RULES “odals express a speaker's attitude or mood. For example, you can use modals when you feel something is necessary, advisable, possible, impossible, probable or permissible. Modals also express the strength of these attitudes (compare ‘might go with | must go). Each modal has more than one meaning or use. Form Passive form Continuous form modal + be + verb-ing can can't could couldn't be able to may / might modal + bare infinitive must do modal = be + past participle must be done must be doing + general ability or possibilty * informal request, offer, permission + to make statements /crtcism sound less definite ~ ‘often used in academic / scientifc writing to say that something is impossible or to make negative deductions (negative equivalent of must) © general ability in the past ‘+ possibilty in the present / future ‘+ for requests (more polite than can) ‘+ to make suggestions ‘+ We use could in questions to emphasise that we {eel strongly about something bad that happened, ‘+ with comparative adjectives to express possibilty / impossibility, ‘+ negative supposition or deduction ‘billy in the present, past and future (instead of can) ‘+ abilty to do an action at a particular time in the past + after modals such as may / might and would / Should and after verbs like want, hope or expect + future or general possibilty ‘+ for polite requests or permission (might is very formal in this context) ‘+ might can be used to criticise ‘+ We use might to make a suggestion or give advice in a polite way. ‘+ In general, might is less certain than may, ‘may is used to express formal wishes or hopes (often at the beginning of a sentence) + We use may / might as well (informa) winen there is nothing more interesting, useful, bettor to do or ‘when comparing one unpleasant situation to. another. Maria can speak English but she can't speak German, Can | have another cup of tea, please? Can |help you with that bag? You can't use the computer now, ‘Susan can be very insensitive at times. ‘The novel can be described as an epic. He can't be hungry. He's just had supper. Could you ride a bike when you were five? Teouldn'. Don’t wait for him — he could be late. Could you turn down the sound a bit? We could ask John to make some enquiries, How could you leave him alone at the bus station? ‘They could try a bit harder. ‘Your plan couldn't be better. ‘Alan couldn't still be reading the report — | gave it to him hours ago! Will you be able to meet me tomorrow? vim wasn't working yesterday, so he was able to sleep late. (Could is not possible here) | might be able to help you. We hope to be able to come. The government may / might increase the budget for this project. May | see your ticket, please? Might | trouble you with some questions? You might ask before you take my car keys. You might try the petrol station down the road. He might do better than we expect in the test May you both be very happy. May the New Year bring us peace. There's no one here so we may / might as well go home. ‘The weather is terrible here in Spain. We might as. ‘well be in England. (tis temible in England too.) 41must must not have to/ don’t have to need / needn't should / ought to would shall 42 * for orders, strong recommendation * obligation imposed by the speaker, rather than rules / regulations imposed by others * for certainty or positive logical assumptions / deductions (In negative sentences, we use can’t) * obligation / recommendation in the past and future are expressed using have (0 ‘mustn't = prohibition ‘AmE In American English, must not is sometimes used for negative assumptions / deductions. (Can't is, used in British English.) ‘+ external obligation, necessity don't have to = lack of necessity ‘+ must not and don’t have to express different ideas: ‘must not / mustn't = it is wrong / a bad idea don't have to = itis not necessary ‘© have got to can also be used in informal English need / needn't as a modal verb has the same ‘meaning as the regular verb need to obligation, recommendation or advice ‘+ probability or what we expect to happen ‘should is a polite way of introducing a suggestion ‘+ should is used in clauses expressing personal reactions, often after adjectives should can indicate annoyance * should can be used with if in case, for fear that This makes the action seem less likely future certainty, predictions * spontaneous decisions + offers, requests, willingness to do something * won't can be used in offers / invitations (formal and as question tags to add politeness as the past form of will for past habitual actions * typical polite requests (would you mind + verb-ing / would you mind if, etc); can be used as a polite question tag + to stress that an action is tentative * shall / we is used to make offers and suggestions + inrules, regulations, legal contracts, ete. ‘You must pay this fine by Friday. | must get my hair cut I's such a mess, He must be in his early twenties. ‘You must be exhausted after the fight. We must cut down on our expenditure, We had to / will have to cut down on our expenditure. ‘You mustn't smoke in the auditorium. | haven't seen Sue this morning. She must not be at work today. ‘You have to put on your seat beit now. Jane doesn’t have to hand in the assignment. You mustn't cross the road without looking We don't have to make a decision now. (ve got to send this email right away. No one need know / needs to know about this. ‘You needn't wait / don't need to wait for me. (= don't have to) ‘You should / ought to look into the matter before it's too late. Everyone should / ought to b clean up the beach, He ought to pass the exam easily The plane should be landing any minute now. | should think your idea will be a great success. ‘Should we start without Julie? Its strange you should say that. opened the door, and who should