INTRODUCTION TO MASS

TRANSFER
Introduction
• Three fundamental transfer processes:
i) Momentum transfer
ii) Heat transfer
iii) Mass transfer
• Mass transfer may occur in a gas mixture, a liquid
solution or solid.
• Mass transfer occurs whenever there is a gradient in
the concentration of a species.
• The basic mechanisms are the same whether the
phase is a gas, liquid, or solid.
Definition of Concentration

i) Number of molecules of each species present per

unit volume (molecules/m3)
ii) Molar concentration of species i = Number of moles
of i per unit volume (kmol/m3)
iii) Mass concentration = Mass of i per unit volume
(kg/m3)
• Fick’s law:
• Linear relation between the rate of diffusion of chemical
species and the concentration gradient of that species.
• The rate of flow of the commodity is proportional to
the concentration gradient dC/dx, and the area A
normal to flow direction, and is expressed as
• Flow rate  (Normal area)(Concentration gradient)
. dC A
Q = − k diff A
dx
• Where;
• dC/dx is the change in the concentration C per unit
length in the flow direction x
• Here the proportionality constant kdiff is the diffusion
coefficient of the medium, which is a measure of how
fast a commodity diffuses in the medium
• Fick’s law (Cont..):
• The negative sign is to make the flow in the positive
direction a positive quantity (note that dC/dx is a
negative quantity since concentration decreases in the
flow direction).
 Diffusion phenomena
• Thermal diffusion: Diffusion due to a temperature
gradient. Usually negligible unless the
temperature gradient is very large.
• Pressure diffusion: Diffusion due to a pressure
gradient. Usually negligible unless the pressure
gradient is very large.
• Forced diffusion: Diffusion due to external force field
acting on a molecule. Forced diffusion occurs when an
electrical field is imposed on an electrolyte ( for example,
in charging an automobile battery)
• Knudsen diffusion: Diffusion phenomena occur in
porous solids.
• Whenever there is concentration difference in a medium,
nature tends to equalize
things by forcing a flow
from the high to the low
concentration region.
Before After

• The molecular transport process of mass is characterized

by the general equation:

Rate of transfer process = driving force

resistance
 EXAMPLES OF MASS
TRANSFER PROCESSES
1. Gas to Gas Mass Transfer
a) Mass Transfer Between N2 and O2
when partition is removed
• Consider a tank that is divided into
two equal parts by a partition.
• Initially, the left half of the tank
contains nitrogen N2 gas while the
right half contains O2 at the same
temperature and pressure.
• When the partition is removed the
FIGURE 14–2
N2 molecules will start diffusing A tank that contains N2
into the air while the O2 molecules and air in its two
compartments, and the
diffuse into the N2. diffusion of N2 into the
• If we wait long enough, we will air (and the diffusion of
have a homogeneous mixture of O2 into N2) when the
partition is removed.
N2 and O2 in the tank.
2. Liquid to Gas Mass Transfer
a) Mass Transfer of water into
surrounding air
• A cup of water left in a room
eventually evaporates as a result of
water molecules diffusing into the air
3. Liquid to Liquid Mass Transfer
a) Mass Transfer of liquid dye and
water
• A drop of blue liquid dye is added to a
glass of water. The dye molecules will
diffuse slowly by molecular diffusion to
all parts of the water.
4. Solid to Gas Mass Transfer
a) Mass Transfer of CO2 dry ice into
air
• A piece of solid CO2 (dry ice) also gets
smaller and smaller in time as the CO2
molecules diffuse into the air.
5. Solid to Liquid Mass Transfer
a) Mass Transfer of sugar into coffee
• A spoon of sugar in a cup of coffee
eventually moves up and sweetens the
coffee although the sugar molecules are
much heavier than the water molecules.
b) Mass Transfer of pencil
color into water
• The molecules of a colored
pencil inserted into a glass of
water diffuses into the water
as evidenced by the gradual
spread of color in the water.
6. Gas to Liquid Mass
Transfer
a) Mass Transfer of O2 into
water
• Small fraction of O2 in the air
diffuses into the water and
meets the oxygen needs of
marine animals.
7. Solid to solid mass transfer
• The diffusion of carbon into iron during
case-hardening
• Doping of semiconductors for
transistors
• The migration of doped molecules in
semiconductors at high temperature
ANALOGY BETWEEN
HEAT AND MASS
TRANSFER
E = mc 2
1) Temperature

