Fiber Optics Cable Maintenance: Study Material On

Fiber Optic Cable Maintenance
S.M. No. : SNTI / EPC/ SM / 151

Rev. No. : 00
Effective Date : 29 Jan 2009
(An ISO 9001 Organisation)
Let us learn and lead
Study Material
on
Fiber Optics Cable Maintenance
(Course Code: SEPE1H)
Prepared by: Suvendu Chakraborty Page 1 of 54

This study material covers fundamental principles and hands-on application of modern fiber optic technology,
preparing students to use current technology and giving them the basis required to adapt to future developments.
Topics include telecommunications, optics, fiber fabrication, splicing, and termination, lasers, LEDs, detectors
and optical amplifiers, optical protocols including FDDI and SONET, and network design and troubleshooting.
Engineers and technicians of Tata Steel will perform many hands-on labs using fiber optic cable and related
equipment which eventually help them to solve plant problem
Prepared by Approved by
Suvendu Chakraborty S. Bhowmik
Manager, Electronics & Group Head - EEI
Process Control

Sl. No. Topic Page #
1. Introduction 4-6
2. Basic of Fiber Optics 7-15
3. Fiber Optics Networks 16-18
4. Fiber Optics Joints, Splices, Connector 19-29
5. Fiber Optics Parameter 30-34
6. Fiber Optics Cable Pulling 35-36
7. Fiber Optics Testing 37-51
8. Fiber Optics Cable Safety 52-55

Chapter 1
Introduction
Fiber Optics History
Fiber optics began about 30 years ago in the R&D labs (Corning, Bell Labs, ITT UK, etc.)
First installed in Chicago in 1976
By the early 1980s, fiber networks connected the major cities on each coast.
The 1980s
By the mid-80s, fiber was replacing all the telco copper, microwave and satellite links
In the 90s, CATV started using fiber to enhance the reliability of their networks
• CATV companies also discovered they could offer phone and Internet service on that same fiber
and greatly enlarged their markets
Light Coming Out of Water Air
Total Internal Reflection
There is a critical angle at which no light can be
refracted at all, so 100% of the light is reflected
• Light is trapped in the water and cannot escape
into the air
• This works with any dense medium, such as
plastic or glass, the same way it works with Water
water
How Light Travels in Fiber

Bare Fiber
During 1920-1950, thin, flexible rods of glass or plastic were used to guide
light
Such “bare” fibers require air outside each fiber
• Image from Wikipedia
Fiber With Cladding
Developed in 1954 by van Heel,
Hopkins & Kapany
Cladding is a glass or plastic cover
around the core
Protects the total-reflection surface
contamination
Reduces cross-talk from fibers in
bundles
Medical Imaging
By 1960, glass-clad fibers were available for medical
instruments, to look inside the body
The glass was unable to transmit light far enough for communications, because of impurities
• Attenuation
Prepared(loss
by: of light) was
Suvendu 1 decibel per meter
Chakraborty Page 4 of 54
Decibels
Decibels are a logarithmic scale of power
• Abbreviated dB
A loss of 10 decibels means only 10% of the light gets through
A loss of 20 dB means 1% of the light gets through
• Sunglasses stop 99% of light, so they cause a loss of 20 dB
For communications, loss must be no more than 10 or 20 decibels per kilometer
Optical Fiber in 1966

Charles Kao developed a fiber that could transmit 1 GHz (One billion bits per second)
But attenuation was 1000 dB/km, so it could not transmit light far enough for practical
communications
Corning
Corning scientists developed low-attenuation silica glass fibers in 1970
Corning Video: At The Speed of Light
Singlemode and Multimode Fiber

Singlemode fiber has a core diameter of 8 to 9 microns
Multimode fiber has a core diameter of 50 or 62.5 microns
Both have a cladding diameter of 125 microns
Optical Fiber in 1977
Telephone signals used infrared light with a wavelength of 850 nm to send data at 6.2 Mbps and 45
Mbps
Loss was 2 dB per km
Repeaters were required every few kilometers
• The repeaters were electro-optical – converting the light to electricity and then back to light
TAT-8
In 1988 AT&T laid the first fiber-optic transatlantic telephony cable
3,148 miles long
Connected North America to France
Repeaters every 40 miles
565 Mbps bandwidth
Used 1300 nm light
Attenuation 0.4 dB/km
Fiber Amplifier
Special fiber with Erbium atoms in it is used to amplify light without changing it to an electrical signal
first
Uses stimulated emission, the same principle that makes lasers work

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Several signals can be sent through the same fiber simultaneously by using different wavelengths
(colors) of light
That means more bandwidth—more data per second
Freeway Analogy
TAT-8 in 1980
• 565 Mbps
• Electro-optical repeaters
TAT-12/13 in 1996
• 2.5 Gbps
• Optical amplifiers
1998
• 20 Gbps
• WDM with 8 wavelengths
End of Chapter 1

Chapter 2
Basic of Fiber Optics
Optical Fiber
Fiber v. Copper
Optical fiber transmits light pulses
• Can be used for analog or digital transmission
• Voice, computer data, video, etc.
Copper wires (or other metals) can carry the same types of signals with electrical pulses
Advantages of Fiber
Fiber has these advantages compared with metal wires
• Bandwidth – more data per second
• Longer distance
• Faster
• Special applications like medical imaging and quantum key distribution are only possible with fiber
because they use light directly
Elements of a Fiber Data Link
Transmitter emits light pulses (LED or Laser)
Connectors and Cables passively carry the
pulses
Receiver detects the light pulses
Repeaters
For long links, repeaters are needed to
compensate for signal loss
Optical Fiber
Core
• Glass or plastic with a higher index of
refraction than the cladding
• Carries the signal
Cladding
• Glass or plastic with a lower index of
refraction than the core
Buffer
• Protects the fiber from damage and moisture
Jacket
• Holds one or more fibers in a cable
Singlemode Fiber
Singlemode fiber has a core diameter of 8 to 9 microns, which only allows one light path or mode

