, and therefore, their bandwidth is limited. However, Ku-band
offers a large bandwidth, and is the preferred frequency band for VSAT communications.
You have learned about the components of a VSAT network and the frequencies used for
communication in a VSAT network .The following sub topics introduce you to the network
architecture and access technologies used in VSAT networks.

VSAT Network Architectures

The following architectures are popularly used to set up VSAT networks:
 Single Channel per Carrier (SCPC):
In SCPC, the VSAT service provider offers a single permanent channel between the
locations required by the user. SCPC has the flexibility of adding additional channels
between the user locations. However, each additional channel needs to have a separate
VSAT device, and therefore, increasing the number of channels increases the
equipment cost. SCPC is preferred when the user exactly knows the amount of data to
be transmitted over the VSAT network.
 Multi Channels per Carrier(MCPC):
In MCPC, the VSAT service provider offers multiple permanent channels
between the user locations, resulting in higher data transfer rates between the
locations. However, the user is charged for all the channels, irrespective of how
much data is actually transferred. MCPC is used when transmitting data pertaining to
applications that require higher bandwidth.
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA):
In TDMA, the VSAT link between the user locations is offered on a sharing
basis. TDMA works in a similar manner as switched circuits. The VSAT link is
made available when the VSAT devices need to communicate, and the link is
terminated at the end of the communication.
These VSAT network architectures are implemented with the help of VSAT access
technologies.

VSAT Access Technologies

The commonly used VSAT access technologies are:
 Pre-assigned Multiple Accesses (PAMA):
In PAMA, a permanent VSAT connection exists between the source and destination

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VSAT stations. PAMA works in a similar manner as that of leased lines, and
therefore, the user needs to pay for the entire link irrespective of the actual duration
for which it was used.
 Demand Assigned Multiple Access (DAMA):
In DAMA, the service provider offers bandwidth on receiving requests from
different VSAT stations. he connection is made available as long as the
communication is in progress, and terminated at the end of the communication. The
access charges are based on the actual time for which the VSAT link was used.
DAMA technology is preferred over PAMA because DAMA reduces communication
costs and is flexible. For example, a user need not know beforehand the duration for which a
VSAT link would be used. In addition, DAMA makes optimum use of the satellite resources,
and is therefore beneficial to the service providers too.
VSAT is the most reliable of all the wireless connectivity options. VSAT also offers
high uptime rates, typically 99 percent as compared to the uptime rates of approximately 85
percent offered by leased lines, or ISDN. In addition, VSAT offers nearly the same
bandwidth as the leased lines. The combination of reliability and high bandwidth makes VSAT
the most popular wireless connectivity option used in WANs. However, the cost of a VSAT
device as well as the charges for obtaining VSAT connectivity is high.
MICROWAVE
Microwave is a wireless technology that can be used to transmit digital information
between two computers that can be around 15kilometers apart. It is possible to use repeaters, or
amplifiers, to boost the signal strength so that computers as far as 40 kilometers, or
more, apart can communicate. In order to communicate using microwave, each computer or
network needs to have a microwave device installed. A typical microwave device consists of
the following:
 Digital modem:
The digital modem receives the microwave signals, converts them into
digital signals, and passes it on to the computer, and vice versa.
 Radio Frequency (RF) unit :
The RF unit converts the signal from the modem into a microwave signal, and
transmits the signal across the microwave network, and vice versa.
 Antenna:
The antenna transmits and receives the microwave signals. The antennas of the
terminals must maintain a line of sight for the microwave communication to work.

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Figure: Networks connected With Microwave

In Figure when Network A needs to transmit data to Network B, the data reaches
the digital modem, which converts the data into digital signals. These signals reach the
RF unit where the signals are converted to microwaves and are transmitted with the help
of the antenna from Network A. The antenna on Network B receives the microwaves and
passes them on to the RF unit where the microwaves are converted to digital signals. The
digital signals are then passed through the digital modem on to Network B.
Microwave offers several advantages over terrestrial connectivity options as well as
VSAT. As there are no cables involved, the time required to set up a microwave network is
very low. In addition, the connectivity between microwave devices can be established without
a service provider, and therefore, there are no access charges. Microwave also supports higher
bandwidth, and data transfer speeds compared to VSAT, and leased lines while providing a
reliable means of data transfer.
The main disadvantage with microwave is that the antennas should maintain a line of
sight. Therefore, microwave networks are effective only if the networks are spread over a
smaller geographical area. Therefore, microwave network finds limited use in setting up
WANs.

RADIO
In this method, radio waves are used to wirelessly connect LANs, or computers. Radio
waves are also used only when terrestrial connectivity options are not available. The
computers, or networks, that need to communicate using radio waves should have an antenna.
The antenna converts outgoing data packets into radio waves and transmits them. The
antenna also converts the incoming radio waves into data packets and passes them on to the
network.

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Figure: Networks Connected with radio waves

In Figure assume that Network A sends data to Network B. The data from Network A
reaches the antenna where it is converted to radio waves and transmits them. These waves are
received by the antenna on Network B, which converts the waves into data and passes them on
to the computers in the network.
Advantages of Radio Transmission
 Advantages of radio transmission include the long-term experiences made with radio
transmission for wide area networks (e.g. microwave links) and mobile cellular phones.
 Radio transmission can cover larger areas and can penetrate (thinner) walls, plants,
furniture etc.
 Additional coverage is gained by reflection.
 Radio typically does not need a LOS (Line of Site) if the frequencies are not too high.
 Higher transmission rates (e.g. 54 Mbps) than infrared (directed laser links, which offer
data rates well above 100 Mbps).

Disadvantages of Radio Transmission

 Radio transmission can be interfered with other senders, or electrical devices can
destroy data transmitted via radio.
 Bluetooth is simple than infrared.
 Radio is only permitted in certain frequency bands.
 Shielding is not so simple.
 Very limited ranges of license free bands are available worldwide and those that are
available are not the same in all countries.
 A lot harmonization is going on due to market pressure.

INFRARED
Infrared technology allows devices with infrared ports to communicate with each other,
and share data. Infrared transports data through light, which is invisible to a human eye. The
infrared light is usually in the frequency range of 1000 GHz. The networks that wish to

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communicate using infrared need to satisfy the following criteria:

 The networks should have devices with infrared ports.
 The devices should maintain a direct line of sight.
 The distance between the devices should not be more than three yards.

Figure: Networks Connected with Infrared

In practice, however, the networks and the devices are usually farther than three yards,
and also may not maintain a direct line of sight. To overcome these drawbacks, infrared
mirrors are used. An infrared mirror focuses the infrared signal into a tight beam, boosts the
signal, and then transmits it. With the help of an infrared mirror, devices as far apart as four
kilometers can communicate.
In cases where the infrared devices or mirrors cannot maintain a direct line of sight, the
infrared mirror diffuses the signal rather than sending the signal as a straight line. Using this
technique, a network can now communicate with multiple networks simultaneously. However,
diffusing the infrared signal decreases the signal strength considerably, and therefore, the
networks need to be closer.
You have learned the different wireless connectivity options that can be used to set up a
WAN. However, both terrestrial and wireless options have several advantages and
disadvantages.
The following factors should be considered when selecting a WAN connectivity option:
 Bandwidth required for data transmission
 Cost of the connectivity option (includes the cost of the equipment, and the access
charges)
 Reliability of the connection
 Purpose of the WAN (type of data to be transmitted)
 Availability and reliability of the connectivity options

Advantages of infrared

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 The main advantage of infrared technology is its simple and extremely cheap senders
and receivers which are integrated into nearly all mobile devices available today.
 No licenses are required for infrared and shielding is very simple.
 PDAs, laptops, notebooks, mobile phones etc. have an infrared data association (IrDA)
interface.
 Electrical devices cannot interfere with infrared transmission.

Disadvantages of Infrared
 Disadvantages of infrared transmission are its low bandwidth compared to other LAN
technologies.
 Limited transfer rates to 115 Kbit/s and we know that even 4 Mbit/s is not a particular
high data rate.
 Their main disadvantage is that infrared is quite easily shielded.
 Infrared transmission cannot penetrate walls or other obstacles.
 Typically, for good transmission quality and high data rates a LOS (Line of site), i.e.
direct connection is needed.

VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORKS (VPNS)

In the previous sections, you have learned about the different connectivity options that
are used to set up WANs. Depending on the requirements of a WAN, an appropriate
connectivity option is chosen to interconnect the LANs. However, the connectivity options
discussed in the previous section would be expensive if the networks to be connected are
spread across vast geographical areas. For example, consider an organization having offices in
New York, Hollywood, and Tokyo. The networks in New York and Hollywood may be
connected using ISDN or leased lines, but to connect the Tokyo network with the help of
ISDN or leased lines is expensive. In addition, connectivity options such as VSAT would also
be very expensive. In such cases, VPN provides a cost-effective and reliable method of
connecting networks located at different locations.
VPN is a method of establishing connection to a private network through a public
network. In the preceding example, you can connect the network at the Tokyo office to the
New York or Hollywood office with the help of VPN. The public network used to establish the
connection in VPN, can either be the Internet, or a shared public network offered by service
providers, such 'as AT&T. The data transmitted over a public network should be secure so that
unauthorized sources cannot read the data. VPNs use the existing connectivity options in a
WAN to provide a cost- effective, flexible, and reliable method of accessing private networks.
In practice, VPN extends the benefits offered by WANs without compromising on security of
the data.
In addition to the benefits illustrated by the preceding example, VPN is also
advantageous in cases where a single computer needs to connect to a WAN. Assume that the

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Sales Manager of the organizing in the preceding example has traveled to Chicago on a one-
week business visit. The Sales Manager needs to access the corporate network for important
information updates. It is practically impossible to use connectivity options such as leased
lines, ISDN, VSAT, or Microwave for this purpose. In this example, one method of connecting
to the WAN is using RAS.
In order to use RAS, one of the computers in the WAN should be configured as a RAS
server. The Sales Manager can then dial into the RAS server and connect to the corporate
network. In this case, however, the cost to dial the RAS server in New York or Hollywood
would be very high, and therefore, RAS is not a cost-effective option. In this case, VPN can be
used by the Sales Manager to connect to the corporate network. In fact, VPN is a popular
option used by mobile users to connect to their corporate networks.

Figure: Virtual Private Network

In above figure Node A is the VPN client. A VPN client is either a computer that needs
to access a private network, or a server in a network that needs to access another private
network, Node A connects to the VPN server of the private network over the Internet. The
VPN server is a computer in the private network that accepts incoming VPN connections. The
VPN server authenticates the user information provided by Node A, and connects Node A to
the network.
In Figure we can observe that user data transmits over a public network. However,
users may want to transmit private data over the public network, and therefore, VPNs need to
secure the user data. In addition, VPNs are used to interconnect LANs, and in some cases, the
LANs may be using different protocols. For example, two LANs of an office located in
geographically different locations may be using IPX/SPX and TCP/IP. In addition, VPNs
transmit important data over the Internet, and therefore, need to ensure that data integrity is
maintained. Therefore, the three main functions of a VPN are:
 To ensure data security
 To ensure data integrity
 To transfer data across networks that may be using different protocols

VPN performs the following functions to ensure that the data transmitted over a VPN is secure:

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 Authentication:
The VPN client requesting access to a private network is authenticated to ensure that
the client is a trusted one. Authentication is done with the help of a user name and
password. .
 Encryption:
The data transmitted across the Internet is encrypted so that the packets cannot be read
by unauthorized sources.
 Data integrity:
To prevent accidental loss of data packets over the Internet, VPNs employ several data
integrity checks to ensure that the data packets reach the destination correctly.
In addition to ensuring that the data packets reach the destination safely, VPN also
needs to transmit the data in the format recognized by the Internet. Internet uses the TCP/IP
protocol suite whereas the networks that wish to communicate may be using protocols,' such as
IPX/SPX or AppleTalk. When two networks using protocols other than TCP/IP communicate,
VPN encapsulates the data packets with IP so that the data can be transmitted over the Internet.
This process is called tunneling. Tunneling is achieved with the help of a VPN protocol. The
commonly used VPN protocols are detailed in the following topic.
The Advantages of using VPN
A VPN connection can be quite handy in the case of the following scenarios. Let us check out
the positive consequences of opting for a VPN service.
 Access the Public Networks safely:

You may not need to use VPN if you are opting for a dedicated internet connection.
But, what if you are connecting through a public WiFi? You would want to safeguard
your privacy. The public WiFi may not be risk-free. It may have a host of public eyes
looking for your private information. Using a VPN service protects your private data.
 Access to the Blocked Content:

How about a situation where you are roaming in a foreign country and trying to access
the content from your home country. If the particular site is geo-restricted, you will end
up getting error messages. An exact opposite case in point would be when you are
attempting to a resource that is geo-restricted to your country. VPN comes as a savior
in those situations. You should be able to access the content from anywhere in the
world. This can be one of the excellent options for you if you are in a country where
there is heavy censorship. In other words, a VPN gives you the online freedom that you
have always wanted. It works by changing your IP address and make you appear as if
you belong to a different country.
 An Enhanced Online Security:

If online security is what you would look ahead to when browsing the internet, VPN
will help you achieve it. No matter which kind of connection are you opting for, a VPN

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would be the best you would be able to go with. You tend to send a whole lot of
information on the internet. With the dangerous lifestyle that we have been leading
when it comes to the internet, you would want anyone to snoop on you. A VPN service
will encrypt your data and keep all others at bay while you are browsing the web or
sharing your personal information while using banking apps or private chats. You will
always remain anonymous, and no one will be able to have access to your data.
 Save Money with VPN

Many E-Commerce websites offer differential pricing for different regions. It can be
useful when you are booking a flight or hotel in a different country. You may also use
the option of buying items from E-Commerce sites, but you may need to opt for a
different shipping address.If you want to make use of this feature of VPN services, it
would be advisable to check out a VPN service that has a considerably good number of
server locations covering almost all major parts of the globe.
 It can Improve your Internet Speed

Your internet service providers may play tricks on you and restrict your speeds. If you
find your website speed is not up to the mark, you can check out with a few VPN
services to see if you can experience improved conditions. Since a VPN is used to hide
your online activity, it may help remove the restrictions placed on you by the internet
service provider. This can help you get rid of the buffering or the waiting period you
may need to go through while you are accessing your favourite content on the web.

The Disadvantages of Using VPN

 They are all NOT free:

Of course, a VPN service may be available for free. But for efficient service, it is
advisable to go with a subscription model. Opting for the free tier can indeed have the
opposite effect. Free services can sell your data to online advertisers. Beware of the
small players that are unheard of. If you want a reliable VPN service, you would need
to pay, and the subscription packages tend to be of recurring basis.
 The VPN Blockers:

The tirade against the VPN services is gaining momentum these days. This may render
your VPN service useless and may make it go out of business. Popular streaming
services like Netflix attempt blocking the VPNs. This can be a huge issue if you have
already opted for a subscription plan and suddenly made to wake up one day to find the
service no longer working. However, there have been a few VPN services that stand up
to the VPN blockers and continue providing services. However, some services may not
be able to go past the powerful VPN blockers.
 Reduction in internet Speed:

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A VPN is aimed at encrypting your data before providing you with the connectivity.
This can result in reduced speed. Like we said before, if your service provider is
applying any restrictions on your connection, you may an increase in the rate. But, in
the case of a lack of such issues, your internet speed can decrease. That is precisely
why it is essential to opt for a VPN service that offers you better speeds while
providing the right of protection. The best way you would be able to check it out would
be to opt for a free trial plan and check the functionality of your VPN service.
 A Tougher Configuration:

If you are not tech savvy enough, using your VPN service can be a little tricky. An
improper configuration can indeed land you in trouble and leak your data to the
hackers. If you are not taking proper care of your VPN set up, you may end up having
issues with your online privacy and security. IP and DNS leaks are a few issues that
you may come across. Of course, there are a few tools that can be helpful in addressing
the problems. If you are starting with the VPN service, it may be a good idea to opt for
the VPN services that offer a user-friendly configuration method.
 Your VPN Connection may Drop Suddenly:

A well-known and popular VPN service may not suffer downtimes, but a host of them
tend to suffer downtimes all of a sudden. If you do not notice that your VPN service has
dropped, you will be connected without it, and your actual IP address would be visible.
Most high-end VPN services come with a Kill Switch that helps you disconnect from
the internet as soon as the connection with the server drops. If you are quite wary of
your anonymity, it would be advisable to opt for the VPN services that offer a Kill
Switch.

VPN protocols
VPN protocols are responsible for encrypting and encapsulating data packets that travel
over the Internet. The commonly used VPN protocols are:
 Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP)
 Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP)
 Internet Protocol Security (IPSec)

POINT-TO-POINT TUNNELING PROTOCOL (PPTP)

PPTP allows users to establish a low-cost connection to a corporate or private network
over he Internet. PPTP is very helpful for employees of an organization who are constantly
traveling but need to access the corporate network. The following are the important features of
PPTP:
 PPTP is a protocol developed by Microsoft, and supports VPN s that use different
protocols, such as L2TP.

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 PPTP was developed based on the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), and Internet Protocol
(IP).
 PPTP offers tunneling support to the most commonly used network protocols such as
TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, and NETBEUI.
 PPTP works at Layer 2 of the OSI reference model.
 PPTP uses the Microsoft Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (MSCHAP) to
authenticate user information before granting access to network resources in a VPN.
 The encryption protocol used by PPTP is Microsoft Point-to-Point Encryption (MPPE).
 PPTP is included in the Windows family of operating systems beginning with Windows
95.

Advantages
 Compatibility with Microsoft’s Windows by Default:
The first major advantage of using PPTP is the fact that if you use a computer that
operates using Microsoft’s Windows, it supports PPTP by default. This means that you
will not experience a lot of trouble trying to install the required software and make it
run smoothly.
 Ease of Use:
The second major advantage of using PPTP protocol is the fact that when you set it up,
it is much easier because the data is normally not encrypted using IPsec. This means
that you will not need to install computer certificates or a public key infrastructure to
access and use the protocol.
 Cost-Effective:
The third major benefit of using this protocol is the fact that it is very cheap compared
to some options such as L2TP and others. This is because it is quite easy to install.
Actually, with basic networking knowledge, you can do it all by yourself. It has also
been discovered that the protocol does not need many certificates to run, this means you
will not need to spend money getting or creating them. The fourth advantage is the fact
that this protocol is uncomplicated and hence, easy to use.