2) Conduction

3) Heat Generation

4) Convection
•

Figure 14-4:
Analogy Between
Heat and Mass
Transfer
•

Figure 14-4:
Analogy Between
heat conduction and
mass diffusion
3) Heat Generation
• Heat generation refers to the conversion of some form of energy such as
electrical, chemical, or nuclear energy into sensible thermal energy in the
medium.
a) Homogeneous reactions
• Some mass transfer problems involve chemical reactions that occur within
the medium and result in the generation of a species throughout.
• Therefore, species generation is a volumetric phenomenon, and the rate
of generation may vary from point to point in the medium. Such reactions
that occur within the medium are called homogeneous reactions and are
analogous to internal heat generation.
b) Heterogeneous Reactions
• In contrast, some chemical reactions result in the generation of a species
at the surface as a result of chemical reactions occurring at the surface due
to contact between the medium and the surroundings. This is a surface
phenomenon, and as such it needs to be treated as a boundary condition.
In mass transfer studies, such reactions are called heterogeneous
reactions and are analogous to specified surface heat flux.
4) Convection
• Heat convection is the heat transfer
mechanism that involves both heat
conduction (molecular diffusion) and
bulk fluid motion.
• Likewise, mass convection (or
convective mass transfer) is the mass
transfer mechanism between a
surface and a moving fluid that
involves both mass diffusion and bulk
fluid motion. Fluid motion also
enhances mass transfer considerably
by removing the high concentration
fluid near the surface and replacing it Figure 14-4: Analogy
by the lower concentration fluid Between convection
farther away. heat transfer and
convection mass
transfer
4) Convection (Cont..)
• In mass convection, we define a
concentration boundary layer in an
analogous manner to the thermal
boundary layer and define new
dimensionless numbers that are
counterparts of the Nusselt and Prandtl
numbers.
a) The rate of heat convection for
external flow is expressed as
Newton’s law of cooling:

b) The rate of mass convection is Figure 14-4: Analogy

expressed as : Between convection
heat transfer and
convection mass
transfer
 Fick’s Law (Fick’s First Law of Steady
State Diffusion)
• According to Fick’s law for one-dimensional steady-state
molecular diffusion:
• The molar flux of a component in a frame of reference
moving with the molar average velocity is
proportional to the concentration gradient of the
component.
• The rate of mass diffusion of a chemical species in a
stagnant medium in a specified direction is
proportional to the local concentration gradient in that
direction.
• If A diffuses in a binary mixture of A and B, then according
to Fick’s law dC A
JA 
dz
dC A
J A = − DAB
dz
 Fick’s Law (Fick’s First Law of Steady
State Diffusion)
JA is the molecular diffusion flux of component A in the z
direction, (moles per unit area per unit time) in [kmol/m2.s]

D AB is the molecular diffusivity of the molecule A in B in m2/s

CA is the concentration of A, (moles of A per unit volume) in
[kmol/m3]
z is the distance of diffusion (m)
 Fick’s Law of Diffusion (Molecular Diffusion)

• Molecular diffusion or molecular transport can be defined as the transfer

or movement of individual molecules through a fluid by mean of the
random, individual movements of the molecules.
(2) A

B
B B

B B B
B
B B B

(1) A
Figure 3: Schematic diagram of molecular diffusion process
• If there are greater number of A molecules near point (1) than at (2),
then since molecules diffuse randomly in both direction, more A
molecules will diffuse from (1) to (2) than from (2) to (1).
• The net diffusion of A is from high to low concentration regions.
• The two modes of mass transfer:
- Molecular diffusion
- Convective mass transfer
 Molecular diffusion
The diffusion of molecules when the whole
bulk fluid is not moving but stationary.
Diffusion of molecules is due to a
concentration gradient.
The general Fick’s Law Equation for binary mixture of A and B

dy A
J A = −CD AB
dz
C = total concentration of A and B [kmol (A + B)/m3]
yA= mole fraction of A in the mixture of A and B
 Example
A mixture of He and N2 gas is contained in a pipe at 298 K
and 1 atm total pressure which is constant throughout. At
one end of the pipe at point 1 the partial pressure pA1 of
He is 0.6 atm and at the other end 0.2 m pA2 = 0.2 atm.
Calculate the flux of He at steady state if DAB of the He-N2
mixture is 0.687 x 10-4 m2/s.
Data
T= 298 K
P= 1 atm
pA1 = 0.6 atm
pA2 = 0.2 atm
DAB=0.687 x 10-4 m2/s.
JA=?
 Solution
• Since a total pressure P is constant, the c is constant, where c is as follows
for a gas according to the perfect gas law:

