Mechanics of Material

EXPERIMENT NO – 1
Aim: to Study of universal testing machine

Apparatus:
Universal Testing Machine

Facilities required to do the experiment

S.No. Facilities required Quantity

1 UTM 1
2 Mild steel specimen 1
3 Vernier caliper/micrometer 1
4 Dial gauge & graph paper 1

Theory:- Various m/c and structure components are subjected to tensile

loading in
numerous application. For safe design of these components, here ultimate
tensile strength and ductility one to be determine before actual use. Tensile
test can be conducted on UTM.A material when subjected to a tensile load
resists the applied load by developing internal resisting force. These
resistances come due to atomic bonding between atoms of the material. The
resisting force for unit normal cross-section area is known as stress. The
value of stress in material goes on increasing with an increase in applied
tensile load, but it has a certain maximum (finite) limit too. The minimum
stress, at which a material fails, is called ultimate tensile strength. The end of
elastic limit is indicated by the yield point (load). This can be seen during
experiment as explained later in procedure with increase in loading beyond
elastic limit original cross-section area goes on decreasing and finally
reduces to its minimum value when the specimen breaks.
Specification of machine and specimen
details:-
The tensile test is conducted on UTM. It is hydraulically operates a pump, oil
in oil sump, load dial indicator and central buttons. The left has upper, middle
and lower cross heads i.e; specimen grips (or jaws). Idle cross head can be
moved up and down for adjustment. The pipes connecting the lift and right
parts are oil pipes through which the pumped oil under pressure flows on left
parts to more the cross-heads.
Specifications
:

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1. Load capacity =
2. Least count =
3. Power supply =

Components:

Pump
Motor
Limit Valves
Cross head adjusting
Safety Valves
Start /stop switch
Pipings
Piston cylinder switch
Load /unload valve.

Indicating Mechanism:

Loads on Universal testing machine are indicated on precision type

hydraulic gauges, which are mounted on the instrument panel. These
gauges are provided with maximum pointers.

Loading Unit:
It consists of main hydraulic cylinder with robust base inside. The piston which
moves up and down. The screw column maintained in the base can be rotated
hydraulically. Each column passes through the main nut which is fitted in the
lower cross head. The lower table connected to main piston through a ball &
the ball seat is joined to ensure axial loading. There is a connection between
lower table and upper head assembly that moves up and down with main piston.
The measurement of this assembly is carried out by number of bearings which
slides over the columns. The test specimen each fixed in the job is known as
„Jack Job‟. To fix up the specimen tightly, the movement of jack job is
achieved helically by handle

Operation:

Loads on this machine are indicated on two hydraulic gauges. Application

of all test loads (compression/tension) is accompanied by the upward
movement of piston. The lower cross heads may be adjusted by using
cross head adjusting crank to any desired position. For tensile loading the
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test specimen is mounted on the upper side on the lower head. For
compressive loading the test specimen is mounted on the lower side of
lower head.

With specimen and proper testing tools in position, close

"load" and "unload" pilot hand wheel. Open the gauge valves
(1/3 or ¼turns).
Press pump start button. Since both valves are close, there is no
indication on the gauges. Open the load valve, oil will now be
pumped into the cylinder in direct proportion to the amount
that the valve is opened. The oil moves the piston upward. This
motion continues until the load valve is closed.
To decrease amount of load applied to the machine close
the load valve and open the unload valve. Oil starts
draining to reservoir.

ZeroSetting: All zero setting must be made with specimen, testing.

ShutDown:

Close the load completely. Open the unload valve slowly and
gradually. After piston
Completely sets to its seat (the load pointer suddenly drops below the
zero load mark). Close the unload valve. Stop the pump by pressing
the stop button. Close the gauge valve.

Care and Maintenance:

The load and unload valves should be closed firmly but not fast as it
cause damage to the valve seal.
The screw should be clean and lubricated properly by wiping clean
oil soaked rag.
Conclusion: Thus we, have studied universal testing machine successfully.

Viva Voce Question

1. Define Hook’s law
2. What is stress and strain ?
3. What is deformation and how it is calculated?

Signature of Subject Teacher

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 Mechanics of Material

EXPERIMENT NO – 2

Aim: To Perform Tensile test on universal testing machine and determine

tensile strength of the material.