be standing there but Sam. (when telling a story) “Where's Mary?” “How should I know?" I'l make extra food in ease your cousins should ed to help I'm sure they will find the missing document in time for the meeting, ‘There's someone at the door. I'l go and see who itis Don't worry about a thing. Pil clear the table, Won't you have a seat, madam? Have a seat, won't you? Everyone thought the team would win the cup. ‘She wouldn't listen to anything we said, When we lived by the sea, we would go for long walks on the beach every morning Would you mind waiting here, please? Would you mind if | waited here? ‘Shut the door, would you? Its doubtful he would know the answer. Shall | carry that heavy box for you? No player shall push or kick another player.used to had better be supposed © WODAL PERFECTS Fem ontinuous form Passive form could have couldn't have can't have needn't have should / ought twhave ‘may / might have must have will have would have PRESSIONS WITH MODAL MEANING past habitual action or past state that no longer exists to give strong advice (stronger than ought to or should) often implying a warning of bad ‘consequences (informal use) * similar to should - implies external obligation or what is expected to happen contrast between what actually happens and what is / was expected modal + have + past participle modal + have been + verb-ing modal + have been + past participle Lunfulfiled possibility or ability Uncertainty / guessing when we don’t know 10 express surprise or disbelief with comparative adjectives to express a negative deduction about the past, AmE must not have is used instead of can't have an action that happened that was unnecessary Note: We use didn't nead to for an unnecessary action when we don’t know ifthe action happened. ‘needn't have and shouldn't have can be used to thank someone politely Lnfutfiled expectation or advice not followed criticism or annoyance after some adjectives to express personal reactions Uncertainty about possible past action past possibilty that didn't happen annoyance about failure to do an action | might have known + would shows that the speaker isn't surprised by an action because it was typical of the doer. logical assumption / certainty about a past action ‘AmE must not have is used for negative assumptions (ee can't have) ‘+ to look back on a past action from a point in the future certainty possible event which didn't actually happen ‘assumption about the past don’t know ~ he might have.” We used to watch cartoons on Saturdays. (= would) Did they use to have a sports car? (would isn't possible here) You had better finish this project soon, You had better not be late, (or you'll get firec) am supposed to start work at 9.00 am. You are not supposed to drink and drive, ill was supposed to have been here already. (but ‘she isn't) ‘The modal perfect is used to refer to past actions, or to make speculations or deductions about the past. must have done must have been doing must have been done ‘They could have called us. (but they didn’t) | don’t know who called. It could have been Sue, ‘She couldn't have left without them! ‘Sho couldn't have been happier when she was a child He looks happy. He can't have heard the bad news. 'm sure he didn't hear the news.) He looks happy. He must not have heard the bad news, They needn't have brought a present. { didn’t need to pay the bil. (We don't know it the speaker paid or not,) You needn't have gone to so much trouble. They should have got here by now. You oughtn't to have spoken to her ike that. Its strange you should have mentioned it. He may (might) have told me. | don't remember. You might have fallen and broken a leg! ‘She might have told me you were coming | might have known she'd make an awful meal ‘The grass is wet. It must have rained. Everyone's here except Jones. He must not have heard about the meeting. By 3.00 all the work will have been done. ‘She'll have heard what happened by now. ‘An operation would have saved his life. (One of the children offered to help. That would have been Julie. * past participle can be omitted in spoken English when the meaning is clear. “Did Greg paint this picture?” What lovely flowers - you really shouldn't have! 43‘A. Complete the dialogues with the correct modal. 1. shouldn't / might “Why did you climb up on the Of? YOU wn.nrnninnmnn Mave slipped.” “1'm sorry. | realise now that | have done it.” 2. could / can “Look at that rain! My flight oon. be cancelled.” "You... be $0 silly at times! The weather's not bad enough to stop a plane taking off!” needn't / could “we have brought these sandwiches with us afterall” SL KNOW, We snnnnnsnnmnnnnes Rave got Something to eat at that café over there.” 4, must / should “That snake bbe at least two metres long. How did it get into our back garden?" “How. «| know? I'm not an expert on snakes.” 5. would / can't Rob smn have failed his French exam! He's one of the best in the clas know. I was sure he seme PASS." 6. could / might “How . snnsnnens YOU FefUSS to 100k after Paul's dog while he's in hospital?” “Actually, 've changed my mind about that. | be able to doit afterall” B, Match each sentence (1-8) with the statement that best explains its meaning (a-h). 1. The children couldn’ have been watching TV —it was broken. a. I's a suggestion 2. The author's latest novel ought to be @ success. 1. b. its impossible. 3. You don't havo to lock the windows — well only be outa few minutes c. tis expected 4, Trevor would interrupt me when | was talking on the phone. dt was wrong not to 5. You might ry the chemists inthe high strest 2. thas probably happened 8. Rose will have finished her essay by now 1. twas possibie but it didn't happen. 7. The doctor sad | should have taken all the tablets in the packet sue MS not necessary. 