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Chapter 2 Handaout Computer and It

There are two types of circuit elements: passive elements like resistors, capacitors, and inductors that do not generate energy, and active elements like generators and batteries that generate energy. Resistors reduce current flow and adjust signal levels. Capacitors store energy in an electric field between conducting plates. Inductors store energy in a magnetic field generated by current flowing through a coil. Circuit analysis techniques include applying voltage and current division rules for elements in series and parallel, and using nodes and branches to simplify circuits.

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74 views9 pages

Chapter 2 Handaout Computer and It

There are two types of circuit elements: passive elements like resistors, capacitors, and inductors that do not generate energy, and active elements like generators and batteries that generate energy. Resistors reduce current flow and adjust signal levels. Capacitors store energy in an electric field between conducting plates. Inductors store energy in a magnetic field generated by current flowing through a coil. Circuit analysis techniques include applying voltage and current division rules for elements in series and parallel, and using nodes and branches to simplify circuits.

Uploaded by

Yobi G
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Chapter 2

Circuit elements
There are two types of elements found in electric circuits: passive elements and active elements.
An active element is capable of generating energy while a passive element is not. Examples of
passive elements are resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Typical active elements include
generators, batteries, and operational amplifiers.
Active elements
The most important active elements are voltage or current sources that generally deliver power
to the circuit connected to them. There are two kinds of sources: independent and dependent
sources
Independent sources
An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified voltage or current
that is completely independent of other circuit variables
Symbols for independent voltage source

(a) Used for constant or time-varying voltage, (b) used for constant voltage (dc).
Symbols for independent current source

Figure Symbol for independent current source.


The direction of the arrow indicates the direction of current
Dependent voltage and current sources
An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the source quantity is
controlled by another voltage or current.
Symbols for: (a) dependent voltage source, (b) dependent current source
There are four possible types of dependent sources, namely:
1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).
2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS
Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each element in the figure below

Passive elements
Resistors
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow,
adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines
Series resistors and voltage division rule

Figure. A single-loop circuit with two resistors in series.


If the resisters is connected in series the same current flow in each of them
i.e it = i1 = i2 = iN
R eqt = R1 + R 2+ = +R N
vt = v1 + 𝑣2+ = +vN
We can express the voltage across each resisters by the following equation

Notice that the source voltage v is divided among the resistors in direct proportion to their
resistances; the larger the resistance, the larger the voltage drop.
Parallel resisters and current division rule
The concept of nodes and branches
Branch represent a single element such as voltage source, current and resistors Nodes are a
point of connection of two branches. Notice that the three points that form node b are
connected by perfectly conducting wires and therefore constitute a single point in the figure
below.

Figure Nodes, and branches, Equivalent circuit


of the
The above circuit have three nodes and five branches
We can simplify the above circuit to the following circuit

Parallel connected resisters


Many resisters connected to two the same nodes are called parallel resistors
v1 = v2 = vN
i = i1 + i2 + ⋯ + iN
1 1 1 1
= + +⋯
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑁
Capacitor
In both digital and analog electronic circuits a capacitor is a fundamental element. It
enables the filtering of signals and it provides a fundamental memory element. The
capacitor is an element that stores energy in an electric field. The circuit symbol and
associated electrical variables for the capacitor is shown on Figure below

Circuit symbol for capacitor


The capacitor may be modeled as two conducting plates separated by a dielectric as shown
on Figure below. When a voltage v is applied across the plates, a charge +q accumulates
on one plate and a charge –q on the other.

Capacitor model
If the plates have an area A and are separated by a distance d, the electric field generated
across the plates is
𝒒
𝑬=
ε Α
𝑞𝑑
And the voltage across the capacitor plates is 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑 = ε A

The current flowing into the capacitor is the rate of change of the charge across the capacitor
𝑑𝑞
plates 𝑖 = . And thus we have,
𝑑𝑡
The constant of proportionality C is referred to as the capacitance of the capacitor. It is a
function of the geometric characteristics of the capacitor - plate separation (d) and plate
area (A) - and by the permittivity (ε) of the dielectric material between the plates.

Capacitance represents the efficiency of charge storage and it is measured in units of Farads
(F).
The current-voltage relationship of a capacitor is

Integrating both sides in terms of dt

The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor is

The energy stored in the capacitor is therefore

We note that 𝑣(−∞) = 0, because the capacitor was unchanged at 𝑡 = −∞. Thus,

We may rewrite the above equation as

Series and parallel connected capacitor


Parallel capacitor

Parallel capacitor equivalent capacitor


In this case ceq = c1 + c2 + c3 … cN

Vt = v1 = v2 = v3 = vN
Series connected capacitors

Fig series connected capacitors equivalent circuit


Note that the same current i flows (and consequently the same charge) through the capacitors

Inductors
The inductor is a coil which stores energy in the magnetic field Consider a wire of length l
forming a loop of area A as shown on Figure 11. A current i(t) is flowing through the wire as
indicated. This current generates a magnetic field B which is equal to

Where µ is the magnetic permeability of the material enclosed by the wire.

Figure 11. Current loop for the calculation of inductance


The magnetic flux, Φ, through the loop of area A is

Where we have defined

From Maxwell’s equations we know that

Parellel combination of inductors


In this case all inductors have the same voltage
Siries combination of inductance

The equivalent inductance of series-connected inductors is the sum of the individual


inductances.

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