Apparatus:
Universal Testing Machine

Theory:

Step No. Details of the step

1. The load pointer is set at zero by adjusting the initial setting knob.
2. The dial gauge is fixed and the specimen for measuring elongation of
small amounts.
3. Measuring the diameter of the test piece by vernier caliper three
places and determine the mean value also mark the gauge length.
4. Now the specimen is gripped between upper and middle cross
head
5. Set
jawsthe
of automatic
the m/c. graph recording system.
6. Start the m/c and take the reading.
7. The specimen is loaded gradually and the elongation is noted until the
specimen breaks.

Reading Table

Specimen Length Diameter Area Percentage Percentage

of of
Intial Final Intial Final Intial Final elongation reduction
M.S. inlength(%) in area(%)

Observation and Calculation: -

(i) Initial diameter of specimen d1 =

(ii) Initial gauge length of specimen L1 =

(iii) Area of specimen a1 =

(iv) Final length after specimen breaking L2 =

(v) Dia. of specimen at breaking place d2 =

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(vi) Cross section area at breaking place a2 =

Percentage of elongation in length=

Percentage of reduction in area =

Precautions:-

1. The specimen should be prepared in proper dimensions.

2. The specimen should be properly to get between the jaws.
3. Take reading carefully.
4. After breaking specimen stop to m/c.

Result:-

Percentage of elongation in length =

Percentage of reduction in area =

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Viva Voce Question

1. Define linear and lateral strain

2. Define modulus of elasticity

3. Explain Poisson’s ratio

Signature of Subject Teacher

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EXPERIMENT NO – 3

Aim: To determine Shear test on a circular rod. (Double shear).

Apparatus: Universal Testing Machine

FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE

S.No. Facilities required Quantity

1 UTM with double shear chuck 1
2 Vernier Caliper 1
3 Test Specimen 1

Theory:In actual practice when a beam is loaded the shear force at a section always
comes to play along with bending moment. It has been observed that the effect of
shearing stress as compared to bending stress is quite negligible. But sometimes, the shearing
stress at a section assumes much importance in design calculations. Universal testing
machine is used for performing shear, compression and tension. There are two types of
UTM. (i)Screw type, (ii) Hydraulic type. Hydraulic machines are easier to operate.
They have a testing unit and control unit connected to each other with hydraulic pipes. It
has a reservoir of oil, which is pumped into a cylinder, which has a piston. By this
arrangement, the piston is made to move up. Same oil is taken in a tube to measure the
pressure. This causes movement of the pointer, which gives reading for the load
applied.

Specification of machine:-

The tensile test is conducted on UTM. It is hydraulically operates a pump, oil in oil
sump, load dial indicator and central buttons. The left has upper, middle and lower cross
heads i.e; specimen grips (or jaws). Idle cross head can be moved up and down for
adjustment. The pipes connecting the lift and right parts are oil pipes through which the
pumped oil under pressure flows on left parts to more the cross-heads.

Specifications :-

1. Load capacity =
2. Least count =
3. Power supply =
Procedure for doing the experiment:-

Step No. Details of the step

1 Measure the diameter of the specimen accurately.
2. Insert the specimen in position and grip one end of the attachment in
the upper portion and the other end in the lower portion.

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3 Switch on the main switch on the universal testing machine.

.
4 Bring the drag indicator in contact with the main indicator.
.
5 Gradually move the head control lever in left hand direction till the
specimen shears.
6 Note down the load at which specimen shears.
.7 Stop the machine and remove the specimen.
.

Tabulation:-

S.no Material Diameter Cross Non Shear Breaking

in mm sectional strength load
area in mm load in N/mm
in N
N

Observation and Calculation: -

Diameter of the specimen (d) =

Cross sectional area in double shear, (A) =

Shear Load taken by specimen at the time of failure (P) =.

Shear strength =

Precautions:-

1. The specimen should be prepared in proper dimensions.

2. The specimen should be properly to get between the jaws.
3. Take reading carefully.
4. After breaking specimen stop to m/c.

Result:-
The ultimate stress strength of the given specimen is

VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. what is shear strain?

2. What is Transverse Shear Stress

Signature of Subject Teacher

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 Mechanics of Material

EXPERIMENT NO – 4
Aim: To determine Compression test on material.

Apparatus: Universal Testing Machine

OBJECTIVES

To understand the concept of mechanical properties of solid materials.

To construct the stress-strain diagram based on Universal Testing Machine data.

To understand the material behavior under compression mode.