•
Multimode Step-Index Fiber
Multimode fiber has a core diameter of 50 or 62.5 microns (sometimes even larger)
• Allows several light paths or modes
• This causes modal dispersion – some modes take longer to pass through the fiber than others
because they travel a longer distance
Multimode Graded-Index Fiber

The index of refraction gradually changes across the core
• Modes that travel further also move faster
• This reduces modal dispersion so the bandwidth is greatly increased
Step-index and Graded-index

Step index multimode was developed first, but rare today because it has a low bandwidth (50 MHz-
km)
It has been replaced by graded-index multimode with a bandwidth up to 2 GHz-km
Plastic Optical Fiber
Large core (1 mm) step-index multimode fiber
Easy to cut and work with, but high attenuation (1 dB / meter) makes it useless for long distances

Sources and Wavelengths
Multimode fiber is used with
• LED sources at wavelengths of 850 and 1300 nm for slower local area networks
• Lasers at 850 and 1310 nm for networks running at gigabits per second or more
Sources and Wavelengths
Single mode fiber is used with
• Laser sources at 1300 and 1550 nm
• Bandwidth is extremely high, around 100 THz-km
Fiber Optic Specifications
Attenuation
• Loss of signal, measured in dB
Dispersion
• Blurring of a signal, affects bandwidth
Bandwidth
• The number of bits per second that can be sent through a data
link
Numerical Aperture
• Measures the largest angle of light that can be accepted into the core
Measuring Bandwidth
The bandwidth-distance product in units of MHz×km shows how fast data can be sent through a cable
A common multimode fiber with bandwidth-distance product of 500 MHz×km could carry
• A 500 MHz signal for 1 km, or
• A 1000 MHz signal for 0.5 km
Numerical Aperture
If the core and cladding have almost the same index of refraction, the numerical aperture will be small
This means that light must be shooting right down the center of the fiber to stay in the core

Fiber Types and Specifications

Popular Fiber Types

At first there were only two common types of fiber
• 62.5 micron multimode, intended for LEDs and 100 Mbps networks
There is a large installed base of 62.5 micron fiber
• 8 micron single-mode for long distances or high bandwidths, requiring laser sources
Corning’s SMF-28 fiber is the largest base of installed fiber in the world Gigabit
Ethernet
62.5 micron multimode fiber did not have enough bandwidth for Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps)
LEDs cannot be used as sources for Gigabit Ethernet – they are too slow
So Gigabit Ethernet used a new, inexpensive source:
• Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser (VCSEL)
Multimode Fiber Designed for VCSELs
First came laser-rated 50 micron multimode
• Bandwidth 500 MHz-km at 850 nm
Then came laser-optimized 50 micron multimode
• Bandwidth 2000 MHz-km at 850 nm
• Distinctive aqua-colored jacket
Don’t Mix Fiber Types
You can’t mix single mode and multimode fiber – you lose 20 dB at the junction (99% of the light!)
Mixing 50 micron and 62.5 micron multimode is not as bad, but you lose 3 dB (half the power) which
is usually unacceptable
Fiber Manufacture
Three Methods
• Modified Chemical Vapor
Deposition (MCVD)
• Outside Vapor Deposition
(OVD)
• Vapor Axial Deposition (VAD)
Modified Chemical Vapor
Deposition (MCVD)
A hollow, rotating glass tube is heated
with a torch
Chemicals inside the tube precipitate
to form soot
Rod is collapsed to crate a preform
Preform is stretched in a drawing
tower to form a single fiber up to 10
km long

Outside Vapor Deposition (OVD)

A mandrel is
coated with a
porous preform
in a furnace
Then the
mandrel is
removed and the
preform is
collapsed in a
process called
sintering
Vapor Axial Deposition (VAD)

Preform is fabricated continuously
When the preform is long enough, it goes directly to the drawing tower
Drawing
The fiber is drawn from the preform and then coated with a protective coating
Index of Refraction
When light enters a dense medium like glass or water, it slows down
The index of refraction (n) is the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in the
medium
Water has n = 1.3
• Light takes 30% longer to travel through it
Fiber optic glass has n = 1.5
• Light takes 50% longer to travel through it
Fiber Applications
Step-index Multimode
Large core size, so source power can be efficiently coupled to the fiber
High attenuation (4-6 dB / km)
Low bandwidth (50 MHz-km)
Used in short, low-speed datalinks
Also useful in high-radiation environments, because it can be made with pure silica core
Graded-index Multimode
Useful for “premises networks” like LANs, security systems, etc.
62.5/125 micron has been most widely used
• Works well with LEDs, but cannot be used for Gigabit Ethernet
50/125 micron fiber and VSELS are used for faster networks
Singlemode Fiber
Best for high speeds and long distances
Used by telephone companies and CATV