• Where n is kg mol A plus B, V is volume in m3, T is temperature in K, R is

8314.3 m3.Pa/kg mol.K or R is 82.057 x 10-3 cm3. atm/g. mol. K, and c is kg
mol (A+B)/m3.
dC A
J A = − DAB
dz
J Ad z = − DAB dC A
• For steady state the flux JA in above equation is constant. Also DAB for gas is
constant. Applying Integration:
z2 CA2

J A  dz = − DAB  dC A
z1 C A1
Solution (Continued…)
z2 CA2

J A  dz = − D AB  dC A
z1 C A1
z2 CA2
J A z = − D AB C
z1 C A1

J A ( z 2 − z1 ) = − D AB (C A 2 − C A1 )
DAB (C A 2 − C A1 )
JA = −
( z 2 − z1 )
• Also, from the perfect gas law, pAV=nART, and rearranging it

nA pA
= = cA
V RT
Solution (Continued…)
nA p A1
= = c A1
V RT
nA p A2
= = c A2
V RT
• Substituting above two equations in the below highlighted equation

DAB (C A 2 − C A1 )
JA = −
( z 2 − z1 )

D AB ( p A 2 − p A1 )
JA = −
RT ( z 2 − z1 )
D AB ( p A1 − p A 2 )
JA =
RT ( z 2 − z1 )
Solution (Continued…)
• This is the final equation to use, (in a simplified form which can be used
for gases).
• Partial pressures are:
• pA1 = 0.6 atm = 0.6 x 1.01325 x 105 = 6.08 x 104 Pa
• pA2 = 0.2 atm = 0.2 x 1.01325 x 105 = 2.027 x 104 Pa
• T= 298 K
• DAB=0.687 x 10-4 m2/s
D AB ( p A1 − p A 2 )
JA =
RT ( z 2 − z1 )
• Then, using SI units,

0.0000687 (6.0800 − 2.0270)

JA =
8314( 298)(0.2 − 0)
JA = 0.00000563 kmolA / m 2 s
 Example (Continued…)
• If pressures in atm are used with SI unit,
• pA1 = 0.6 atm
• pA2 = 0.2 atm
• T= 298 K
• DAB=0.687 x 10-4 m2/s
• z1=0 m
• z2=0.2m
Then, using SI units,
0.0000687 (0.6 − 0.2)
JA =
0.08206 ( 298)(0.2 − 0)
JA = 0.00000563 kmolA / m 2 s
Example (Continued…)
• Other driving forces (besides concentration
differences) for diffusion also occur because of
temperature, pressure, electrical potential, and
other gradients.
 Convective Diffusion
•
 Total Mass Transfer
•
 Total Mass Transfer (for Gases)
•
PRINCIPLES OF MASS
TRANSFER
MOLECULAR DIFFUSION IN GASES
CONTENTS

Mass Transfer

Molecular Diffusion Convective Mass Transfer

Gases Liquid Solid

Molecular Diffusion in Gases
• Equimolar Counterdiffussion in Gases
Fick’s Law for Gases
•
 Equimolecular Counter Diffusion
ASSUMPTIONS
(i) diffusion occurs in steady-state*,
(ii) the gas mixture behaves as ideal gas,
(iii) the temperature is constant throughout,
(iv) diffusion occurs through constant area.
• When the mass transfer rates of the two components are equal and
opposite the process is said to be one of equimolecular counter
diffusion.
• Such a process occurs in the case of the box with a movable partition.
• It occurs also in a distillation column when the molar latent heats of the two
components are the same (λA = λB) . At any point in the column a falling
stream of liquid is brought into contact with a rising stream of vapour with
which it is not in equilibrium. The less volatile component is transferred from
the vapour to the liquid and the more volatile component is transferred in
the opposite direction. If the molar latent heats of the components are
equal, the condensation of a given amount of less volatile component
releases exactly the amount of latent heat required to volatilize the same
molar quantity of the more volatile component. Thus at the interface, and
consequently throughout the liquid and vapour phases, equimolecular
counter diffusion is taking place (N = - N ).
 Equimolecular Counter Diffusion
(Examples)
a) Toluene and benzene in a Distillation Column
Let us consider a mixture of benzene and toluene being rectified. The vapour
rising through the column is brought into intimate contact with the liquid
flowing down so that mass transfer takes place between the two streams.
The less volatile component (toluene) in the vapour condenses and passes
on to the liquid phase while the more volatile component (benzene) in the
liquid vaporises by utilizing the latent heat of condensation released by
toluene. Thus, the vapour phase gets more and more enriched in benzene
while the liquid phase gets more and more enriched in toluene. Since the
molar latent heats of vaporisation of benzene and toluene are almost equal,
one mole of toluene gets condensed while one mole of benzene gets
vaporised provided there is no heat loss from the column.
b) The burning of carbon in air
Assuming complete combustion, carbon dioxide is the only product of
combustion and for one mole of oxygen diffusing to the carbon surface
through the surrounding air film, one mole of carbon dioxide diffuses out.
Equimolecular Counter Diffusion
• For a binary gas mixture of A and B, the diffusivity
coefficient DAB=DBA
Example 6.2-1
Ammonia gas (A) is diffusing through a
uniform tube 0.10 m long containing N2
gas (B) at 1.0132 x 105 Pa pressure and
298 K. The diagram is similar to Fig. 6.2-
1. At point 1, pA1 = 1.013 x 104 Pa and
at point 2, pA2 = 0.507 x 104 Pa. The
diffusivity DAB = 0.230 x 10-4 m2/s.
(a) Calculate the flux J*A at steady state
(b) Repeat for J*B
Solution
• Equation (6.1-13) can be used, where P = 1.0132 x 105 Pa, z2-z1 = 0.10
m, and T = 298 K. Substituting into Eq. (6.1-13) for part (a),

