Forming Process

Types:
                   
1. Non Cutting / Non-Chipping :
Mechanical Working
 Forging

 Rolling
 Pressing

Cutting Shaping / Chipping Shape Giving :

 Lathe
 Milling
 Drilling
 Shaper
 Planer
Mechanical working of a metal is plastic deformation performed to change the dimensions,
properties and/or surface conditions by means of externally applied mechanical pressure.

Recrystallization:
It is the temperature at which new grains are formed.

Hot Working
1. It is carried out above the crystallization temperature but below the melting point. 
Temperature > recrystallization 
2. Simultaneous process of deformation and recovery.
2. Stress required for deforming is less.
2. No internal or residual stresses are set up. 
2. Very little hardening of metal due to recrystallization and recovery.
2. Refinement of metal grains resulting in improved mechanical properties.
2. Cracks and blow holes are welded up.
2. It has no effect on UTS, hardness, corrosion resistance, yield and fatigue strength.
2. Surface finish is poorer due to oxidation and scaling.
2. Closed dimensional tolerances cannot be maintained.
2. Used where heavy deformation is required.

Cold Working
1. It is carried below the recrystallization temperature.
2. No appreciable recovery.
3. Higher stress is required for deformation.
4. Internal or residual stresses are set up.
5. The metal gets work hardened.
6. Cold working distorts grains.
7. Existing cracks get elongated and also new cracks are developed.
8. It improves UTS hardness, yield and fatigue strength but reduces corrosion resistance.
9. Cold worked parts have better surface finish.
10. Good dimensional accuracy can be obtained.
11. Used where good accuracy, surface finish and work hardening is required.
 HOT ROLLING:
 In rolling, the metal to be deformed is passed between two rolls and the metal is then
subjected to high compressive stresses by the squeezing actions of the rolls.The
frictional force between the rolls and metal draws the metal into the rolls.
 In a hot rolling process, metal in plastic state is passed between the two rolls revolving at
the same speed but in the opposite direction.
 Due to rolling, the coarse structure of the cast ingots is converted into fine grain structure
and the ingot is reduced in thickness and increased in length.
 Many useful articles like structural sections, sheets, rails, plates etc. are produced
through rolling and require several passes before the desired slope and cross section of
rolled product is obtained.

Type Of Rolls:

1. Plain roll
2. Grooved roll

 BODY: Body has different shapes on its periphery according to the desired shape of
rolled products it may be flat or groove.
 NECK: it is that part of roll on which it rotates in bearing
 WABBLER: it is star shaped, constructed at the end of rolls to engage coupling to
connect it to the driving shaft to receive power. In case of too heavy loading the damage
will occur in the wabbler and the main body will be saved.
 Rolls are made from cast steel or chilled cast iron.

Types Of Rolling Mills:

1. Two High Mill:-

 It consists of two heavy horizontal rolls placed exactly one over the other.
 The rolls are supported in sturdy upright side frames and can be adjusted by raising or
lowering the upper roll.
 Both rolls rotate in opposite directions and material is drawn from one direction only.

2. Three High Mill:-

 It consists of three horizontal rolls placed one over the other.
 The direction of upper and lower rolls are the same but the middle roll rotates in the
opposite direction.
 The work is fed in one direction between the upper and middle roll and in reverse
direction between the middle and lower rolls.
 It gives a higher rate of production than two high mills.

3. Four High Rolling Mill:-

 It consists of 4 horizontal rolls placed directly over the other.
 The two larger diameter rolls placed at the outer end are called back up rolls.
  The two smaller middle rolls are called work rolls as the work piece is passed between
them.
 The backup rolls reinforce and prevent the deflection of work rolls which otherwise would
result in thickening of rolled plates or sheets at the centre.
 The 4 high rolling mills are used for hot or cold rolling of plates, sheets, stripes.
4. Cluster Mills:-
 It is a special type of 4-high rolling mill.
 It has two smaller diameter working rolls and 4 or more larger diameter backup rolls.
 Depending upon the support needed the number of backup rolls may go upto 20.
 
Application:
1. For rolling hard thin materials, the work rolls are very small in diameter but of
considerable length and require a set of backup rolls for support.
2. It is generally used for cold rolling.

      5. Continuous Rolling Mill:-

 It consists of a number of non reversing two high mills arranged one after the other so
that the material can be passed through all of them one after the other continuously. 
 Each subsequent roll rotates at a faster speed to accommodate the increasing length of
the metal piece being rolled.

            Application:
                 1. It is suitable for mass production only.

     6. Planetary Rolling Mills:-

 This mill consists of a pair of backing rolls surrounded by a large number of small
planetary rolls.
 The mill reduces a hot slab to a coiled strip in a single pass.
 The feed roll pushes the slab through a guide into planetary rolls. The planetary rolls
give a constant reduction to the slab as it sweeps between them. On its exit side, a
planishing mill is installed to improve the surface finish followed by a coiler.