Fiber Performance
Attenuation
Modern fiber material is very pure, but there is still some attenuation
The wavelengths used are chosen to avoid absorption bands
• 850 nm, 1300 nm, and 1550 nm
• Plastic fiber uses 660 nm LEDs
Three Types of Dispersion
Dispersion is the spreading out of a light pulse as it travels through the fiber
Three types:
• Modal Dispersion
• Chromatic Dispersion
• Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)
Modal Dispersion
Modal Dispersion
• Spreading of a pulse because different modes (paths) through the fiber take different times
• Only happens in multimode fiber
• Reduced, but not eliminated, with graded-index fiber
Chromatic Dispersion
Different wavelengths travel at different speeds through the fiber
This spreads a pulse in an effect named chromatic dispersion
Chromatic dispersion occurs in both singlemode and multimode fiber
• Larger effect with LEDs than with lasers
• A far smaller effect than modal dispersion
Polarization Mode Dispersion
Light with different polarization can travel at different speeds, if the fiber is not perfectly symmetric at
the atomic level
This could come from imperfect circular geometry or stress on the cable, and there is no easy way to
correct it
It can affect both singlemode and multimode fiber.
Modal Distribution
In graded-index fiber, the off-axis modes go a longer distance than the axial mode, but they travel
faster, compensating for dispersion
• But because the off-axis modes travel further, they suffer more attenuation
Equilibrium Modal Distribution
A long fiber that has lost the high-order modes is said to have an equilibrium modal distribution
For testing fibers, devices can be used to condition the modal distribution so measurements will be
accurate
Mode Stripper
An index-matching substance is put on the outside of the fiber to remove light travelling through the
cladding

Mode Scrambler
Mode scramblers mix light to excite every possible mode of transmission within the fiber
• Used for accurate measurements of attenuation
Mode Filter
Wrapping the fiber around a 12.5 mm mandrel
• Exceeds the critical angle for total internal reflection for very oblique modes
• The high-order modes leak into the cladding and are lost
• That creates an equilibrium modal distribution
• Allows an accurate test with a short test cable

Decibel Units
Optical Loss in dB (decibels)
If the data link is perfect, and loses no power

• The loss is 0 dB
If the data link loses 50% of the power
• The loss is 3 dB, or a change of – 3 dB
dB = 10 log (Power Out / Power In)
Absolute Power in dBm

The power of a light is measured in milliwatts
For convenience, we use the dBm units, where
-20 dBm = 0.01 milliwatt
-10 dBm = 0.1 milliwatt
0 dBm = 1 milliwatt
10 dBm = 10 milliwatts
20 dBm = 100 milliwatts
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM)

Uses up to 100 wavelengths through a single fiber
Bandwidth up to 1 Tbps (1000 Gbps)
End of Chapter 2

Chapter 3
Fiber Optics Network
Where Fiber is used

History
First fiber optic network installed in Chicago in 1976 (Link Ch 3k)
Now more than 90% of long-distance voice links use fiber optics
CATV is sent over fiber optics using an analog transmission
• Soon it will convert to digital compressed video
The Internet backbone is also fiber
Where New Fiber is Going

“The Last Mile”
• Fiber to the home
• Fiber to the Curb
• Fiber to the office
• Fiber to the telephone
• Fiber to the desktop
CATV (Cable television)

CATV often converts from copper to fiber by overbuilding existing metal cable
• Attaching fiber to existing hanging cables, or
• Pulling fiber through existing underground ducts
LANs (Local Area Networks)
Most computer networks use UTP (Unshielded Twisted-Pair) copper cables
• UTP has a maximum length of 100 meters, and a maximum speed of 1 Gbps
• Fiber is not popular to the desktop because the electronics cost more
• Fiber is popular on network backbones
Ethernet
Ethernet is the most popular LAN standard
• Runs at 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps, or 10Gbps
• Can run over copper or fiber
• 10 Gbps is new and slowly gaining acceptance, and may replace Fibre Channel for server clusters
Media Converters
Convert UTP Ethernet to Fiber Optics
• Allows an Ethernet network to be greatly extended, mixing fiber and copper on the LAN

Media Converters
This is a 1 Gbps media
converter
Specifications for the 1 Gbps
Converter
Note error on last line – 500 km
is impossible for multimode

Specialized Networks
IEEE 1394 and TOSLINK
• Used for consumer electronics over copper or plastic optical fiber
MOST (Media Oriented System Transport)
• Automotive multimedia connecting media devices within the car
Flexray
• Automotive network for safety devices like airbags
End of Chapter 3

Chapter 4
Fiber Joints, splices and Connectors
Fiber Joints
Fibers must be joined when
• You need more length than you can get on a single roll
• Connecting distribution cable to backbone
• Connecting to electronic source and transmitter
• Repairing a broken cable
Splices v. Connectors
A permanent join is a splice
Splices
Splices are a permanent join of two fibers
• Lower attenuation and reflectance than connectors
• Stronger and cheaper than connectors
• Easier to perform than connectorization
• Mass splicing does 12 fibers at a time, for ribbon cables