To understand how to determine:

a) Young’s Modulus

b) Ultimate stress

c) Poisson’s ratio (if equipment available)

INTRODUCTION

A compression test determines behavior of materials under crushing loads. The specimen is
compressed and deformation at various loads is recorded. Compressive stress and strain are
calculated and plotted as a stress-strain diagram which is used to determine elastic limit, proportional
limit, yield point, yield strength and, for some materials compressive strength.

The axial compression testing is useful for measurement of elastic and compressive fracture
properties of brittle materials or low ductility materials. In any case, the use of specimens having
large L/D ratios should be avoided to prevent buckling and shearing modes of deformation.

In this test, the compression test is combined with the test of Poisson’s ratio. When the material
compressed and still in elastic region, student should measure the lateral and longitudinal elongation.

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Fig.1 Structure Diagram of Testing Machine

Fig.2 Compression Test

Fig.3 Stress-Strain Curve

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EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS

Universal Testing Machine. Model:

Caliper

Specimen

Fig.5 Universal Testing machine (UTM)

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Procedure

For each specimen, measure the length and the diameter using a micrometer.

Draw, with a pencil or marker, two lines on the straight section of the specimen so
that the lines are 50 mm apart. This will be the gauge length, Lo.

The testing machine has already been set up and calibrated by teaching engineer.

Put the specimen at the center of platens.

The crosshead speed will be given to you by the assistant. Be sure to record it.

Start the test by pressing the “START” button.

After the specimen has broken, press the stop button. Then remove specimen.

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Obtain the data from data acquisition software. Make sure you got the correct data,
that are load and elongation data. Save the data in file so that you can edit it later
by using spreadsheet software.

Measure the final diameter of the specimen, df, using micrometer. The final diameter
is the maximum diameter which occurred at the bulge out.

Measure the distance between the lines that you scratched on the specimen. This
distance is the final length, Lf.

Make a sketch of the failed specimen. Be sure to identify the bulge out and fracture
regions. You may take the specimen with you and keep it.

Shut-Down Procedure

Turn OFF the power switch

Turn OFF the power supply circuit breaker.

Turn OFF the circuit breaker of the primary power supply (at the user’s site)
Remove the compression test equipment (universal joint, lower joint and grip

ANALYSIS

Make a table giving the specimen, the original dimensions and the final dimensions.

Construct a stress-strain curve from the load-elongation curve

i. First, print your load-elongation curve data and insert it on Table.

ii. Next, construct the load-elongation curves by utilizing spreadsheet

software and name it as Fig…... The load is on the y-axis and
elongation is on the x-axis. The unit of load and elongation are kN
and mm,respectively.

iii. For each point, compute the strain and stress (engineering values).
Use percent (%) strain as the unit for strain and MPa as the unit for
stress.

iv. Plot the data points of stress vs. strain and draw a smooth curve
through them. The stress is on the y-axis. Make two graphs. In the
first graph, Fig….., the strain should go from 0 to 2 percent. In the
second graph, Fig. …., the strain should go from 0 to failure.

Using the Fig… , where the strain goes to 2 percent, make the following calculations
(and on the graphs, show how you made those calculations)

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v. The elastic modulus. (The method of measuring elongation may

lower your value of the elastic modulus by as much as 10 times. This
is because the elongation measured includes the elongation of the
testing machine, the grips, and the curved parts of the specimen as
well as the straight part of the specimen.)

vi. The 0.2% offset yield strength if you have the graph that does not
have a well-defined yield point.

Using the Fig. …., determine the ultimate strength. Be sure to show where this occurs
on the graph.

Make another table containing the specimen, elastic modulus, ultimate strength, and
Modulus of resilience. This will be Table

RESULTS:

TABLE 1

Original Original Gage Final Final Gage

Material Name
Diameter Length Diameter Length

TABLE 2

Load Elongation Stress Strain

No
( kN ) ( mm ) ( MPa ) (%)

TABLE 3

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Parameters Results Calculations

Elastic Modulus

Yield strength

Ultimate stress

Modulus of
Resilience

CONCLUSION:

VIVA QUESTIONS:-

1. Define the brittle material? name three brittle materials.

2. What do you understand about elastic behavior in stress-strain diagrams?

Signature of Subject Teacher

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EXPERIMENT NO – 5

Aim: To study the Impact Testing m/c and Perform Izod impact test To
determine impact strength of the material.