Disadvantages
PPTP has some limitations and here are some of the most popular ones:
 Low Security Standards:
To start with, PPTP is said to have poorer security compared to the other protocols.
Secondly, PPTP does not offer data integrity or data origin verification. This means that
you cannot be sure whether the data that is sent over this protocol is authentic or has
been tampered with. This significantly lowers the reliability of using the protocol
especially if your company is dealing with very sensitive information.
 Lower Performance on Unstable Connections:
The other disadvantage associated with this protocol is that it normally has performance
issues when used on unstable networks. Generally, it can be termed as an acceptable
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way to connect workers and share documents. However, it will not be of much help if
you have a lot of private information that you need to share.

LAYER 2 TUNNELING PROTOCOL (L2TP)

L2TP is a combination of Cisco's Layer 2 Forwarding (L2F) protocol and Microsoft's
PPTP. L2TP works at Layer 2 of the OSI reference model, and allows a remote user to connect
to a corporate network with the help of two devices: L2TP Access Concentrator (LAC), and
L2TP Network Server (LNS). Figure 6.11 represents a typical VPN implemented with the help
of L2TP.

Figure: VPN using L2TP

In Figure the remote user connects to the ISP using PPP. When the user contacts the
ISP, the LAC contacts the LNS to authenticate the user. If the user is authenticated, access is
granted to the corporate network, and an L2TP tunnel is created between the LAC and the
LNS. The data traveling through the L2TP tunnel is encapsulated and encrypted.
Advantages:
 Compatibility: L2TP protocol is widely supported by all operating systems,
like: Windows, Linux and MAC OS.
 Configuration: L2TP protocol is easy to setup than other protocols because most
platform come with an integrated L2TP support, facilitating its configuration process. 
 Stability: L2TP protocol is known for being reliable and stable. It might be a little
dodgy though when it is used with devices that are connected to NAT routers.
 Security: L2TP protocol is extremely secure because it doesn’t have any major
vulnerabilities. L2TP is excellent in terms of security when it is conjuncted with other
sturdy encryption protocols and security algorithms such as AES to provide maximum
security.

Disadvantages
 L2TP has no encryption on its own. It must be paired with IPSec for proper online
security.
 L2TP and L2TP/IPSec have been allegedly weakened or cracked by the NSA – though,
that’s only according to Snowden, and there’s no hard proof to back up that claim.
 Due to its double encapsulation feature, L2TP/IPSec tends to be a bit resource-intensive
and not extremely fast.

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 L2TP can be blocked by NAT firewalls if it’s not further configured to bypass them.

INTERNET PROTOCOL SECURITY (IPSEC)

IPSec works at Layer 3 of the OSI reference model, and is designed to provide
enhanced security for data that is transmitted over the Internet. IPSec was developed based on
IP, and therefore, not limited to a specific operating system.
IPSec consists of three components:
 Authentication Header (AH):
The Authentication Header (AH) protocol provides a means to verify the
authenticity and integrity of the content and origin of a packet. You can authenticate the
packet by the checksum calculated through a Hash Message Authentication Code
(HMAC) using a secret key and either MD5 or SHA hash functions.
 Message Digest 5 (MD5): An algorithm that produces a 128-bit hash (also
called a digital signature  or message digest) from a message of arbitrary length
and a 16-byte key. The resulting hash is used, like a fingerprint of the input, to
verify content and source authenticity and integrity.
 Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA): An algorithm that produces a 160-bit hash
from a message of arbitrary length and a 20-byte key. It is generally regarded as
more secure than MD5 because of the larger hashes it produces. Because the
computational processing is done in the ASIC, the performance cost is
negligible.
 Encapsulating Security Protocol (ESP):
The Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP) protocol provides a means to ensure
privacy (encryption) and source authentication and content integrity (authentication).
ESP in tunnel mode encapsulates the entire IP packet (header and payload) and then
appends a new IP header to the now-encrypted packet. This new IP header contains the
destination address needed to route the protected data through the network. With ESP,
you can both encrypt and authenticate, encrypt only, or authenticate only. For
encryption, you can choose one of the following encryption algorithms:
 Data Encryption Standard (DES): A cryptographic block algorithm with a
56-bit key.
 Triple DES (3DES): A more powerful version of DES in which the original
DES algorithm is applied in three rounds, using a 168-bit key. DES provides
significant performance savings but is considered unacceptable for many
classified or sensitive material transfers.
 Advanced Encryption Standard (AES): An encryption standard which offers
greater interoperability with other devices. Junos OS supports AES with 128-
bit, 192-bit, and 256-bit keys.
 Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol (lSAKMP):
Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol (ISAKMP) is used

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for negotiating, establishing, modification and deletion of SAs and related parameters.
It defines the procedures and packet formats for peer authentication creation and
management of SAs and techniques for key generation. It also includes mechanisms
that mitigate certain threats e.g., Denial Of Service (DOS) and anti-replay protection.
In ISAKMP, SA and key management are separate from any key exchange protocols;
so, in a sense ISAKMP is an "abstract" protocol it provides a framework for
authentication and key management and supports many actual key exchange protocols
(e.g., IKE). ISAKMP defines header and payload formats, but needs an instantiation to
a specific set of protocols. Such an instantiation is denoted as the ISAKMP Domain Of
Interpretation (DOI): an example of this for the IPsec/IKE is the IPsec DOI

IPSec can be used in two modes, transport mode and tunnel mode, In the transport
mode, the data is encrypted but not encapsulated, In the tunnel mode, the data is encrypted as
well as encapsulated, The transport mode is used when communication occurs between two
end points whereas the tunnel mode is used when either of the devices is not an endpoint, such
as a gateway. For example, if a VPN client is contacting a node in a corporate network, the
transport mode is used, whereas the tunneling mode is used when a VPN host and a VPN client
communicate with the help of a VPN gateway. The gateway manages the encryption and
encapsulation of data.

Advantages of IPSec
 Network layer security:
IPSec operates at layer 3, the network layer. As a result, it has no impact on higher
network layer. In other words, one of the biggest advantage of IPSec is its transparency
to applications. The end user need not have to bother about the IPSec or its
configuration. Additionally, as it works at the network layer, IPSec allows to monitor
all the traffic that passes over the network. 
 Confidentiality:
Similarly, the second advantage of IPSec is that it offers confidentiality. During any
data exchange, IPSec uses public keys that helps to safely transfer confidential data. As
a result, securing the keys ensure safe data transfer. Additionally, these keys helps to
verify that the data has come from the correct host. Therefore, it becomes rather
impossible to forge the data packets.
 Zero dependability on Application:
IPSec security is implemented at the network layer. Thus, it do not depend on the
applications used. IPSec only requires modification to the operating system. As a result,
IPsec-based VPNs do not need to worry about the type of application too. That’s not
the case with SSL based VPNs, where it requires modification to individual
applications. This is yet another reason for the popularity of IPSec.
 

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Disadvantages of IPsec
 Wide access range:
One of the greatest disadvantage of IPSec is its wide access range. Giving access to a
single device in IPSec-based network, can give access privileges for other devices too.
For instance, imagine that you are connecting to a corporate network from your IPSec
based home network. Here, if any of the computer in your home network has malware
in it, it can easily spread to the computers in the corporate network. Unless there are
special security mechanisms, vulnerabilities that exist at the IP layer will pass on to the
corporate network across the IPSec tunnel.
 Compatibility issues:
Secondly, IPSec brings in couple of compatibility issues with software too. This
happens when software developers do not adhere to the standards of IPSec. Similarly,
when you are already on IPSec based VPN, connecting to another network will be
rather impossible due to restrictions in firewalls. Again, IPsec does not provide support
for multi-protocol and IP multicast traffic.
 CPU Overhead:
Unfortunately, IPSec is well known for the high CPU usage. It requires quite a bit of
processing power to encrypt and decrypt all the data that passes through the server.
When the data packet size is small, the performance of the network diminishes due to
large overhead used by IPsec.
 Broken Algorithms:
Again, security of certain algorithms used in IPSec is a concern. If, someone uses these
broken algorithms, server will be at a greater risk of hack. Luckily, there are readily
available newer and complex algorithms that overcome the known vulnerabilities.

In this section, you have understood the features of VPN. You have learned about the
advantages of VPN. You also learned about the different protocols used to implement VPN and
their features. The next chapter details the different devices such as routers and gateways that
are used to set up WANs.