EXTRUSION

 It consists of compressing a metal inside a chamber and causing it to flow

through a small opening called die which is shaped according to the required
form to the product.
 Long lengths of uniform or nonuniform cross sectional area of solid or hollow
products can be obtained by extrusion.
 The length of the extruded part depends on the size of the billet and the cross
section of the die. The extruding long length is supported on a run out table.
 The operating principle is same for hot or cold extrusion process and the use
depends on 
1. Metal to be extruded
2. Thickness of extruded section
3. Size of raw material
4.  Capacity of press
 5. Type of product
 Mostly hydraulically horizontal presses are used.
 Any ductile or plastic material can be extruded.

Application :
1. Rods, tubes various sections in solid or hollow forms.
2. Channel, I, Z, T, profiles can be extruded.
3. It is widely applied in non-ferrous copper, Al, Mg products and limited application
in steel (i.e for expensive stainless steel, alloy steel)
4. It has wide use in industries like
i) Transportation - ships, automobile, aircrafts
ii) Construction Industry
iii) Oil Industry ( drill pipes and pipelines)
iv) Military uses (armour plate, guns, other weapons)
v) Chemical and Nuclear Power (tubings)

METHODS OF EXTRUSION
1. Direct or forward extrusion
2. Indirect or backward extrusion

1. DIRECT OR FORWARD EXTRUSION

 It is a widely used method.
 In direct extrusion the flow of metal through the die is in the same direction
as the movement of ram.
 A hot billet is placed within the container that has a die at one end and the
ram forces the hot billet through the die opening producing the extruding
product.
 As the punch moves forward the exterior contaminated surface of the billet
remains stationary whereas the inert metal is forced through the die for
making the extruded part. Almost 10% length of billet containing surface
impurities is left as unextruded and is known as discard. 

2. INDIRECT OR BACKWARD EXTRUSION

 In indirect extrusion the metal flows in the opposite direction to the
movement of ram.
 Hollow ram is used and the die is mounted at the end of the ram.
 As the ram is pushed, the billet is pressed against the back wall of the
chamber and remains stationary while the metal is extruded back through
the die and hollow plunger.
 Indirect extrusion requires less force as there is no friction between
chamber and billet.
 It has limited use because
1. Plunger becomes weak due to its reduction in effective area
2. Difficulty in supporting the extruded part.
Differentiate / comparison between Direct and Indirect Extrusion

DIRECT
1. The direction of pressure applied by the ram and the extruded part is the same.
2. Frictional force is more due to relative motion between the wall of the chamber
and the billet.
3. More power is required.
4. As there is solid ram, higher loads can be applied.
5. Billet is movable.
6. Die is stationary.
7. Blooms, billets, square, round bars can be produced.

INDIRECT
1. The direction of pressure by the ram and that of the extruded part is opposite to
each other.
2. Frictional force is less as there is no relative motion between walls of the
container and billet.
3. Less power is required.
4. As ram is hollow, higher loads cannot be applied.
5. Billet is stationary.
6. Die is movable.
7. Pipes and tubes can be produced.

FORGING

 Forging is the process of shaping heated metal by the application of sudden

blows (hammer forging) or steady pressure (press forging) and makes use of the
characteristic of plasticity of material.

Definition:
It is defined as the controlled plastic deformation of metal at elevated
temperatures into a predetermined shape by using compressive forces.
Compressive forces are exerted through some type of die by a hammer, a press
or forging machines.

Application: 
Forging processes are used in manufacturing of parts of tractors, automobiles,
ship building, cycle, railroad components, agricultural machinery etc.

Advantages:
 1. The forged products have high ductility and offer great resistance to impart
and fatigue load.
2. It refines the structure of the metal.
3. Increases the strength and toughness by setting direction of grain
(continuous unintegrated grain flow)
4. Saves time, labour and material.
5. Reasonable degrees of accuracy may be obtained.
 
Disadvantages: 
1. Initial cost of die is high.
2. Maintenance cost is high.
3. Rapid oxidation of metal surfaces at high temperature results in scaling
which wears the die.
4. Limited to simple shapes and parts having undercuts cannot be forged.
5. Close tolerances are difficult to maintain.
6. All materials cannot be forged.
7. The metals get cracked or distorted if worked below a specified
temperature limit.

 UPSETTING- 
Upsetting is done to increase the cross sectional area of the stock by reduction of its
length. Force is applied in a  direction parallel to the length of the axis. Upsetting
process provides rapid grain flow which increases strength and is used for severe
applications eg. gear teeth. 

DRAWING OUT-
In this operation the metal gets elongated with a reduction in the cross-section area.
The force is applied on a direction perpendicular to the length of the axis. 