Apparatus:

Facilities required to do the experiment:-

S.No. Facilities required Quantity

1 Impact testing m/c 1
2 Izod test specimens of mild steel 1

3 Vernier caliper 1
4 Specimen setting fixture 1

Theory:-In manufacturing locomotive wheels, coins, connecting rods etc. the

components are subjected to impact (shock) loads. These loads are applied suddenly. The
stress induced in these components is many times more than the stress produced by
gradual loading. Therefore, impact tests are performed to asses shock absorbing capacity
of materials subjected to suddenly applied loads. These capabilities are expressed as (i)
Rupture energy (ii) Modulus of rupture and (iii) Notch impact strength. Two types of
notch impact tests are commonly- 1. Charpy test. 2. Izod test. In Izod test, the specimen
is placed as ‘cantilever beam’. The specimens have V-shaped notch of 45°. U-shaped
notch is also common. The notch is located on tension side of specimen during impact
loading. Depth of notch is generally taken as t.5 to t/3 where‘t’ is thickness of the
specimen.

Specification of machine and specimen details:-

Its specifications along-with their typical values are as follows:

• Impact capacity =

• Least count of capacity (dial) scale =

• Weight of striking hammer =

• Swing diameter of hammer =

• Angle of hammer before striking =

• Distance between supports =

• Striking velocity of hammer = .

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• Specimen size =

• Type of notch =

• Angle of notch =

• Depth of notch =

Procedure for doing the experiment:-

Step No. Details of the step

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1 Lift the hammer to an appropriate knife edge position and notch the

energy stored in the hammer. For the standard Izod test the energy
stored should be:
2 Locate the test specimen on the m/c supports.
3 Release the hammer. The hammer will break the piece and shoot up the
other side of the specimen.
4 Note the residual energy indicated on the scale by the hammer.
5 Impact strength of the test specimen is the difference of the initial
energy stored in hammer and the residual energy.

Tabulation:-
S.No. Initial Residual Absorb Energy Impact

Energy (E1) Energy (E2) (E1-E2) strength

j/mm2
in joule in joule in joule

Observation and Calculation: -

• Notch impact strength = Absorb energy / Effective cross section area

=
Precautions:-

1. The specimen should be prepared in proper dimensions.

2. Take reading more frequently.

3. Make the loose pointer in contact with the fixed pointer after setting the
pendulum.

4. Do not stand in front of swinging hammer or releasing hammer.

5. Place the specimen proper position.

Result :
The impact strength of given specimen =

Conclusion:

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Viva Voce Question

1. What is impact strength of a material.

2. What is the strain energy stored in a body when the load is applied with impact?

Signature of Subject Teacher

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EXPERIMENT NO – 6
Aim: To determine Hardness test on materials.
Apparatus:

Facilities required to do the experiment:-

S.No. Facilities required Quantity

1. Brinell Hardness 1
testing machine
2. Specimen of Tempered 1
metal
3. Specimen of Hardened 1
metal
4. Brinell microscope 1

Theory: - Hardness represents the resistance of material surface to abrasion, scratching

and cutting, hardness after gives clear identification of strength. In all hardness testes, a define
force is mechanically applied on the test piece for about 15 seconds. The indentor, which
transmits the load to the test piece, varies in size and shape for different tests. Common
indenters are made of hardened steel or diamond. In Brinell hardness testing, steel balls
are used as indentor. Diameter of the indentor and the applied force depend upon the
thickness of the test specimen, because for accurate results, depth of indentation should be
less than 1/8 of the thickness of the test pieces. According to the thickness of the test piece
increase, the diameter of the indentor and force are changed.

Knowledge of the specimen:

Load is applied on the specimen the band of the slide of the machines which is operated
of handling and watching the specimen the diameter of the indentor is which helps of
traveling microscope.

Specification of Hardness Testing machine and Indentors:-

A hardness test can be conducted on Brinell testing m/c, Rockwell hardness m/c or
vicker testing m/c. the specimen may be a cylinder, cube, think or thin metallic sheet.Its
specification are as follows:

1. Ability to determine hardness upto :

2. Diameter of ball (as indentor) used D =

3. Maximum application load =

4. Method of load application =

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5. Capability of testing the lower hardness range =

Procedure for doing the experiment:-

Step No. Details of the step

1 Insert ball of diameter ‘D’ in ball holder of the m/c.
2 Make the specimen surface clean by removing dust, dirt, oil and grease etc.