Mass Fusion Splicing
Video from fitel.fiberoptic.com (link Ch 6i)
Fusion Splicing
Melts the fibers together to form a continuous fiber
Expensive machine
Strongest and best join for singlemode fiber
• May lower bandwidth of multimode fiber
Mechanical Splicing
Mechanically aligns fibers
Contains index-matching gel to transmit light
Equipment cost is low
Per-splice cost is high
Quality of splice varies, but better than connectors
Fiber alignment can be tuned using a Visual Fault
Locator
Connectors
Connectors are used at patch panels, and can be disconnected
Optical Loss
Intrinsic Loss
• Problems the splicer cannot fix
Core diameter mismatch
Concentricity of fiber core or connector ferrules
Core ellipticity
Numerical Aperture mismatch
Optical Loss
Extrinsic Loss
• Problems the person doing the splicing can avoid
Misalignment
Bad cleaves
Air gaps
Contamination: Dirt, dust, oil, etc.
Reflectance
Measuring Reflectance
The reflected light is a fraction of the incoming light
• If 10% of the light is reflected, that is a reflectance of 10 dB
• If 1% of the light is reflected, 20 dB
• Reflectance is not usually a problem for data networks, but causes ghosting in analog cable TV
transmission
• Angled connectors reduce reflectance
Acceptable Losses
Fiber & Joint Loss Reflectance
(max) (min)
SM splice 0.15 dB 50 dB
SM connector pair 1 dB 30 dB
MM splice 0.25 dB 50 dB
MM connector 0.75 dB 25 dB
pair
Types of Connector
There are four types
• Rigid Ferrule (most common)
• Resilient ferrule
• Grooved plate hybrids
• Expanded beam
Image shows ferrules from swiss-
jewel.com (link Ch 6e)
Image to the right shows LC, SC, Biconic, and the
obsolete Deutsch 1000
• From thefoa.org (link Ch 6d)
Rigid Ferrule Connectors
2.5 mm ferrule
ST
SC
FC
1.25 mm ferrule
Small Form Factor
LC
MU
LX-5
Duplex Connectors
Old, bulky
FDDI
ESCON

Duplex Connectors
Newer, smaller
Small Form Factor
MT-RJ
Opti-Jack
Volition
Popular
Duplex LC
Obsolete Connectors
Simplex (1-fiber)
SMA
D4
Biconic

Ferrule Polish
To avoid an air gap
Ferrule is polished flat, or
Rounded (PC—Physical Contact), or
Angled (APC)
• Reduces reflectance
• Cannot be mated with the other polish types
FOCIS
Fiber Optic Connector Intermateability Standard
• A document produced by a connector manufacturer so others can mate to their connector
• Connectors with the same ferrule size can be mated with adaptors
• But 2.5 mm ferrules can not be mated with 1.25 mm ferrules
Telecommunications
In telecommunications, SC and FC are being replaced by
• LC in the USA
• MU in other countries
Data
In data communications, SC and ST are being replaced by LC

Connectorizing a Cable
Epoxy-polish process
Strip cable, strip and clean fiber
• Inject adhesive, put primer on fiber, insert fiber
• Crimp connector, cleave protruding fiber
• Air polish, final polish
• Clean and inspect by microscope
• Test connector loss with power meter
Breakout Kit
Provides tubing that protects the bare fiber so it can be
terminated
Mounting Methods for Connectors

Adhesives
• Epoxy (room temperature-cure or oven-cure)
• Quick-curing anaerobic adhesives
• Hot-Melt adhesive
Crimping to hold the fiber
• Like the Unicom –Splicing to preconnectorized pigtails
Mounting Methods Comparison

Epoxy-Polish
• Takes longer, but costs less and has lowest loss and reflectance
Anaerobic adhesive
• Faster than epoxy-polish but higher loss because polishing is difficult
Crimping
• Easier, but more expensive and more loss
Splicing to preconnectorized pigtail
• Very easy, but expensive and higher loss
Strip, Clean and Cleave

Strip – remove 900 micron buffer (if present) and 250 micron coating
Clean with alcohol and lint-free wipe
Cleave – scribe and snap; goal is a 90 degree flat break
End-Face Polish
Polish on a flat glass plate for a flat finish
Polish on a rubber mat for a domed PC finish (Physical Contact)
Angled PC finish is tilted at 8 degrees to avoid reflectance (difficult to field-terminate)

FO Hardware
Premises Cabling
TIA Standards
• 2000 m max. backbone wiring
• Based on telco wiring standards
Image adapted from siemon.com (link Ch 7a)
Main Cross-Connect (MC)
Should be near the data center (for LANs) or the PBX (for telephones)
• PBX: Private Branch Exchange; i.e., the campus switchboard
MC equipment should:
Handle enough fibers for all transmission needs
Accept:
• Direct termination
• Pigtail splices
• Predominated assemblies (see next slide)
Provide jumper storage and reconfiguration
Allow for growth
Predominated Assemblies (Plug & Play)
Predominated cable
• With SC or other connectors in a special sock for pulling, or
• MTP ribbon cable connectors (12 fibers in a single SC-size plug) that plugs into a
preconnectorized patch panel

Intermediate Cross-Connect
Connects interbuilding cable plant to intrabuilding cable
plant may be wall-mounted
Telecom Closet
Transition from backbone to horizontal cable plant
Homerun Cabling
This simpler, centralized network design is cheaper and popular
It works because fiber carries data over a long distance with passive links
Hardware for Distribution Points
Splice panel
Patch panel
Wall outlet
Conduit and innerduct

Splice Panel
Holds and protects splices in one or more splice trays
Patch Panel
Provides a centralized location for connecting fibers,
testing, monitoring, and restoring riser or trunk cables
Requires short patch cords
• Image from aflfiber.com (link Ch 7f)
Wall Outlets
Terminates permanent wiring
Provides a connection for a jumper cable to equipment
Outside Plant Hardware

Splice Closures
Conduit or innerduct
• No connectors are usually used outdoors – only splices

Inline Splice Closure Dome-type Splice Closure

Splice Closures
Protect splices from water and
the elements
Conduit and Innerduct