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QUESTION BANK

(Questions for Understanding)

1. How is SLA similar to?

a. Service level agreements
b. Several level agreements
c. Service line agreements
d. Several line agreements

2. How is RSA similar to?

a. Remote Access Service
b. Render Access Service
c. Remote Access Security
d. Render Access Security

3. How is ISDN similar to?

a. Integrated Services Digital Network
b. Internet Services Digital Network
c. Integrated Security Digital Network
d. Internet Security Digital Network

4. How is BRI similar to?

a. Bit Rate Interface
b. Binary Rate Interface
c. Basic Rate Interface
d. Bit Rate Interconnect

5. What do you think SCPC?

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a. Single Channel per Carrier

b. Spaced Channel per Carrier
c. Single Carrier per Carrier
d. Signal Carrier per Channel

6. What do you think MCPC?

a. Multiple Channel per Carrier
b. Maximum Channel per Carrier
c. Main Channel per Carrier
d. Minimum Channel per Carrier

7. What do you think is the full form of TDMA?

a. Time Division Multiple Access
b. Time Diversion Multiple Access
c. Time Division Maximum Access
d. Time Diversion Maximum Access

8. What do you think is the full form of VPN’s?

a. Virtual Public Network
b. Virtual Private Network
c. Visual Public Network
d. Visual Private Network

9. What is the other name for Extended C-band?

a. C-band
b. XC-band
c. Ku-band
d. EC-band

10. What is the other name of Leased Lines?

a. Dedicated Lines
b. Private Lines
c. (a) and (b)
d. None of the above

(Questions for Skill)

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11. What is the Maximum data transfer rate limit of Switched 56?
a. 56Kbps
b. 56bps
c. 56Mbps
d. None of the above

12. Which among the following protocols that WAN use?

a. Frame Relay
b. ATM
c. X.25
d. All the above

13. Which among the following is the popular connectivity option to set up LAN?
a. POTS
b. ISDN
c. VSAT
d. All the above

14. ISDN consist of how many channels?

a. 2
b. 3
c. 4
d. 5

15. Which among the following receives microwave signals and converts them to digital
signals?
a. Digital modem
b. Radio Frequency
c. Antenna
d. None of the above

16. Which function ensures that the client is a trusted one?

a. Authentication
b. Encryption
c. Decryption
d. Data Integrity

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19. Which function make sure packets cannot be read by unauthorized sources?
a. Authentication
b. Encryption
c. Decryption
d. Data Integrity

20. To prevent loss of data packets which function can be used?

a. Authentication
b. Encryption
c. Decryption
d. Data Integrity

21. PPTP works on which layer of OSI model?

a. 2
b. 3
c. 4
d. 5

22. IPSec works on which layer of OSI model?

a. 2
b. 3
c. 4
d. 5

23. IPSec can be used in how many modes?

a. 2
b. 3
c. 4
d. 5

24. In which mode data is encrypted but not encapsulated?

a. Transport mode
b. Tunnel Mode
c. (a) and (b)
d. None of the above

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25. In which mode data is encrypted and encapsulated?

a. Transport mode
b. Tunnel Mode
c. (a) and (b)
d. None of the above

(Questions for Understanding)

1. Can you differentiate between LAN and WAN

2. Can you differentiate between T-1 and T-3 leased lines.
3. Can you illustrate the Architecture of VSAT Network
4. Can you explain Leased lines
5. Can you illustrate the features of ISDN
6. Can you explain L2TP with neat diagram
7. How would you explain the VSAT devices
8. How would you explain the VSAT Networks

(Questions for Application)

1. Can you explain the features of VPN

2. Analyze the working of POTS with neat diagram.
3. Analyze working of ISDN
4. Analyze VPN with explanation.’
5. Analyze the working of Microwave transmission
6. Analyze the working of Internet Protocol Security with example
7. Analyze the working of Infrared transmission
8. Analyze the working of Radio transmission

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UNIT-V

CHAPTER-7
WAN HARDWARE AND PROTOCOLS

WAN Devices
In the previous chapter, you learned that WAN extends the benefits offered by LAN.
You also learned about the different connectivity options used to interconnect LANs. However,
the LANs may be using different protocols, so they may not be able to communicate. For
example, consider the example of an organization having LANs in its offices at Shanghai and
Tokyo. The LANs can connect using VPN, but the LAN in Shanghai uses Ethernet whereas
the LAN in Tokyo uses Token Ring, preventing the LANs from being able to communicate.
Similarly, a LAN that uses TCP/IP may need to communicate with another LAN that
uses IPX/SPX. In such cases, the following devices are used to interconnect LANs:
 Bridges

 Routers

 Gateways

BRIDGES
Bridges connect two networks that use different Layer 2 protocols, and translate data
between them. Bridges use the MAC addresses stored by Layer 2 protocols to transmit data
across networks. For example, a translating bridge can be used to transmit data between one
network using Ethernet and another network using Token Ring. Bridges are also used to
divide a large network into smaller broadcast domains to reduce the network traffic
and improve the efficiency of the network.
For example, consider an organization that sells books for school students. The
organization has three departments: Finance, Marketing, and Stores. The Marketing department
is responsible for obtaining orders for the sale of books whereas the Stores department
is responsible for delivering the orders. The Finance department keeps track of the order

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values generated by the Marketing department. The organization computerizes the operations
of these departments, and connects all the computers in an Ethernet LAN. The Finance
department connects to computers in the Marketing department each day at 1800 hours to
obtain the value of orders generated for that day. The Stores department also connects to
computers in the Marketing department at 1800 hours to obtain the size of orders. The
computers within each department, however, communicate frequently to maintain updated
information.
In the preceding example, since all the computers are connected to a single
network, each computer broadcasts data to all the computers, so network traffic increases.
By dividing the LAN into three smaller broadcast domains, one each for the Finance,
Marketing, and Stores departments, the network traffic can be minimized. However, the
departments need to communicate about updates at the end of each day, so the three
broadcast domains can be connected with the help of a bridge. The bridge divides a
network into separate broadcast domains and reduces the network traffic while maintaining
connectivity between all the computers. The primary use of a bridge is, however, to connect
two networks that use different Layer 2 protocols. If a bridge connects two networks that are
physically close to one another, the bridge is called a local bridge. On the contrary, a
remote bridge connects geographically dispersed networks. Figure represents local and remote
bridges.

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Figure: Local and Remote Bridges

Bridges connect networks that use different frame formats for transmitting data. For
example, the frame format used by Ethernet is different from the frame format used by Token
Ring. Therefore, bridges need to convert the frame format before transmitting the data
from one network to another. This conversion of frame formats is accomplished with the help
of translation software, which is included with the bridges.
Bridges work at the data link layer, and therefore do not consider the middle-layer
protocols, such as TCP/IP or IPX/SPX, used by the LANs. Bridges are independent of
Layer 3 protocols, and you can use the same bridge with networks running TCPIIP,
IPX/SPX, or AppleTalk.

Depending on the manner in which bridges transmit data among networks, they are divided
into Two types:
 Transparent bridges
 Source route bridges

Transparent Bridges
A transparent bridge stores the MAC (Media Access Control) addresses of the
nodes in both networks, and uses this information to transmit data between the networks.
Whenever a node sends a data packet, the bridge checks for its destination MAC address. The
destination MAC address may either be in the same network from which the data packet
arrived or in a different network.
If the destination MAC address is in the same network, the bridge ignores the data
packet. This process is known as filtering. However, if the destination MAC address is in a
different network, the bridge forwards the data packet to the respective network, known as

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forwarding. The following subtopic explains the working of a transparent bridge.

Operation of Transparent Bridges

Transparent bridges build the list of MAC addresses, by associating each MAC
address in a network with the ports of the bridge. Therefore, if the source MAC address and
the destination MAC address belong to the same port, the data packet is ignored. Figure
represents two networks connected using a transparent bridge.

Figure: Networks Connected Using Transparent Bridge

In Figure assume that Node A sends data to Node B. This process involves the following
steps:
1. Data from Node A reaches Port 1 of the bridge because Network 1 is connected to Port
1.
2. The bridge then looks up the destination MAC address on the data packet, and
determines that the data needs to be sent to Node B.
3. The bridge detects that the data should be sent back to Port 1 because Node
B is a part of Network 1.
4. The bridge does not send data back to Port 1 because the destination address is in
the same network as the source address.

The information on MAC addresses, nodes, and ports are stored in a data table
which is initially empty. The following example illustrates the complete functioning of a
transparent bridge.
Assume that the network represented by Figure is just set up and Node A sends data
to Node D. This process involves the following steps:
1. Data sent from Node A to Node D reaches the bridge through Port 1.
2. The bridge creates an entry in the data table, associating Node A with Port 1.
3. The bridge does not know the location of Node D, so the data packet is forwarded
through both Port 1 and Port 2.
4. Node D replies back to Node A, and the data from Node D reaches the bridge through

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Port 2.
5. The bridge forwards the data only to Port 1 because it knows that Node A is connected
to Port 1.
6. The bridge immediately creates another entry in the table associating Node D with
Port 2.

From this point on, any data to Node A is forwarded only to Port 1, and data
to Node D is forwarded to Port 2. Similarly, when Node A sends data to Node B, the
following steps take place:
1. Data from Node A to Node B is again forwarded to both the ports because the bridge
still does not have information on Node B.
2. Node B replies to Node A, and the data reaches the bridge through Port 1.
3. This data is not forwarded to Port 2 because the bridge has already associated Node
with Port 1.
4. The bridge also adds an entry in the data table associating Node B with Port 1.