8. Winning the schotarship would have solved ll her problems. nh. i's a past habit C. Complete the sentences using the correct phrase below. needn't have © couldn'thave © can'tbe © would have been © may as well will be able = should be © aren't supposed to 1. "ve got nothing planned for this evening $0 1 en seonnanens WOK Overtime, 2. Surely the director wn thinking of replacing the lead actor ~ the show opens tis woskea 3. The editor decided not to print the jokes in case someone a offended, 4, We ‘enjoyed the performance more - we were engrossed from start to finish. 5. YOU vin o be lazing around during working hours — there are plenty of things for you to dam 6. The presentation ....n.unninnninnmnnnnninmnnn MOR effective if visual aids had been used. 7. Idon't expect Jessica . to attend the premiere with her leg in plaster. 8. Your assignment was very good but you written so much, D. Rewrite the following sentences more formally, using the word in bold. Do you want me to help you? ean .Can | help you? | want to close the window. would Pass the salt, will you? may’... | can do the washing-up if you ike, shall Please have some more soup. won't Move your seat over there, could 46™ Cn Nu SPECULATING What could / might / may / must / can’t have happened / be happening? Give possible ‘=xpianations for the situations shown in the pictures. He must have grown. / The shirt could have ehrunk in the wash. ont cee ene erent eee oe ‘Read the text below and answer the questions in full sentences. Use modals from this unit. JAILED BECAUSE OF A FAULTY MACHINE of London, two of whom were jailed last week for frantically extracting more than €100,000 in cash om faulty cash machines and investing it in a brand- rex grand piano, air tickets to Hawaii and a Porsche. ‘The Hocks were not alone in their delight at discovering. ‘Eat all across the city, cash machines were giving out tuck wads of notes, regardless of which PIN number Somers were punching in, Word of the technological ‘usch spread fast and before long, there were queues of I was hard not to feel sympathy for the Hock family 5. Should the Hocks have taken the money? How do you think people found out about the ‘free’ cash? people waiting their tun for free cash, It’s difficult to resist a machine throwing money at you of course, but their behaviour was, morally and in the eyes of the Law, ‘wrong. So the Hocks should be held to account for their actions but their 15-month sentences seem a litle harsh. In a world where we are led to believe that with a little luck, a lottery win can change our lives, it’s hardly surprising that on discovering a magic cashpoint, many people forgot that taking money that isn’t yours is theft. How do you imagine the Hocks felt when they realised the cash machine wasn't working properly? What explanation might there be for why the machines were faulty? 5. Do you think the Hocks should have been sent to prison? What are you supposed to do if you find cash in the street? 45A 46 KEY WORD TRANSFORMATIONS Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence, using the word given. Do not change the word given. You must use between three and six words, including the word given. 1. Thinking of a new campaign is the responsibilty of the advertising agency. SUPPOSED The advertising agency .. Up with a new campaign 2. I know that it was wrong of me to make fun of the teacher, OUGHT VRROW that one — eee eee eee sos at my teacher 3. Pechaps | can help you find a place to stay. ABLE 1 . help you find a place to stay. 4, Mike's interview with the reporter is probably over by now, FINISHED ‘The reporter, o interviewing Mike by now. 5, The bank probably won't give you such a big loan. DOUBTFUL a v» you that much money. 6. The crisis must be handled very carefully, BETTER. YOU vrs with the erisis very carefully. 7. The singer is considering organising a show to raise money for the poor. MIGHT The singer ... on a show to raise money for the poor. 8 They might ask you to show some form of identification so take your passport. CASE Take your passport ur a asked to show some form of identification OPEN CLOZE Read the text below and think of the word which best fits each gap. Use only one word in each gap. ONE PUFF AND YOU'RE HOOKED According to a new study, young teenagers can (1) addicted to cigarettes more easily than previously believed. Researchers have found that as few as two cigarettes a day (2) be enough to lead to addiction and that this might occur even before smoking becomes an everyday habit. ‘The students who @) involved in the study were interviewed regularly over a four-year period. During the interviews, they (4). to answer questions about their smoking habits and addiction symptoms. (6). . fesponses were revealing. Some participants claimed that although they smoked just a few cigarettes a month, they still suffered unpleasant withdrawal symptoms (6) they tied to stop, including the feeling that they (7). have a cigarette no matter what. Such claims ®) sonsnnninnnsnans ROY SUFPFIS® US Since the nicotine from a single cigarette is sometimes all it takes to trigger addiction, possibly because young people's brains ae stil immature, causing them to become addicted more quickly (9) f adults. Adolescents who have just one cigarette a week soon find they (90) -.nnmnnnenenns tO SMOKE more often than they used (11) as their tolerance to nicotine increases. Unfortunately, many of those who smoke that frst cigarette (12) condemning themselves to a lifetime struggle against their addiction, and may never be (13) to give it up. ‘The harsh realty of teenage smoking is that approximately one-thitd (14) ..nnmnmnnnnsns ll YOUNG SMOKES will ultimately die prematurely as a result of their tobacco addiction. For these vietims, their fate may well (15) snninnnnnninn BBO Sealed with their first few puffs,