Cable is installed in conduit
Large conduits may have several innerducts inside
them
Cable Installed into Pavement

MCS Road Cable is designed to be inserted directly into a slit cut into pavement
This makes installation convenient – you don’t have to block traffic much
Cleaning Connectors
Keep dust caps on
Use lint-free wipes and reagent-grade isopropyl alcohol
to avoid attacking epoxy
“Canned air” has propellant,
so does compressed air from a hose
End of Chapter 4

Chapter 5
FO Parameters
Cable Parameters and Typical Values

Installation v. Environmental Specifications
Installation Specifications
• Ex: Installation Load (Pulling force)
Environmental Specifications
• Determine the cable’s long-term performance
• Ex: Temperature range of operation
Installation Specifications
Maximum recommended installation load
• Force in lb. (or kg-force or N)
• Pulling with more than this force will permanently change the attenuation of the fiber
• Typical values:
67-125 lb. for 1-fiber cables
250-500 lb. for cables with 6-12 fibers
600 lb. for self-supporting aerial cables
Minimum recommended installation bend radius
• Don’t bend the cable under tension through a corner sharper than this
• If you violate the bend radius, you may damage some part of the cable structure
• Typical value: 20 times cable diameter
Diameter
• Important when fitting the cable into a crowded conduit
Temperature range for installation and storage
Environmental Specifications
Temperature range
• Outside this range, the plastic may crack, or
• Expansion cycles will create microbends in the fiber,
increasing attenuation
Indoor, typically -10 to 50 Centigrade
Outdoor, typically -20 to 60 Centigrade
Military: -55 to 85 Centigrade
• Image: a Teflon-coated fiber optic thermometer that operates down to 5
degrees Kelvin (link Ch 5i)
Minimum long-term bend radius
• With the cable not under tension
• Typically 10 diameters
There is a new Japanese fiber with bend radius under 1 cm (link Ch 5h)

NEC (National Electrical Code)
• Three cable fire ratings:
No letter or G: General use—least stringent fire test
R: Riser—can be used in vertical shafts
P: Plenum—most strict test
Long-term use load

• Important for long vertical installations
• Aerial installation
Vertical rise distance
• Must put in strain-relief loops
Flame resistance
• Non-building applications
UV stability
Resistance to Rodent Damage
• Inner ducts are an alternative to armor
Steel armor
Copper tape armor
Braided armor
Dielectric armor
• Image from arcelect.com
• Armor makes the cable much less flexible
Resistance to water damage
• Filled and Blocked
Each loose buffer tube is filled (with gel or tape)
A blocking material fills the space between the tubes
Crush load
• Short-term v. long-term
Abrasion resistance
Resistance to chemicals
Resistance to conduction under high voltage
Toxicity
• “Halogen-free” cables produce less harmful smoke
• Required in Japanese and European buildings
High flexibility
• If constantly bending, like an elevator
Hermetically sealed fiber
• Protect it from water pressure, etc.
Radiation resistance
• Nuclear reactors or satellites
Impact Resistance

• Dropping heavy objects on the cable
Gas permeability
• Preventing gas from escaping through the cable
Stability of filling compounds
• Temperature cycles can pump filling compounds out the end of the cable
Vibration

Design Shortcuts
Future-Proofing a System
Include extra fibers in cables
• It costs very little more to get a cable with more fibers in it
Include singlemode fibers in multimode cables
• Allows enormous bandwidth increases later
Use dual-wavelength multimode fiber
• Or even laser-optimized fiber
Multimode Fibers
Early multimode systems used 62.5/125 micron fiber
• LED light sources at 850 or 1300 nm
• 10 Mbps or 100 Mbps
• Huge installed base
50/125 micron fiber
• Faster with VCSEL sources at 850 nm
Laser-optimized 50/125 micron fiber
• Fastest, using VCSEL sources
Singlemode Fibers
Usually 1300 nm singlemode fiber is good enough
Cheaper than 1550 nm or two-wavelength systems
Cable Types
Indoor
• Short distance – Break-out cable
• Longer distance – Distribution cable
• Rugged environment – Break-out cable
• Use all-dielectric cable
• Plenum-rated PVC is recommended
Outdoor
• Cable should be water-blocked and gel-filled
• Many fibers (>36) – consider ribbon cable
• For midspan access, use stranded loose-tube cable
• Use all-dielectric cable

Stranded Loose-Tube
Same as loose-tube table
Indoor/Outdoor Cable
• You could splice indoor to outdoor at the building entrance
• Or use indoor-outdoor cable like Corning’s FREEDM
End of Chapter 5

Chapter 6
Fiber Optic Cable Pulling

Avoiding Disaster
Tensile stress (pulling load)
Bending radius
Despooling Cable
Pull the cable to the side, not over the top of the reel
• Pull only from the strength member
• Avoids excessive force on the cable
That would stretch the jacket and cause
fiber compression when the tension is
released
Produces macrobends and attenuation
• Also avoids twists in the cable

Microbends
Deviation of the core as measured from the axis of the
fiber.
Causes loss
Sources of stress can create microbends, such as:
• Irregularities during fiber manufacturing
• Manipulation of the fiber during cable manufacturing
• Installation operations and equipment (tie wraps, clamps)
• Environmental stresses (pressure, hits)
Macrobends
Bending the cable too tightly (violating the minimum bend radius)
During pull – no less than 20 diameters
• Otherwise you can damage the cable
Static – no less than 10 diameters
• Causes loss
Pulling Force
Usually 600 lb. for outside plant cable
300 lb or less for indoor cable
Must not be exceeded
Pull should be smooth, not jerky
Pull on strength member only
Test Cable Before Pulling Flashlight Visible
Avoids quality problems and finger-pointing after installation (Continuity Laser
Continuity is often enough Tester) Tester
• Does it transmit light?