The bridge concludes that Nodes A and B are part of the same network. From this
point on, any data from Node A to Node B (or vice versa) is filtered. The bridge keeps updating
the data table until it contains entries for all the nodes.
You have learned that the transparent bridge associates nodes to ports and
concludes that a set of nodes is part of the same network. Any data transfer between nodes
of the same network is not forwarded to the other ports. This functionality of a transparent
bridge works well even if there are multiple networks connected with multiple bridges.
However, this functionality fails when there is more than one bridged path connecting
two networks, as shown in below Figure.

Figure: Networks Connected Using Two Bridges

Imagine that the network in Figure is just set up, and Node A sends data to
Node I. The following steps take place in the data transmission:

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1. The data from Node A reaches Port 1 as well as Port 3. Bridge 1 does not know the
location of Node I, so it forwards the data through Port 2, and associates Node A
with Port 1. Even Bridge 2 does not know the location of Node I, so it forwards
the data through Port 4, and associates Node A with Port 3.
2. The data forwarded through Port 2 reaches Port 4, and the data forwarded through Port
4 reaches Port 2. Bridges 1 and 2 still do not have information on the location of
Node I, so they forward the data received on Port 2 to Port 1, and Port 4 to Port 3.
However, the data received by Bridges 1 and 2 on Ports 2 and 4 belong to Node A.
Therefore, the data table is updated by associating Node A to Ports 2 and 4, instead of
Ports 1 and 3. Tomorrow
3. Step 1 repeats itself because the data from Port 1 reaches Port 3, and Port 3 reaches
Port 1. The data table is updated to associate Node A with Ports 1 & 3.
Steps 1-3 represent a loop. The loop continues to exist until Bridge 3 communicates
the location of Node I to Bridges 1 and 2. It can be observed that a huge amount of
unnecessary traffic occurs as a result of this loop. The loop is caused by the presence
of more than one bridge between two networks. To overcome this problem of loops,
IEEE has defined an algorithm for bridges called the Spanning Tree algorithm.

SPANNING TREE ALGORITHM

A spanning tree is defined as the subset of all possible links between different
LANs or LAN segments such that all LANs are connected, directly or indirectly, but
without any loops. To understand the concept of a spanning tree, consider the network
obtained by connecting multiple LANs using several bridges, as shown in below Figure.

Figure: Multiple LANs Connected Using Bridges

In Figure bridges are represented as arrows between LANs. The darker arrows (2, 3,
4, 6, 7, 8, and 10) represent active bridges whereas the lighter arrows (1, 4 and 5)
represent idle bridges. An active bridge transmits data between networks whereas idle
bridges do not. In case an active bridge fails, the idle bridge takes over the function of
transmitting data. You can observe that a loop results if all the bridges (arrows) are active. He
blue arrows in Figure Represent a spanning tree. When bridges are set up for the first time to

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connect networks, the bridges communicate among themselves to develop a spanning tree.
You have learned about the features of a transparent bridge. Transparent bridges are
well suited to connect multiple Ethernet networks because nodes in an Ethernet LAN
broadcast the Data. Therefore, the bridge can receive the data, check for the MAC address,
and forward the data to the appropriate segment.

SOURCE ROUTE BRIDGES

Source route bridges neither maintain a list of MAC addresses of the nodes nor
decide through which port a data packet should be transmitted. In source-route bridges the
source node specifies the entire path to be taken by the data packet. Source route bridges are
generally used to connect Token Ring networks. Figure represents four Token Ring networks
connected using source route bridges.

Figure: Token Ring Networks Connected Using Source Route Bridges

In Figure if Node A wants to send data to Node K, Node A should specify the
path the data packet should take. For example, Node A can specify the path as:
A -> T1 -> B I -> T2 -> B2 -> T3 -> K
An alternative path could be:
A -> T1 -> B I -> T2 -> B4 -> T4 -> B3 -> T3 -> K
In source-route bridging, before sending the actual data, the source-node sends test
frames to the destination. These frames take the different possible routes to reach the
destination. On reaching the destination, the destination node sends information on the paths
taken by the different test frames. The source node now has a list of all the possible paths, and
can select an appropriate path.
Source-route bridging provides a more flexible routing scheme compared to the
Spanning Tree algorithm used in transparent bridge, because the source node can select an
appropriate path for the data to travel. However, source-route bridging increases the network
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traffic because of the routing information generated by each source node whenever it
wishes to send data across the networks. High network traffic significantly pulls down the
network performance.
Bridges work at the data-link layer, and cannot be used across networks that
use different network layer protocols. In addition, bridges cannot select an alternate path that
the data packet should take if the original path encounters problems such as a device
failure. Also, bridges cannot be used to selectively filter network traffic. For example, a bridge
cannot be used to prevent traffic from a particular node from entering a different network.
These drawbacks are overcome by routers, as described in the following topic.
The difference between Transparent Bridge and Source Routing Bridge are as following:
Transparent bridge Source routing bridge
Transparent bridge service is Source Routing Bridge service is
connectionless. connection oriented.
In transparent bridge mechanism bridges In source routing bridge, bridges do not
automatically develop a routing table. maintain any routing information.
Transparent bridge does not support Source routing bridge can make use of
multipath routing. multiple path to same destination.
The path used by transparent bridge Source route bridge always uses the
between any two hosts may not be the optimal path.
optimal path.
Failures are handled by the transparent Host handle the failure of bridge on its
bridge on its own. own.
Transparent bridges are fully transparent to Source routing bridges are not visible to
the users. the hosts.

Benefits or advantages of Bridges

 It helps in extension of physical network.
 It reduces network traffic with minor segmentation.
 It creates separate collision domains. Hence it increases available bandwidth to
individual nodes as fewer nodes share a collision domain.
 It reduces collisions.
 Some bridges connect networks having different architectures and media types.

Drawbacks or disadvantages of Bridges

 It is slower compare to repeaters due to filtering.
 It does not filter broadcasts.
 It is more expensive compare to repeaters.

ROUTERS
Like bridges, routers also filter and forward information among different networks.
However, routers work at the network layer (Layer3), so they use the network addresses for

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filtering and forwarding information. In addition, routers can also provide additional features
such as the ability to determine the best route for a destination and filtering information from a
particular node.
Routers store the network addresses of computers in different networks in a table,
called the routing table. In addition to the network addresses, the routing table also contains
information on the path that should be used to transmit data, and any rules that have been
defined for filtering network traffic. Whenever a router receives a data packet, it checks
for the network address of the destination. If the destination address is in a different
network than the source address, it checks the routing table for the path the packet needs
to take to reach the destination. If a route is found, the packet is forwarded to the specified
path. Otherwise the data packet is filtered. To understand how routers work, consider an
example of multiple networks connected by routers as represented in Figure.

Figure: Networks Connected using routers

Assume, for example, that Node A sends data to Node H. The steps involved in the
transmission of data from Node A to Node H are as follows:
1. Node A broadcasts the data on Network l. The data is received by Nodes Band
C as well as by Router 1. However, the addresses of Nodes Band C do not
match the data packet, and therefore, these nodes do not accept the data.
2. Router 1 checks the destination address of the data packet. The destination
address is compared with the routing table that contains the list of addresses of
Network 1. As Node H is not a part of Network 1, the destination address is not
found in the router table, and the data packet is forwarded to Router 2.
3. Router 2 checks for the destination address of the data packet against its routing table.
As Node H is not a part of Network 2, Router 2 does not contain the destination
address in its routing table, and therefore, the data packet is forwarded to Router 3.

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4. Router 3 checks the destination address of the data packet against its routing table.
As the destination address of the data packet matches the network address of
Node H, the router forwards the data packet to Node H.

From the above example, it is clear that the router is not only responsible for ensuring
that the data packet reaches the correct destination but also in preventing the data packet from
being Sent to incorrect networks. Figure however, represents a very simple scenario in
which only one path exists between Node A and Node H. Consider a more complex network
represented by Figure.

Figure: Multiple Networks Connected By Routers

In Figure if Node A wants to send data to Node I, multiple paths are available but
only one of the paths should be selected. Also, if the selected path poses difficulties, such as
a router or link failure, the data should be diverted through an alternative path so that it
reaches its destination. These considerations are described in the following sub topic.

ROUTING MECHANICS
When multiple paths are available to transmit data across networks, the most
appropriate path is selected either by the source node or the router. If the source node
selects the path, the process is called node-based routing. If the router determines the path, the
process is called router-based routing.
The most appropriate path is usually the lowest-cost path. The cost of a path is
determined by using metrics, such as number of hops, percentage of data loss, or the
network traffic on that route. The network administrator specifies the metrics for a route.
The lowest-cost path is the route with the least metric value. At times, however, the
network administrator may give importance to reliability in which case the most appropriate
path is the most reliable path.