3 Make contact between the specimen surface and the ball by rotating the jack
adjusting wheel.
4 Push the required button for loading.
.
5 Pull the load release level and wait for minimum 15 second. The load will
automatically apply gradually
6 Remove the specimen from support table and locate the indentation so made.
.
7 View the indentation through microscope and measure the diameter ‘d’ by micrometer
fitted on microscope.
8 Repeat the entire operation, 3-times.

Tabulation:-

S.No. Ball Load applied P. Diameter of P/D2 BHN

Diameter in indentation
mm
‘d’ (mm)

Observation and Calculation: -

Area of indentation A=

BHN = Load Applied / Spherical surface area indentation

Precautions:-

1. The specimen should be clean properly.

2. Take reading more carefully and correct.

3. Place the specimen properly.

4. Jack adjusting wheel move slowly

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5. After applying load remove the load.

Conclusion:

Viva Voce Question

1. Define tempering.

2. what is hardness number

Signature of Subject Teacher

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EXPERIMENT NO – 7
Aim: To determine Torsion test on metals.

Apparatus: torsion testing apparatus

Facilities required to do the experiment:-

S.No. Facilities required Quantity

1 A torsion testing apparatus. 1
2 Standard specimen of mild steel . 1
3 Twist meter for measuring angles of twist. 1
4 A steel rule and calipers and micrometer. 1

Theory:- A torsion test is quite instrumental in determining the value of rigidity (ratio of
shear stress to shear strain) of a metallic specimen. The value of modulus of rigidity can
be
found out through observations made during the experiment by using the torsion equation.

T/ Ip =Cθ /L or C=TL/Iθ

Where T=torque applied,

Ip= polar moment of inertia,

C=modulus of rigidity,

= Angle of twist (radians), and

l= gauge length.

In the torque equipment refer fig. One end of the specimen is held by a fixed
support and the other end to a pulley. The pulley provides the necessary torque to
twist the rod by addition of weights (w). The twist meter attached to the rod gives
the angle of twist.

Procedure for doing the experiment:-

Step No. Details of the step
1. Prepare the testing machine by fixing the two twist meters at some

2. constant
Measure lengths from fixed
the diameter of thesupport.
pulley and the diameter of the rod
3. Add weights in the hanger stepwise to get a notable angle of twist for T1

4. and
UsingT2the formula calculate ‘C’

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Tabulation:-
S.NO ANGLE ANGLE TORQUE MODULUS SHEAR
OF OF OF RIGIDITY STRESS
TWIST TWIST
UNIT
1.

2.

3.

Observation and Calculation: -

J=
Θ=

L=
C=

Precautions:-

1. The specimen should be prepared in proper dimensions.

2. The specimen should be properly to get between the jaws.

3. Take reading carefully.

4. After breaking specimen stop to m/c.

Conclusion:
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Viva Voce Question

1. What is torsional force ?

2. What is modulus of rigidity

Signature of Subject Teacher

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EXPERIMENT NO – 8
Aim: To perform deflection test on beams and determine modulus of
Elasticity of the material.

Apparatus: Beam supported at two points.

Facilities required to do the experiment:-

S.No. Facilities required Quantity

1 Beam supported at two points. 1
2 Deflection meter 1
3 Weights 1
4 Scale and specimen 1

Theory:- Bending test is perform on beam by using the three point loading system. The

bending fixture is supported on the platform of hydraulic cylinder. The loading is held in
the middle cross head. At a particular load the deflection at the center of the beam is
determined by using a dial gauge.

Procedure for doing the experiment:-

Step No. Details of the step

1. Note down the length and cross section of the given specimen.
2. Set the span length as beam of adjusting the movable supports.
3. Now place the given beam over the knife edges.
4. Place the load hanger on the beam at i at a distance of (1/3xSpan)
from the left support.
5. Fit the deflecto meter at I at a distance of (2/3xSpan) from the left
support.
6. Add thethe
Adjust setdeflecto
of weights onetobyread
meter onezero
and record the corresponding
deflecto meter reading it.
7. Draw a graph between loads vs. deflection for both the positions. ix)
Young’s modulus can be found by the following

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Tabulation:-
S.No Load Deflection reading in division Youngs
modulus
Kg N Loading Unloading Division Div x N/mm2
lc
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Observation and Calculation: -