Interference from Other Installations

Ways to protect the fiber:
• Put it under other cables in duct
• Put fiber in last, on top
• Be careful about sharp edges in duct
Use innerduct
Procedures for Pulling Cable
Do long pulls from the middle
Do very long pulls in stages with figure-8s
Two ways to attach rope:
• Direct attachment to strength member
• Kellems grip to grab whole cable from outside
• Or both at once
Using the Kellems Grip
Corning recommends using
both the strength member
and a Kellems grip to
distribute tension
Cover the grip with vinyl tape
Puller Works like a Capstan
Lubricant
Use lubricant designed for the cable
Avoid lubricating the part of the cable that will be handled
Pull Speed
Max. speed 2 mph when using rope
You can pull 3 x as fast with measurement/pull tape than with rope
because the rope cuts grooves in conduit
Racking and Labeling

“Rack” cable – lash it to the sides of a manhole or pull box with cable ties
Attach cable ID tags anywhere people might see the cable
• State fiber core size, where it is accessible on both ends, and who the owner is
Premises Cables
They are more fragile than outdoor cables
• Avoid kinks and snags
Heavy copper cables can put pressure on fiber sharing the
same trays
• One solution is innerduct
• Innerduct with pull tape already installed is very easy to
install
Premises Cables
Use cables with proper fire ratings
Remove old cables
Leave service loops – extra length
End of Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Fiber Optic Testing

Testing Requirements
Parameter Example Instrument

Optical power Source output, Power meter
receiver signal
level
Attenuation or loss Fibers, cables, Power meter and
connectors source, or Optical
Loss Test Set
(OLTS)
Back reflection or OTDR or OCWR
Optical Return Loss
(ORL)
Source wavelength Spectrum analyzer
Backscatter Loss, length, OTDR
fault location
Fault location OTDR, VFL
Bandwidth/dispersion Bandwidth tester
Power Meters
The power meter by itself can be use to measure source power
With a source, it can measure the loss of a cable plant, called
insertion loss
Most power measurements are in the range +10 dBm to -40 dBm
• Analog CATV (cable TV) or DWDM (Dense Wavelength Division
Multiplexing) systems can have power up to +30 dBm (1 watt)
Wavelengths
Power meters are calibrated at three standard wavelengths
• 850 nm, 1300 nm, 1550 nm
Typical measurement uncertainty is 5% (0.2 dB)
Sources
Sources are either LED or laser
• 665 nm for plastic optical fiber
• 850 nm or 1300 nm for multimode
• 1310 nm or 1550 nm for singlemode
Test your system with a source similar to the one that will be actually used to send data

Optical Loss Test Set

Power meter and source in a single unit
• Normally used in pairs
• Automated, more complex and expensive than the combination of a source and a power meter
Rare in field testing
• Image from aflfiber.com

OTDR (Optical Time-Domain Reflectometer)

OTDR Uses
Measure loss
Locate breaks, splices, and
connectors
Produces graphic display of fiber
status
• Can be stored for
documentation and later
reference
Cable can be measured from
one end
Backscatter
A small amount of light is scattered back to the source
from the fiber itself
Splices or connector pairs cause a larger reflection of
light back to the source
OTDR Display
Dead
zone
OTDR Accuracy
OTDR can give false loss values when coupling different fibers together
• Splices can even show more light on the other side “gainer”
• This is an illusion caused by increased scattering on the other side
• Splice loss uncertainty up to 0.8 dB
Types of OTDR
Full-size
• Complex, powerful, expensive
Mini-OTDR
• Fewer features
Fault Finder
• Simplified, shows distance to a fault
Links Ch 17c, d, e

Visual Cable Tracers and Visual Fault Locators

Cable tracer is just a flashlight
VFL uses an LED or Laser source to get more light
into the fiber
• Useful to test a fiber for continuity
• To check to make sure the correct fiber is
connected
• With bright sources, you can find the break by
looking for light shining through the jacket
Visible light only goes 3-5 km through fiber
• Images from links Ch 17 e & f
Fiber Identifiers
Bends the fiber to detect the light
Can be used on live fiber without interrupting service
Can detect a special modulated tone sent down a fiber
Optical Continuous Wave Reflectometer (OCWR)

Measures optical return
loss (reflectance) of Cable to
connectors be
Inaccurate on installed Tested
systems because it
includes backscatter
and all sources of
reflectance
Microscope
Used to inspect fibers and connectors
• Particularly during epoxy-polish process

Talkset
Telephone calls over unused fibers
Rarely needed now that we have cellphones
Attenuators
Simulates the loss of a long fiber run
Variable attenuators allow testing a network to
see how much loss it can withstand
Can use a gap, bending, or inserting optical
filters
• Image from link Ch 17j
Reference Cables
Test cables are needed to connect the cables to be tested to the test instruments
Must have correct connectors, be clean, and high-quality (low loss)
Use high-quality mating adapters
• Ceramic or metal – not plastic
• Singlemode rated are most accurate

Optical Power Levels Network Type Wavelength Power Range (dBm)