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 Node-based Routing

In node-based routing, the source node determines the path to be taken by the data
packet to reach the destination node. This type of routing is also called source-based
routing. Before sending the data packet, the source node compares the internetwork
address of the destination node against the entries in its internal routing table to check if
the destination node is part of the same network. If the destination node is in the same
network, the source node directly sends the data to the destination.
If the destination node is outside the network, the source node sends a packet to the
destination node to trace the entire route. After obtaining the route information, the
source node provides the entire path that should be taken by the data packet to reach the
destination. In case of node- based routing, the routers perform a function similar to a bridge.
The routers do not decide the path of the data packets but forward the data packets depending
on the path information included with the packet.
As the source node needs to determine the different possible paths to the
destination, and then select a path to be taken by the data packet, this form of routing
increases network traffic. Also, this form of routing causes considerable delay in transfer of
data packets because the source node needs to first determine the complete path before
sending .the data packet. Node- based routing is generally used to troubleshoot network
problems, such as a router failure, in a network.
 Router-based Routing

In this method of routing, the source node checks if the destination node is present in
the same network. If the destination is not in the same network, the source node forwards the
data packet to the default gateway of the network, which is usually a router. The router then
decides on the path to be taken by the data packet to reach the destination. The path is
decided based Routing Table
A routing table typically contains the path information for data packets to reach a
particular internetwork. In some cases, the path to reach a particular node in an internetwork
may also be available. Usually, the routing table also contains a default path, which is
used when no path information is available to reach a particular internetwork. In
addition, the following information is stored in a routing table:
 Network ID: The Network ID is the network address of a particular internetwork, or a
node address of a particular internetwork. This field contains a value such as
198.162.66.0, which is the address of an internetwork or a value such as 198.162.66.4,
which is the network address of a node in a particular internetwork.
 Subnet mask: The subnet mask is a 32-bit value used to distinguish one network
from another.
 Gateway address: This field contains either the physical or network layer
address of the node or network to which the data packets are to be forwarded.
 Interface: The interface is the port that is used to forward data packets.

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 Metric: The value of metric is proportional to the cost of the route. The cost of the
route is calculated considering factors such as number of hops, delay, bandwidth or
throughput, and reliability. A low metric value indicates a low-cost path, so the path
with the lowest metric value is preferable.

Network ID Net mask Gateway Address Interface Metric

172.17.128.0 255.255.0.0 172.17.128.119 172.17.128.119 1

Figure: Routing Table

The routing tables are present on the nodes in a network, as well as the routers. The
nodes use any of the following methods to build a routing table:
 Static routing table: The network administrator manual vides the nodes with a list of
available routers, and information regarding the route selected to reach a particular
network.
 Dynamic routing table: Network layer protocols allow routers to periodically
update the routing table of the nodes or routers with new routing information
present in the routing table of the router.
 Default gateway: This is the address to which data packets are forwarded by
the nodes or routers when no specific route is found by the node or router in its
routing table. For example, in the route displayed ‘in Table 7.1, 172.17.128.119 is the
default network gateway.

If the routing table of the node does not contain information to reach the destination,
the data packet is forwarded to the network gateway.

Figure: Information Advertised By Routers

ROUTING PROTOCOLS

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The routing protocol decides the contents of the routing table that are to be
advertised. For example, the routing table consists of several routes but the routing protocol
may allow advertising of new routes only. The most commonly used routing protocols are:.
 RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)

Routing Information Protocol

Routers that use RIP advertise their current status and information in their routing table,
including routes, to the rest of the routers once in every 30 seconds. The information
pertaining to a route is considered valid for 180 seconds, after which the route times out or
expires. If a route times out, the router waits for six update cycles (nine minutes), before
deleting the route. When a new route is advertised, the router checks for the route against
the existing routes in the routing table. If the route is not defined, it is immediately added.
However, if the route exists in the routing table, it is not replaced immediately. The
replacement occurs after the existing route in the routing table expires. Also, routes defining
a different path but with the same metric values are not replaced unless the existing route is
in the process of timing out.
Due to the amount of information exchanged between routers, and the time
interval of the update cycles, it is possible that the routers do not have the updated information
of the network. This is an inherent drawback of RIP, and can prove critical if the information
to be updated is an important one, such as a route failure. In order to overcome this drawback,
the concept of triggered update was introduced.
Triggered updates were introduced based on the observation that the most important
information available with a router are route deletions, and increase in metrics of a route.
Therefore, whenever a route fails, or the metric of a route increases, a triggered update is
sent across to the routers in the network. A triggered update contains only information
that has been changed since the last regular update, and as a result, conserves
bandwidth.
Another disadvantage of RIP is the increase in the amount of network traffic. Consider
the network set up shown in Figure 7.8. Imagine a situation in which all the routers are sending
regular updates every 180 seconds, in addition to any triggered updates. This situation results
in huge amount of traffic. In order to minimize traffic, routers communicating using RIP can
send updates only to the router, which is physically next to it, known as neighbor. For
example, in Figure outer B can update only Router A but not Router C. Router C is,
however, updated by Router A. Although this method minimizes the network traffic,
considerable delay is involved before all the routers in the network are updated with the correct
status information.

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Open Shortest Path First Protocol

Routers using OSPF also advertise their presence by sending a data packet to all the
routers in the internetwork. The routers collect the data to build the routing table. The main
purpose of the routing table when using OSPF is to determine the shortest path, which is
usually the lowest- cost path. At times, the routing table may not contain the complete
information of the shortest path but may have information of the router that can provide
the shortest path. When multiple paths with the same metrics exist, the routers use both
the paths to send data packets to the destination, and as a result, the network traffic is evenly
spread.
Another important feature of OSPF is that the routers send status updates only
when there is a change in the network information. Also, the routers send only the
modified part of the routing table, and not the entire routing table. Therefore, OSPF
considerably minimizes network traffic compared to RIP.
However, in OSPF, the routers send updates to all the routers in the network, which
may result in increase of network traffic. In order to contain this, routers in OSPF are divided
into logical groups called areas. Routers communicate update information only to the routers
present in the same area. The status of routers in a particular area is conveyed to the
other areas by the routers present in the backbone.

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Figure: Internetwork Divided into Areas Connected by a Backbone

In this topic, you learned about the function of routers and their role in setting
up WANs. You have also observed that routers function at the network layer, connecting
networks using the same network layer protocol. In practice, however, several situations
arise where networks running different network layer protocols need to be connected.
Devices used to connect networks running different protocols are called gateways.
Benefits or advantages of Routers
 It provides connection between different network architectures such as Ethernet &
token ring etc.
 It can choose best path across the internetwork using dynamic routing algorithms.
 It can reduce network traffic by creating collision domains and also by creating
broadcast domains.
 It provides sophisticated routing, flow control and traffic isolation.
 They are configurable which allows network manager to make policy based on routing
decisions.
Drawbacks or disadvantages of Routers
 They operate based on routable network protocols.
 They are expensive compare to other network devices.
 Dynamic router communications can cause additional network overhead. This results
into less bandwidth for user data.
 They are slower as they need to analyze data from layer-1 through layer-3.
 They require considerable amount of initial configurations.
 They are protocol dependent devices which must understand the protocol they are
forwarding.

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GATEWAYS
Gateway is a generic term used to represent devices that connect two dissimilar
networks. Gateways can be hardware devices, software running on a computer, or a
combination. Depending on the manner in which a gateway connects the networks, the
following types of gateways are defined:
 Network gateways
 Protocol gateways
 Tunneling gateways

Network gateways connect different networks that use the same network layer protocol.
Network gateways are usually routers, which contain routes to reach nodes outside the network
to which the router is connected (refer Topic, Routers for detailed information on routers).
Protocol gateways connect networks that use different network layer protocols. For
example, a protocol gateway can transmit data between a network that uses IPX/SPX and
another network that uses TCP/IP. Protocol gateways convert the addressing format of the data
packet from the source network to match the addressing format used in the destination
network. In the preceding example, if the data originates from the IPX/SPX network, the
addressing format of the data packet is converted to TCP/IP addressing, and the data is
transmitted to the TCP/IP network.
Tunneling gateways encapsulate the data packet of the source network in a protocol that
is recognized by the destination network. For example, if the source network uses
IPX/SPX, and the destination network uses TCP/IP, the gateway encapsulates or wraps
the IPX/SPX data with TCP/IP headers and trailers so that the destination network can
recognize the data packet. The router on the destination network unwraps the data
packet to retrieve the original data, which is then transmitted to the destination node. Gateways
used in Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) are examples of tunneling gateways. Below Figure
represent a tunneling gateway transferring information between two networks.

Figure: Dissimilar networks Connected by a Tunneling gateway

You have learned about the different devices that are used to interconnect LANs.
Bridges connect networks using different lower-layer protocols, while routers connect

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networks using the same network layer protocol. Gateways are capable of transmitting data
across networks that use different network layers protocols. The next section details the
different types of protocols used for WAN communication.
Advantages of using a Gateway:
1. It can connect the devices of two different networks having dissimilar structures.
2. It is an intelligent device with filtering capabilities.
3. It has control over both collisions as well as a broadcast domain.
4. It uses a full-duplex mode of communication.
5. It has the fastest data transmission speed amongst all network connecting devices.
6. It can perform data translation and protocol conversion of the data packet as per the
destination network's need.
7. It can encapsulate and decapsulate the data packets.
8. It has improved security than any other network connecting device.