• Rewriting Eq. (6.1-13) for component B for part (b) and noting that
• pB1 = P – pA1 = 1.01325 x 105 – 1.013 x 104 = 9.119 x 104 Pa and
• pB2 = P – pA2 = 1.01325 x 105 – 0.507 x 104 = 9.625 x 104 Pa.

• The negative for J*B means the flux goes from point 2 to point 1.
 Nonequimolecular Counter Diffusion
When the two components A and B diffuse in opposite directions
at different molar rates, the process is said to be one of
equimolecular counter diffusion.
Example
In case of incomplete combustion of carbon in air producing carbon
monoxide, for each mole of oxygen diffusing through the air film to the
surface of carbon particle, two moles of carbon monoxide will diffuse in the
opposite direction. This is a case of nonequimolar counter-diffusion where
NA = -NB/2.
In such a situation, the molar fluxes of A and B can be calculated by
integrating total diffusion equation after expressing NB in terms of NA.
Nonequimolar counter-diffusion is also encountered in distillation where the
molar latent heats of vaporisation of the components are different.
Nonequimolecular Counter Diffusion
Nonequimolecular Counter Diffusion
 Nonequimolecular Counter Diffusion
Example: Species A in a gaseous mixture diffuses through a (3 mm) thick
film and reaches a catalyst surface where the reaction A → 3B takes place.
If the partial pressure of A in the bulk of the gas is 8.5 kN/m2 and the
diffusivity of A is 2*10-5 m2/s. Find the mole flux of A, given the pressure
and temperature of the system are 101.3 kPa and 297 K, respectively.
Solution:
A → 3B 𝐧= 𝐍𝐁/𝐍𝐀= 𝟑/𝟏=𝟑
Given:
DAB=2∗10−5 m2s , PT=101.3 kPa
T=297 K , PA1=8.5 kPa
PA2=0
 Diffusion of component A through a
stagnant layer of component B
ASSUMPTIONS
(i) diffusion occurs in steady-state*,
(ii) the gas mixture behaves as ideal gas,
(iii) the temperature is constant throughout,
(iv) diffusion occurs through constant area.
EXAMPLE
Let us consider a pool of water placed in a tray in contact with a stream of
unsaturated air. So long as the air remains unsaturated, water molecules will
diffuse into the air. The bulk of air is in motion, but a thin layer of air in
contact with water will be stagnant and then moving in laminar motion in a
direction normal to the direction of diffusion. Water vapour will diffuse
through this layer by molecular diffusion before being carried away by the
moving air.
CONTINUED….
CONTINUED….
CONTINUED….

Figure 2.3 Distribution of partial

pressure for diffusion of A through
stagnant B.
Example 2.2: (Diffusion of one component
through the stagnant layer of another component)
Example 2.2: (Continued..)
Example 2.2: (Continued..)
EXAMPLE 2.3: (Calculation of rate of diffusion of one
component from data on diffusion of another component):

•
EXAMPLE 2.3: (Continued…):
•
EXAMPLE 2.3: (Continued…):
•
EXAMPLE 2.3: (Continued…):
•
EXAMPLE 2.3: (Continued…):
•