Detectors are Silicon,
Germanium, or Indium- Telecom 1330, 1550 +3 to -45
Gallium-Arsenide
semiconductors Telecom DWDM 1550 +20 to -30
Calibrations
NIST is a standards
Data 665, 790, 850, 1300 -10 to -30
laboratory
• Offers power calibration
services at 850, 1300, CATV 1300, 1550 +10 to -6
and 1550 nm
wavelengths
• Instruments should be returned to the manufacturer for calibration annually
Uncertainties
Absolute power: 5% or 0.2 dB
Insertion loss: 0.5 dB or more
OTDR: up to several dB
Optical return loss: 1 dB or more
• Although meters show a reading with hundredths of a decibel, they don’t mean anything
A 2.13 dB loss might well re-measure as 2.54 dB
Optical Fiber Testing
Before installation
• Test continuity with cable tracer or
VFL
Measure attenuation with cutback
method
• Cut off known length, measure
power increase
Sources for Loss Measurements
Most multimode systems use LED
sources
• High-speed multimode often uses
VCSELs (1 Gbps and higher)
Singlemode systems use laser sources
Test with the source you will really use
Mode scramblers mix modes to equalize power in all modes
• Can be made with a section of step-index fiber
Mode filters remove higher-order modes to reach equilibrium modal
distribution
• Can be made with a mandrel wrap
Singlemode fibers shorter than 10 meters may have extra modes
• Use a launch cord to avoid that problem

OTDR Pulse Width

Longer pulses can see further down
the cable because they have
more light
But they have less accuracy finding
locations
OTDR Uncertainties
Dead zone
• Nothing can be measured for the
first 100 meters or so
Distance Resolution
• Two events too close together cannot be resolved
• Especially with long pulses
OTDR Distance Errors
Speed of light in fiber
• May not be exactly what the OTDR expects, distorting
distances
Slack in fiber
• OTDR measures length along the fiber, which is
usually 1% - 2% longer than the length along the
cable
OTDR Loss Errors
Joining two fibers with different backscatter coefficients
will cause:
• Too high a loss when measured in one direction
• Too low a loss in the other direction
For accurate loss measurements, measure from both ends and average the results
OTDR Ghosts
Secondary reflection appears at double the real cable length
Using index-matching gel will eliminate ghosts
Dispersion
Multimode fibers suffer from modal dispersion
All fibers suffer from chromatic dispersion
• Because different wavelengths travel at different speeds, and no source is completely
monochromatic
In very long singlemode networks, polarization mode dispersion also matters

Bandwidth Testers
There is a new unit available to test bandwidth in the field, but it is not commonly done yet
Connector Insertion Loss Test

This test gives the typical loss of a
connector type
Modal Distribution
The insertion loss test
• FOTP-34 by the TIA
Three options of modal distribution
• EMD or steady state
After a mandrel wrap
• Fully filled
After a mode
scrambler
• Any other specified conditions
Microscopes
Used to inspect the ends of polished connectors
Helpful to view the connector at an angle while lighting it from the side
Only defects over the core really matter
Optical Return Loss in Connectors
A pair of glass-air interfaces for nonphysical contact connectors without index-matching gel
• 4% reflectance – loss of 0.3 dB
PC connectors can have a reflectance of 1% or an ORL of 20 dB
• Much less with the best PC connectors – 40 to 60 dB
Reflectance can be a problem in high bitrate singlemode systems

Basic Cable Loss Test
Test FOTP-171
• Measure power through launch
cable
• Then add cable to test
This tests only one
connector – turn the
cable around to test the
other end
Double-Ended Loss Test

Uses both a launch and receive cable

Single-Cable Reference
Refer to this condition:
Test this way

• EIA/TIA 568 requires this
Why Use Single-Cable Reference?

It gives highest loss and lowest uncertainty
Choosing a Launch Cable for Testing
Choose cables with low loss
• It is not necessary to get connectors and fiber with tighter specifications
Handle the launch cables carefully
Inspect them with a microscope
Keep them clean
• Use splice bushings with metal or ceramic alignment sleeves
Mismatched Fibers
Coupling a smaller fiber to a larger one causes only a small loss (0.3 dB or so)
Connecting large fiber to small fiber causes a large loss
• Both because of diameter and numerical aperture

Testing the Installed Cable Plant

Can use one-cable reference, or
two-cable, or three-cable, but
the type of reference must be
documented
Wavelengths
Usually test multimode at both 850
and 1300 nm with LED sources
Singlemode test is usually at 1300
nm only
• 1550 nm is sometimes required
also
• For long-distance, and to show
that WDM can be performed
later
• Also shows microbends – 1550
test is much more sensitive to
bending loss
Optical Splitter
Splits light signal from one fiber
into two fibers
• Figures from tpub.com (link Ch
17n)
Couplers Can Split or Combine

You can also split one to M, or
combine M to 1

M to N Coupler
Making Couplers
Wavelength Division Multiplexers

Light entering from the
left containing two
wavelengths is
separated into the
two fibers on the
right
Combining the two
signals is also
possible
Requires special equipment and techniques to test

Fiber Optic Amplifiers

Boosts signal without converting it to electricity
Complicated to test, require special equipment
Fiber Optic Switch
Fiber Optic Datalinks

The diagram shows a
single link
Most networks will be
bidirectional (full
duplex) with two
links working in
opposite directions

Bit Error Rate

The receiver power must be within the
operating range
• Too little power leads to high bit error
rates (wrong data at receiver)
• Too much power saturates the detector
and also leads to high bit error rates
Use an attenuator in this
case

What Goes Wrong?