Disadvantages of using a Gateway:

1. It is complex to design and implement.
2. The implementation cost is very high.
3. It requires a special system administration configuration.

WAN PROTOCOLS
WAN communication is significantly different from LAN communication largely due
to the difference in the geographical area covered. In LAN s, the primary consideration when
developing a Layer 2 protocol is to maximize the speed of communication, whereas in
WANs, the primary concern is reliability. This is due to the fact that LANs are generally
closed circuits, with a lower possibility of unauthorized sources affecting the data. In
WAN s, however, the possibility of data getting corrupted, or being read by unauthorized
sources, is very high, so reliability is the primary concern. To ensure reliability of the data, the
following Layer 2 protocols are commonly used in WAN:
 Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
 X.25
 Frame Relay
 ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)

Point-to-Point Protocol:
PPP is a protocol suite that provides connectivity between devices that use a serial
interface. The most common use of PPP is in connecting to an ISP where a computer
connects to the server of the ISP to access the Internet with the help of a serial device,
usually a modem. PPP is also used in VPNs where individual computers may need to connect

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to a corporate network. PPP can also be used to dial into a Windows NT/2000 Remote Access
Service (RAS) server.
PPP supports a wide range of physical media, such as twisted pair cables, or optical
fiber cables. Although PPP was originally used to encapsulate data packets with IP so
that they can be transmitted over the Internet, PPP is now compatible with most Layer 3
protocols such as IPX/SPX and DECnet. PPP consists of the following protocols:
 Link Control Protocol (LCP): LCP is used to establish the connection between
the two serial devices. LCP can also be used to configure and test the connection.
 Network Control Protocols (NCPs): NCPs select a Layer 3 protocol, such as IP or
IPX, for communication between the two serial devices. NCPs allow the use of multiple
Layer 3 protocols simultaneously.
 High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC): HDLC encapsulates the data being
transmitted by PPP between the two serial devices.

When a serial device needs to communicate with another serial device over PPP, it
sends an LCP frame to establish and configure the connection between the devices. After the
connection is established, NCP frames are sent to select a Layer 3 protocol that will be
used for communication. Once a network layer protocol is selected, data packets are exchanged
between the two serial devices. The connection between the devices remains active until one of
the LCP or NCP frames terminates the connection. The connection is terminated at the end
of the data transfer, or due to external activity such as a device failure, or expiration of
inactivity timer. PPP does not support connections that require high bandwidths, such
as 1 Mbps, so it finds limited application in WAN.

X.25
X.25 is a protocol suite developed by the International Telecommunication Union-
Telecommunication Standardization Section (ITU- T) for circuit-switching WAN networks.
X.25 is commonly used with Switched 56 and ISDN. X.25 defines the manner in which
connections between user devices, such as computers, and network devices, such as
routers, are established and maintained in a WAN. The devices used in an X.25 connection
can be divided into the following categories:
 Data Terminal Equipment (DTE): These are devices, such as terminals, nodes in a
network, or computers. DTEs are usually located in the premises of individual
subscribers.
 Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE): These are devices that establish a
communication path between DTEs in different networks. Examples of DCEs include
modems and switches.
 Packet-Switching Exchange (PSE): PSE is a term used to refer the equipment used by
the telecommunications carrier to transmit information across different networks.

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In addition to these three devices, another type of device called a Packet

Assembler Dissembler (PAD) is used if the DTE is not capable of implementing the X.25
protocol. PADs are located between DTE and DCE. The main functions of PAD are
buffering, packet assembly, and packet disassembly. Figure represents an X.25 network
involving DTE, DCE, PSE and PAD.

Figure: X.25 Network

The X.25 protocol suite consists of the following protocols:
 Packet Layer Protocol (PLP): PLP operates at Layer 3 of the OSI reference model,
and is responsible for establishing the connection and managing the data transfer
between DTEs in a WAN..
 Linked Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB): LAPB operates at Layer 2 of the OSI
reference model, and is responsible to ensure that the data packets or frames are
transmitted correctly over the circuit.
 X.21bis: X.2 1bis operates at Layer 1 of the OSI reference model. X.21bis defines the
electrical and mechanical procedures to use the physical medium. The activation and
deactivation of the physical medium between DTE and DCE devices is also handled by
X.21bis.

X.25 is a very old protocol, and can be used only for circuit-switched networks. For packet-
switched networks, a newer protocol, called Frame Relay, is used.

FRAME RELAY
Frame Relay is a protocol use ‘for packet-switching networks, and is an enhancement
of the features offered by the X.25 protocol. Frame Relay is faster compared to X.25
because it uses fewer error-checking mechanisms. Unlike X.25 that uses Plain Old Telephone
System (POTS) for data transfer, Frame Relay is implemented on a more reliable media, such
as optical fiber cables, drastically reducing the number of errors. Consequently, Frame
Relay uses fewer error correction mechanisms.
Frame Relay is a connection-oriented protocol, and defines the path to be taken by
the data packet from the source node to the destination node. The connection between the
source node and the destination node is called a virtual circuit. The following subtopic
describes the role of virtual circuits in a Frame Relay protocol-based WAN.

Virtual Circuits:
Virtual circuits provide a two-way communication path between nodes. The virtual
circuits used in Frame Relay WAN are of two types:

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1. Switched Virtual Circuit (SVC)

SVCs are temporary connections provided between two nodes in a WAN. The
connection between the nodes is set-up for the duration of a data transfer session only. The
connection is terminated upon completion of the data transfer. When the nodes wish to
communicate again, a new virtual circuit is established. SVCs were not supported when Frame
Relays were first introduced. However, SVCs are cost- effective because the virtual circuit
exists only during the data transfer session. Therefore, manufactures of Frame Relay devices
are offering support for SVCs.

2. Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC)

PVCs are permanent connections that exist between two nodes in a WAN. The
connection between the nodes exists even if there is no data transfer taking place. As a virtual
circuit always exists between the two nodes, the data transfer can begin as soon as the
source node is ready to transmit data. Therefore, the implementation of Frame Relay over
PVCs results in faster data transfer than compared to SVCs. In fact, when the Frame Relay
protocol was introduced, only PVCs were supported. PVCs are expensive because the virtual
circuit is always active irrespective of whether any data is being transferred or not.
PVCs may not be affordable to individuals and small businesses, so support for SVCs was
introduced.

Frame Relay Implementation

As Frame Relay is a connection-oriented protocol, it also specifies the virtual circuit
to be taken by the data packet in addition to specifying the destination address. It is
possible that multiple virtual circuits exist between two DTEs, and one of these virtual
circuits needs to be selected. Frame Relay identifies the virtual circuits between two
DTEs or DCEs using Data Link Connection Identifier (DLCI), and selects the appropriate
one. Figure represents a Frame Relay WAN in which DLCI values are assigned.

Figure: DLCI Values in a frame relay WAN

When a node transmits data, Frame Relay sends the data packets across several

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virtual circuits to the destination. The data transfer rate depends on the network traffic in
the virtual circuits and, as a result, it is possible that any important data being transferred
across the network is delayed. In order to prevent such delays, Frame Relay uses a concept
of Committed Information Rate (CIR).
CIR is the amount of bandwidth that a Frame Relay service provider assures the
subscriber at the time of providing the connectivity. For example, if you subscribe to Frame
Relay connectivity with a CIR of 64 Kbps, the service provider assures that you will be
able to use 64 Kbps at any point of time, irrespective of the network traffic. In addition, a
Maximum Information Rate (MIR), which is the maximum bandwidth that would be
available to the user depending on the network traffic, is also specified at the time of
subscription. In practice, the actual bandwidth used depends on the data being transferred,
and varies between the CIR and MIR. In situations where the user is not certain about
the bandwidth required, it is suggested to purchase connectivity with a higher CIR.
Depending on the usage pattern over a period of time, the user can downgrade to a
lower CIR. In fact, it is possible to purchase connectivity with a CIR of 0 but the risk of
data loss is extremely high.
Frame Relay offers faster data transfer rates than X.25 but the maximum data
transfer rate is limited to 1.544 Mbps, used by at -1 line. Frame Relay circuits also suffer from
the problem of network congestion from time to time. This network congestion can result in
dropped frames and loss of important data. In addition, Frame Relay does not use any error-
checking mechanism, and therefore, it is not possible to detect lost or corrupt frames.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

ATM is a WAN protocol that uses the cell-switching technology. ATM is a further
enhancement to X.25 and Frame Relay, and uses cells, which are packets of fixed length,
to transmit data. ATM is designed to support high-speed data transfer rates, nearly 155 Mbps,
between devices. Unlike packet-switching and circuit-switching technologies that support
a constant data transfer rate, ATM, supports variable data transfer rates with the help of
different classes of service. A typical ATM WAN consists of two devices, ATM switches and
ATM endpoints. ATM endpoints are nodes in WAN that send and receive data,
whereas ATM switches accept data from ATM endpoints, and forward them to their
destination.