Forging Operations
1. Upsetting or jumping
2. Drawing out
3. Setting down
4. Bending
5. Welding
6. Cutting
7. Punching and drifting
8. Fullering (increases width and not length)

Methods Of Forging
I. Open die forging / flat die forging / smith forging
 Hard forging
 Power forging
1. Hammer forging
2. Press forging
II. Closed die forging / Impression die forging
  Drop forging
 Press forging
 Machine forging

I. Smith Forging or Open Die Forging

 A hot work piece is given the desired shape by using hard held flat faced dies
and hammer. 
 The desired shape is obtained by manipulation of the job between the blows.

Advantages:
1. Tooling is simple.
2. Inexpressive
3. Large variety of shapes can be produced.

          Disadvantages:
               1. Open die forging produces work pieces of less accuracy.
               2. Open die forging depends on the skill of the smith.

 Hand Forging:-
The hammering of the heated work piece is done by a sledge hammer on an anvil. The
heated workpiece is held by tongs and formers, fuller, punches and hot chisels are held
on the forging and hammered. 
Hand forging is used to shape a small number of light forgings mainly in repair
shops.

Power Forging:-
For large forgings and to produce a great degree of deformation in the metal and to
avoid repeated heating power forging is done.
Machines which work on forgings by blow are called hammers, while those
working by pressure are called presses.

Power Hammers:-
Principle of Operation - the blows are struck by falling weight with the entire energy
being absorbed by the work. Some hammers use only the gravity fall, the energy
delivered being the product of weight of the hammer head and distance of the fall while
others increase the striking velocity of the hammer head by mechanical means.

Classification Of Hammers:
I. Mechanical 
 Halve hammer
 Trip hammer
 Lever-spring hammer
 Pneumatic hammer
 II. Air and Stem Hammer
 Single acting
 Double acting
 

WIRE DRAWING

 Wire drawing is the process of reducing the diameter of metal rods by pulling
them through cynical openings in die blocks.

Working:-
 Steel, iron or non-ferrous rod is converted into wire by drawing it through a
conical hole having an included angle of 8-24 degrees.
 In continuous wire drawing, the wire passes through a number of holes in
succession with 30% reduction of diameter in each hole.
 Dies containing holes are made of steel, tungsten carbide, ruby or diamond.

Process:-
 The rolled bars obtained from rolling mills are first pickled in acid to remove
scale, washed and then coated with iron hydroxide, copper and tin to prevent
oxidation. The end of the rod is tapered sufficiently to fit the first dies by passing
it through a pointing machine and then fed into a wire drawing machine. 
 Dies and drums are water cooled to remove the high heat generated by friction.
 Dry soap is often used as lubricant to aid passing the rod through the die.
 
Application:-
 Very fine wire of all ductile metals can be drawn. For platinum upto 1/30,000 inch
in diameter (thinner than human hair) can be drawn.

HOT SPINNING

 In hot metal spinning a heated circular blank of sheet metal is lightly held against
a former, attached to the headstock of lathe by a freely rotating pad on the lathe
tailstock.
 A rounded noise forming tool or roller is pressed against the revolving piece and
moved in a series of sweeps, displaying the metal sheet to conform to the shape
of the former.
 During the operation, considerable frictional heat is generated which keeps the
already hot plate in plastic state.

 Advantages:-
1. Equipment cost is low.
2. Tool cost is low.
 3. Some shapes such as pitchers, kettles and utensils can be produced
economically.

Disadvantages:-
1. High operator skill is required.
2. Coles tolerances cannot be obtained.
3. Metals having thickness of more than 1 mm and complex shapes are difficult to
form.
Application:-
1. Funnels and processing kettles.
2. Reflectors
3. Kitchenware
4. Bells or musical instruments

Principle of Rolling:-
Roll Angles :
(Diagram)

Arc AB - Contact area of roll and metal piece.

Angle AOB - Angle of contact or maximum angle of bite.  

Pressure exerted over the metal is not uniform throughout as seen in the pressure
distribution curve. It is minimised at both ends and more somewhere in between.

Line CP - maximum pressure line called as neutral or no slip line.

C - No slip point - At this point the surfaces of the metal and roll move at the same
speed.

From A to C - Metal moves slower than the roll.

After crossing C from C to B the metal moves faster than the roll surface.
The position of point C depends on 
i) Diameter of rolls
ii) Extent of reduction
iii) Other operating conditions  
(as the arc of contact increases the point C moves towards exit point B)

As  a result of squeezing the grains are elongated in the direction of rolling and the
velocity of material at the exit is higher than that at the entry. The amount by which the
velocity (V2) of strip at exit point is higher than the peripheral velocity (V) of the roll is
called Forward Slip (normally 3-10%) 
Forward slip (%) = [(V2 - V)/V] X 100