Young’s modulus E

Where=Load in N

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a= Deflecto meter distance from left support in mm

b=Load distance from left support in mm

I=bd3/12 mass moment of inertia

L=Span of the beam in mm

δy =Deflection meter reading in mm

Precautions:

1. Test piece should be properly touch the fixture.

2. Test piece should be straight.

3. Take reading carefully.

4. Elastic limit of the beam should not be exceeded.

Result:-
Young’s modulus analytically =

Conclusion:

Viva Voce Question

1. What are different types of beams ?

2. Define shear force and bending moment ?

Signature of Subject Teacher

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EXPERIMENT NO – 9
Aim: To determine deflection of springs

Apparatus: Spring testing apparatus

Facilities required to do the experiment:-

S.No. Facilities required Quantity

1 Spring testing apparatus 1
2 coil springs 1
3 Vernier caliper 1

Theory:- This is the test to know strength of a material under compression. Generally

compression test is carried out to know either simple compression characteristics of

material or column action of structural members. It has been observed that for varying
height of member, keeping cross-sectional and the load applied constant, there is an
increased tendency towards bending of a member. Member under compression usually
bends along minor axis, i.e, along least lateral dimension. According to column theory
slenderness ratio has more functional value. If this ratio goes on increasing, axial
compressive stress goes on decreasing and member buckles more and more. End
conditions at the time of test have a pronounced effect on compressive strength of
materials. Effective length must be taken according to end conditions assumed, at the
time of the test. As the ends of the member is made plain and fit between two jaws of the
machine, fixed end is assumed for calculation of effective length. Effective length is
taken as 0.5 L where L is actual length of a specimen.

Procedure for doing the experiment:-

Step No. Details of the step

1. By using vernier caliper measure the diameter of the wire of the
spring and also the diameter of spring coil.
2. Count the number of turns
3. Insert the spring in the spring testing machine and load the spring by a
suitable weight and note the corresponding axial deflection in
compression.
4. Increase the load and take the corresponding axial deflection readings.
5. Plot a curve between load and deflection.
6. The shape for the curve gives the stiffness of the spring.
.

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Tabulation:-
Rigidity
modulus
Scale readings in Deflection in Stiffness
Sr.No Load in N in N/mm2
mm mm in N/mm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
e.) Observation and Calculation: -
(i) Inner diameter of spring di =

(ii) Length of th spring l =

(iii) Number of turns n=

Material of spring =
(vi) Young’s modulus =

1. Deflection ( )=
Where,

W=Load applied in Newton

R= radius of spring coil =

N= Number of turns

=Helix angle of spring

N=Modulus of rigidity of spring Material

E=Youngs modulus of the spring material

2. Tan = pitch / 2ПR

=
3. Pitch = (L-d) / n

Where,

d=Dia of spring wire in mm, L=Length of spring in mm, N=no of turns in spring Stiffness of
spring (K)=

Where,

=Deflection of spring in mm

W=Load applied in Newtons

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5.Maximum energy stored =

Where,

Wmax=Maximum load applied

Max=Maximum deflection

f.)Precautions:-

1. Place the specimen at center of compression pads,

2. Stop the machine as soon as the specimen fails.

3. Cross sectional area of specimen for compression test should be kept large as
compared to the specimen for tension test: to obtain the proper degree of stability

g.)Result:-

Under compression test on open coil helical spring

1. Rigidity Modulus (N) =

2.Stiffness of spring (K)=

3. Maximum energy stored =

Conclusion:

Viva Voce Question

1. Define spring index ?

2. What do you mean by solid length in coil spring.

Signature of Subject Teacher

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EXPERIMENT NO – 10
Aim: Experiment on Buckling of columns.

Apparatus:

Materials and Equipment

a. Columns of various lengths made from different materials
b. Column buckling machine
c. Load equipment d. Dial indicators

Theory:
There are usually two primary concerns when analyzing and designing structures: (1) the
ability of the structure to support a specified load without experiencing excessive stress and
(2) the ability of the structure to support a given load without undergoing unacceptable
deformation. In some cases, however, stability considerations are important especially when
the potential exists for the structure to experience a sudden radical change in its
configuration. These considerations are typically made when dealing with vertical prismatic
members supporting axial loads. Such structures are called columns. A column will buckle
when it is subjected to a load greater than the critical load denoted by Pcr. That is, instead of
remaining straight, it will suddenly become sharply curved as illustrated in Figure 1.