Figure: ATM Network

Each cell used by ATM contains two parts, the payload and the header. The size of the
payload is 48 bytes and contains the data to be transferred. The size of the header is 5

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bytes, and contains information on the payload, virtual circuit taken by the payload, and error
checking. Also, ATM is a connection-oriented protocol, and therefore specifies the path to
reach the destination. This purpose is served by the virtual circuit information present in the
cell header. In addition, the user can also specify the network resources that should be
used by the cell to reach the destination with the help of the following ATM classes:
 Constant Bit Rate (CBR): In this class, the user needs to decide on the bandwidth
required at the time of subscribing to an ATM service from a service provider.
For example, a CBR of 64 Kbps implies that the data will be transferred at a
constant rate of 64 Kbps irrespective of the actual requirement of the application or
network traffic.
 Variable Bit Rate (VBR): This class allows the user to specify the peak
bandwidth requirement and the standard bandwidth requirement. The amount of
bandwidth utilized is dependent on the data to be transferred. For example, if a user has
subscribed to a peak bandwidth of 128kbps and standard bandwidth of 64 kbps, the
actual data transfer rate wil be between 64 and 128kbps depending on the data and
bandwidth availability.
 Available Bit Rate (ABR): In this class, the bandwidth depends on the network
traffic. If the network traffic is low, the bandwidth available to the user increases.
If network traffic is high, the bandwidth decreases. A minimum guaranteed
bandwidth is provided but the actual bandwidth is usually more, depending on the
network traffic. For example, the user may be assured of 128 Kbps at the time
of subscription but the user may be able to transmit data at 156 Kbps provided
the network traffic is low.
 Unspecified Bit Rate (UBR): There is no minimum bandwidth provided to the
user. The bandwidth depends entirely on network traffic. If network traffic is very high,
no bandwidth is allocated to the user. This class is usually used to transfer data that
can-tolerate delays.
QUESTION BANK
(Questions for Application)

1. How is MAC similar to?

a. Media Access Control
b. Maximum Access Control
c. Minimum Access Control
d. Medium Access Control

2. Can you explain UBR stands for ---------?

a. Unspecified Bit Rate
b. Unused Bit Rate
c. Unspecified Byte Rate

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d. Unused Byte Rate

3. What would you think if the destination address is in same network the bridge
ignores the data packet is called?
a. Filtering
b. Forwarding
c. Ignoring
d. None of the above

4. What would you think if the destination address is in different network the bridge
forwards the data packet is called?
a. Filtering
b. Forwarding
c. Ignoring d
d. None of the above

5. Which type of bridge specifies entire path to be taken by the data packet?
a. Source Route Bridges
b. Transparent Bridges
c. Node based Bridge
d. Translational bridge

6. Router works at which layer?

a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
7. What do you think is the full form of HDLC?
a. High level Data Link Control
b. High Line Data Link Control
c. High level Data Layer Control
d. High Line Data Layer Control

8. What is the bit value of subnet mask?

a. 32
b. 64
c. 128
d. 256

9. What do you think RIP?

a. Remote Information Protocol
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b. Routing Information Protocol

c. Routing Information Program
d. Remote Information Program

10. Which among the following are gateway types?

a. Network gateway
b. Protocol gateway
c. Tunneling gateway
d. All the above

(Questions for Skill)

11. Which type of gateway connect different network that use the same network layer
Protocol?
a. Network gateway
b. Protocol gateway
c. Tunneling gateway
d. All the above

12. Which type of gateway connect network that use the different network layer
Protocol?
a. Network gateway
b. Protocol gateway
c. Tunneling gateway
d. All the above

13. Which among the following is not layer 2 protocol?

a. PPP
b. X.25
c. Frame Relay
d. ATM

14. ATM Reference model maps with which 2 layers of OSI Reference model?
a. Layer 1 and 2
b. Layer 2 and 3
c. Layer 1 and 3
d. Layer 2 and 4
15. Which protocol is commonly used in ISDN?
a. PPP
b. X.25

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c. ATM
d. Frame Relay

16. PLP operates in which layer of OSI Reference model?

a. Layer 2
b. Layer 3
c. Layer 1
d. Layer 4

17. LAPB operates in which layer of OSI Reference model?

a. Layer 2
b. Layer 3
c. Layer 1
d. Layer 4

18. X.21 is operates in which layer of OSI Reference model?

a. Layer 2
b. Layer 3
c. Layer 1
d. Layer 4

19. The cost of the route is considered by which of the following?

a. Hops
b. Delay
c. Bandwidth
d. All the above

20. Which of the following connect 2 networks the use different layer 2 protocol and
translate data between them?
a. Bridge
b. Routers
c. Gateways
d. None of the above

21. Which among the following protocol is not under X.25 protocol?
a. PLP
b. LAPB
c. X.21 bis
d. LCP

22. Which among the following protocols is not under PPP protocol?
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a. NCP
b. HDLC
c. LCP
d. LAPB

23. What is the size of payload in ATM?

a. 48bytes
b. 52bytes
c. 64bytes
d. 128bytes

24. Which among the following class allow user to specify the peak bandwidth
requirement and standard bandwidth requirement?
a. CBR
b. VBR
c. ABR
d. UBR

25. Which protocol uses the concept of CIR?

a. Frame Relay
b. ATM
c. PPP
d. X.25

(Questions for Skill)

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Bridges?
2. How would you explain the process of data transmission in transparent Bridge
when it contains only one path between two nodes.
3. How would you explain the process of data transmission in transparent Bridge
when it contains only one path between two nodes.
4. Can you differentiate between transparent Bridge and Source route Bridges.
5. Can you illustrate the types of Gateways
6. Discuss the elements of routing table
7. Can you illustrate the types of Virtual Circuits.
8. Can you explain Point-to-Point Protocol suit
9. Can you explain the protocols which are used in X.25 Protocol suit
10. Debate on the need of Spanning Tree Algorithm.
11. Debate on the need of Frame Relay
12. Find the features of Open Shortest Path First
13. Debate on the working of Routing Information Protocol
14. Debate on the working of bridges.
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15. Debate on the working of routers

16. Debate on the working of Gateways
17. Debate on the working of Asynchronous Transfer Mode classes

PAPER: 17BCASD23
MODEL QUESTION PAPER

BASICS OF NETWORKING

Answer any TEN from following. (1x10=10)

1. What is protocol?
a. Set of rules
b. Set of computers
c. Set of hardware’s
d. Set of software’s
2. Can you name the device used to translate communication protocols and enables 2
similar/ dissimilar LAN's.

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a. Routers
b. Gateways
c. Bridges
d. Hubs
3. Why Ethernet is popular protocol used in LAN?
a. It supports Coaxial, twisted-pair and optical-fiber Cable
b. Supports bus and star topologies
c. Costs less to set up than ARC net, Token Ring or FDDI LANs
d. All the above
4. Application layer of IPX/SPX is equivalent to which of the following layers?
a. Application, Presentation and session
b. Application and Session
c. Presentation and Session
d. None of the above
5. How is CIDR similar to?
a. Classless Inter Domain Routing
b. Classless Internal Domain Routing
c. Class full Inter Domain Routing’
d. Class full Internal Domain Routing
6. What do you think by broadcasting?
a. Sending the packet to every workstation of all the neighboring networks.
b. Sending the copy of the message packet to all the workstations of a given
network.
c. Sending a msg packet to an individual workstation.
d. Sending the copy to a specific host.
7. What is the Maximum data transfer rate limit of Switched 56?
a. 56Kbps
b. 56bps
c. 56Mbps
d. None of the above
8. IPSec can be used in how many modes?
a. 2
b. 3
c. 4
d. 5
9. What would you think if the destination address is in different network the bridge
forwards the data packet is called?
a. Filtering
b. Forwarding

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c. Ignoring
d. None of the above
10. Which protocol is commonly used in ISDN?
a. PPP
b. X.25
c. ATM
d. Frame Relay
11. Which among the following protocol is not under X.25 protocol?
a. PLP
b. LAPB
c. X.21 bis
d. LCP
12. What is the other name for Extended C-band?
a. C-band
b. XC-band
c. Ku-band
d. EC-band

UNIT I
(4+4=8)
1. Can you name and explain the hardware components of networking.
2. Can you explain different layers of OSI reference model?
OR
3. Can you Explain Ring topology with its advantages and disadvantages.
4. Can you explain in your own words about optical fiber cables?

UNIT II
(4+4=8)
5. Can you Explain the different aspects of communication in network protocols
6. Analyze the working of POP protocol.
OR
7. How would you explain the fault management and tolerance in token ring network?
8. Analyze the protocols that work at TCP/IP layer

UNIT III
(4+4=8)
9. How would you explain the communication across subnets are done
10. Analyze NETBEUI Addressing with explanation
OR

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11. Can you illustrate the IPv6?

12. Analyze IPX/SPX Addressing with explanation

UNIT IV
(4+4=8)
13. Can you differentiate between LAN and WAN
14. Analyze the working of Internet Protocol Security with example

OR

15. Can you illustrate the Architecture of VSAT Network

16. Analyze the working of POTS with neat diagram.

UNIT V
(4+4=8)
17. Discuss the elements of routing table
18. Can you differentiate between transparent Bridge and Source route Bridges.
OR
19. Debate on the working of Routing Information Protocol
20. How would you explain the process of data transmission in transparent Bridge when it
contains only one path between two nodes.

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