Often the two fibers are connected backwards – check them with a visual tracer
Check receiver power level
Check plant loss with double-ended method
Don’t Use an OTDR to Measure Plant Loss

OTDR does not see the loss of the end connectors
Its power source is not the same as normal LAN power sources
OTDR measurements are affected by backscatter coefficient which may not be the same for all the
cables in a network
Back Reflection
Back reflection can cause networks to fail even though the loss is low
Power meter can’t measure reflection
• Use an OTDR or OCWR
• Cure it by splicing in low-reflection patch cords to replace high-reflectance connectors
• Angled PC connectors are designed to minimize reflectance for this reason (not mentioned in
textbook)
Reliability
Once installed, the fiber optics should work for a long time
People break the cable by accident
• Mark where cables are buried
• Bury a marker tape above the cable
• Use orange or yellow jacket cable indoors
• A broken cable just behind a connector in a patch panel is hard to find
Source Failure
LED in laser transmitter drops in power as it ages
Laser sources are feedback-stabilized so they remain constant in power till they fail
End of Chapter 7

Chapter 8
Fiber Optic Cable Safety
Safety Rules
Wear glasses or safety glasses
Dispose of all scraps properly: put them on black tape and then into a properly marked trashcan
Work on a black pad which makes the slivers of glass easier to spot
Do not drop scraps on the floor
Do not eat or drink anywhere near the work area
Zero Tolerance for Dirt

Airborne particles are about the size of the core of Single Mode fiber
• They absorb lots of light and may scratch connectors if not removed
• Dirt on connectors is the biggest cause of scratches on polished connectors and high loss
measurements
Hygiene Rules
Work in a clean area – avoid dust
Keep dust caps on all connectors
Use lint free pads and isopropyl alcohol to clean connectors
Bare Fiber Safety
If the shards get into your skin, you will have to wait for them to work out
Wear eye protection!
Put shards on sticky tape
Account for all shards
Eye Safety (Laser Damage)

Most sources are low-power and no great risk
High power sources might burn the retina with invisible light
Never look into the end of a cable that might be in use
Cap unused connectors
Tape unterminated fiber ends
Mark enclosures with warning labels
Laser test sources are dangerous, don’t leave them lying around
Normal retina Laser Damage

Chemical Safety
Fiber optic splicing and termination use various chemical adhesives and cleaners
Follow the instructions for use carefully
Isopropyl alcohol, used as a cleaner, is flammable
MSDS: Material Safety Data Sheet – a document that lists the risks of a chemical
• Alcohol – flammable
• Adhesives – irritate skin, require ventilation
• Index matching gel – irritate eyes
• Silicone adhesives like RTV are used as mechanical sealant – can irritate skin or eyes
UV Light Sources
Used to cure some adhesives
Harmful to eyes
Causes skin cancer
Canned Compressed Air
Can explode if heated or damaged
Some use flammable propellant
Gas in Manholes
There may be no oxygen in the hole
• Working Alone – test the space first
• Working as a Crew
One worker in the hole, wearing a harness
One above hole
Tools and Equipment
Step Ladders
• Don’t stand on top step
• Must be in good repair
Extension Ladders
• Must reach three feet beyond bearing point
• Angle: 1 foot of spacing for every 3 or 4 feet of height
Knives
• Hook blade is most common
• Cut away from yourself
Syringes and Needles
• They are blunt and not a medical hazard
Microscopes
• Use a power meter first to make sure there is no light coming out of the fiber
Cable Installation Equipment
• Trenchers, backhoes, boring machines
• Obvious big-equipment hazards
Toolbox
• Have a container for spare knife blades
• Prevent liquid spills, battery shorts, etc.

Personal Safety Equipment

Gloves protect you from
• Corrugated armor sheaths
• Fiberglass splinters
Safety Glasses
Safe Working Area

Enough table space
Good Lighting
Don’t eat or drink in work area
Prevent falls – loose cables, open holes
Clean work area after you are done, properly dispose of all shards
Aerial Installation Hazards
• Ladder safety
• Electric power lines
Weather
End of Chapter 8 and end of Manual

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Fiber Optic Cable Maintenance

S.M. No. : SNTI / EPC/ SM / 151

(An ISO 9001 Organisation)

Let us learn and lead

Prepared by: Suvendu Chakraborty Page 1 of 54

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Sl. No. Topic Page #

2. Basic of Fiber Optics 7-15

3. Fiber Optics Networks 16-18

4. Fiber Optics Joints, Splices, Connector 19-29

5. Fiber Optics Parameter 30-34

6. Fiber Optics Cable Pulling 35-36

7. Fiber Optics Testing 37-51

8. Fiber Optics Cable Safety 52-55

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How Light Travels in Fiber

Optical Fiber in 1966

Singlemode and Multimode Fiber

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Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

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Basic of Fiber Optics

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Multimode Graded-Index Fiber

Step-index and Graded-index

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Popular Fiber Types

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Outside Vapor Deposition (OVD)

Vapor Axial Deposition (VAD)

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If the data link is perfect, and loses no power

dB = 10 log (Power Out / Power In)

Absolute Power in dBm

Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM)

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Fiber Optics Network

Where Fiber is used

Where New Fiber is Going

CATV (Cable television)

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Fiber Joints, splices and Connectors

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Rigid Ferrule Connectors

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Mounting Methods for Connectors

Mounting Methods Comparison

Strip, Clean and Cleave

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