The critical load is given in terms of an effective length by :

where E is the elastic modulus, I is the moment of inertia, and Le is the effective length. The
expression in Equation (4.3-1) is known as Euler's formula. The effective length depends
upon the constraints imposed on the ends of the column. Figure 2 shows how the effective
length is related to the actual length of the column for various end conditions.

The critical load is computed by making I = Imin in Equation (4.3-1). Thus, if buckling
occurs, it will take place in a plane perpendicular to the corresponding principal axis of
inertia. The radius of gyration, r, is often introduced into Euler’s formula. This quantity is
given by

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Where A is the cross sectional area of the column. Substituting Equation (4.3-2) into (4.3-1),
Finally:

In Above Equations, the quantity (Le / r) is called the slenderness ratio of the column. For
long columns, with a large slenderness ratio, Euler's formula is adequate for design purposes.
However, for intermediate and short columns, where failure occurs essentially as a result of
yield, empirical formulas are used to approximate test data. These empirical formulas are
specified on the basis of material tests conducted by engineers working in that field. The
American Institute of Steel Construction, for example, sets the design standards for structural
steel in the United States.

Preparation for the lab:

1. Calculate the projected critical load for the pin-supported columns to be tested for 10”,
12”, 15”, 18” and 20”.
2. All columns are rectangular shape of 0.75” x 0.075”
3. Create and prepare a data sheet for the laboratory indicating the following information on
the table.
a. Length
b. Predicted critical load,
c. Measured mid span deflection,
d. Failure mode ( elastic or inelastic)
4. What are your dependent variables, independent variables, and controlled variables?

Procedure
The number of columns tested will be sizes from 10” to 20” using 10”, 12”,15”,18” Only one
end condition, two different end conditions [see Figure 2, cases (b), (c),] would be tested. The
most critical factor in this lab is to ensure that the columns are loaded in a perfectly
horizontal and secured position. Any angular rotation (especially in the case when both ends
are fixed) will result in erroneous results. Care should also be taken in adjusting the collar on
the post for each column. It is important to stop the loading of the column as soon as the
critical load has been reached to avoid permanent damage to the column.

For each column tested:

1. Measure and record the dimensions of the column on the worksheet.
2. Calculate the expected buckling load for the end conditions at hand. The steps for doing
this are outlined on the worksheet.
3. Orient the satin chrome blocks on the loading frame for the end conditions chosen. V-
notches should face away from the mounting surface (towards the column) for pinned ends
and towards the mounting surface (away from the column) for fixed ends.
4. With the end conditions selected, adjust the capstan nut
5. Gradually apply increment of load, and must be rechecked each time the column is
changed.
6. The loading beam should then be adjusted to the desired column as follows:

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The stop for the loading beam when the column start to change mode of bucking.
After the column is in position, the dial indicator is installed in the brackets and
fastened to the center post. The indicator bracket should be moved up or down the post so
that the indicator point contacts the column at its midpoint. The indicator may then be zeroed
by loosening the black plastic knob that holds the indicator on the frame and then moving it
gently toward the column until the needle on the small scale is zero. The large scale is zeroed
by rotating the outside bezel until the large needle is on zero. One revolution on the large
scale is 0.100 in. (2.54 mm) and is equal to 1 on the small scale. Each graduation of the large
scale is 0.001 in. (0.025 mm). Extreme care should be exercised in handling the dial
indicator. After each increment of load, record the load and deflection on the data sheet.
Suitable increments for the loading of the column may be obtained by rotating the hand
wheel.

Required:
From graph and data collected find:
1. Find average bulking critical loads from measurements and provided equations.
2. Plot average critical load and deflection as function of column length.
3. Using Euler’s equation and the average critical load data for 18” column find
modulus of elasticity for each material.
4. Use Johnson’s equation and the average critical load for 12” column and solve for
Yield strength of the materials.
5. Graphically show the Euler’s equation diverges from your data as the column
length decreases.
6. Repeat above 5 for Johnson’s equation and show the divergence is in the increase
side.
7. Provide critical load verses length.
8. In a table compare are your theoretical values with experimental values. You can
make three columns, Laboratory Data, Expected values, and percent errors.

Conclusion:

Viva Voce Question

1. What is effective length in columns ?

2. What is factor of safety ?

Signature of Subject Teacher

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