Lecture 18: Packet Filtering Firewalls (Linux)

Lecture Notes on “Computer and Network Security”

by Avi Kak ([email protected])

March 20, 2017

11:49pm

c
2017 Avinash Kak, Purdue University

Goals:

• Packet-filtering vs. proxy-server firewalls

• The four packet-filtering tables supported by iptables: filter, nat, man-
gle, and raw
• Creating and installing new firewall rules
• Structure of the filter table
• Connection tracking and extension modules
• Designing your own packet filtering firewall
 CONTENTS

Section Title Page

18.1 Firewalls in General 3

18.2 A “Demo” to Motivate You to Use Iptables 7

18.3 The Four Tables Maintained by the 16

Linux Kernel for Packet Processing

18.4 How the Packets are Processed by the 19

filter Table

18.5 To See if iptables is Installed and 22

Running

18.6 Structure of the filter Table 25

18.7 Structure of the nat Table 33

18.8 Structure of the mangle Table 36

18.9 Structure of the raw Table 38

18.10 What about the fact that the different 39

tables contain similarly named chains?

18.11 How the Tables are Actually Created 40

18.12 Connection Tracking by iptables 49

and the Extension Modules

18.13 Using iptables for Port Forwarding 54

18.14 Using Logging with iptables 56

18.15 Saving and Restoring Your Firewall 58

18.16 A Case Study: Designing iptables for a New LAN 63

18.17 Homework Problems 67

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18.1: FIREWALLS IN GENERAL

• Two primary types of firewalls are

– packet filtering firewalls
– proxy-server firewalls
Sometimes both are employed to protect a network. A single
computer may serve both roles.

• With a proxy-server based firewall, all network traffic in a host

is routed through the proxy server. That allows the proxy server
to exercise access control over the traffic in ways that will be
explained in Lecture 19.

• Packet filtering firewalls, on the other hand, take advantage of

the fact that direct support for TCP/IP is built into the kernels
of all major operating systems now. When a kernel is mono-
lithic, TCP/IP is usually internal to the kernel, meaning that it
is executed in the same address space in which the kernel itself
is executed (even when such a capability is made available to the
kernel in the form of a module that is loaded at run time). [In
addition to scheduling processes and threads, one of the main jobs of an OS is to serve as the interface between

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user programs, on the one hand, and the hardware (CPU, memory, disk, network interfaces, etc.), on the other.

The core part of an OS is usually referred to as its kernel. Unless you are using highly specialized hardware,

access by a user program to the hardware in a general-purpose computing platform must go through the kernel.

By the same token, any new data made available by the hardware in such general-purpose machines is likely

to be seen first by the kernel. Therefore, when a new data packet becomes available at a network interface,

the kernel is in a position to immediately determine its fate — provided the kernel has the TCP/IP capability

built into it. Just imagine how much slower it would be if a packet coming off a network interface had to be

handed over by the kernel to a user-level process for its processing. Kernel-level packet filtering is particularly

efficient in Linux because of the monolithic nature of the kernel. Linux is monolithic despite the fact that much

of its capability these days comes in the form of loadable kernel modules. In general, a kernel is monolithic

when its interaction with the hardware takes place in the same address space in which the kernel itself is being

executed. (The “loadable kernel modules” of Linux that you can see with a command like lsmod are executed

in the same address space as the kernel itself.) The opposite of a monolithic kernel is a microkernel in which

the interaction with the hardware is delegated to different user-level processes (and, thus, is subject to address-

space translations required for process execution). Recall that each process comes with its own address space

that must be translated into actual memory addresses when the process is executed. For a very fascinating

discussion on monolithic kernels vs. microkernels at the dawn of the Linux movement (in the early 90s), see

http://oreilly.com/catalog/opensources/book/appa.html. This discussion involves Linus Torvalds, the

prophet of Linux, and Andrew Tanenbaum, the high-priest of operating systems in general. Even though this

discussion is now over 20 years old, much of what you’ll find there remains relevant today. ]

• In Linux, a packet filtering firewall is configured with the Iptables

modules. For doing the same thing in a Windows machine, I
believe the best you can do is to use the graphical interfaces
provided through the Control Panel. It may also be possible to
use the WFP APIs (Windows Filtering Platform) for embedding
packet filtering in user-created applications, but I am not entirely

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certain about that — especially with regard to packet filtering in

the more recent versions of the Windows platform.

• The iptables tool inserts and deletes rules from the kernel’s
packet filtering table. Ordinarily, these rules created by the
iptables command would be lost on reboot. However, you can
make the rules permanent with the commands iptables-save and
iptables-restore. The other way is to put the commands re-
quired to set up your rules in an initialization script.

• Rusty Russell of the Netfilter Core Team is the author of iptables.

He is also the author of ipchains that was incorporated in version
2.2 of the kernel and that was replaced by iptables in version 2.4.

• The latest packet filtering framework in Linux is known as nftables.

Meant as a more modern replacement for iptables, nftables
was merged into the Linux kernel mainline on January 19, 2014.
nftables was developed to address the main shortcoming of iptables,
which is that its packet filtering code is much too protocol spe-
cific (specific at the level of IPv4 vs. IPv6 vs. ARP, etc.). This
results in code replication when firewall engines are created with
iptables.

• Despite its many advantages over iptables, there has not yet
been a wholesale switchover from iptables to nftables — proba-
bly because there do not yet exist tools capable of automatically
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translating the packet filtering rules written using iptables to

the format acceptable to nftables. So the bottom line is that
iptables continues to be used widely.

• If you would like to see how you can transition from iptables to
nftables, here is a wonderful document you can read:

https//www.sans.org/reading-room/whitepapers/firewalls/nftables-second-language-35937

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18.2: A “DEMO” TO MOTIVATE YOU TO

USE Iptables

• The iptables command with all its options can appear at first
sight to be daunting to use. The “demo” presented in this section
illustrates how easy it is to use this command. Basically, I will
show how you can create a single-rule firewall to achieve some
pretty amazing protection for your computer.

• If you do not need this sort of a motivation, proceed directly to

Section 18.3.

• The “demo” will consist of showing the following:

– Demo Goal 1: How you can prevent anyone from “pinging”
your machine.

– Demo Goal 2: How you can allow others to ssh into your
machine, but block it for every other access.

– Demo Goal 3: How you can prevent others from sending

connection-initiation packets (the SYN packets) to your ma-
chine.
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• ASSUMPTIONS: For this “demo” I will assume that you are

sitting in front of two machines, of which at least one is running
the Ubuntu distribution of Linux. Obviously, I am also assuming
that both machines are connected to the network. The machine
that needs to be protected with a firewall will be referred to as
the Ubuntu laptop.

• When you installed Ubuntu on your laptop, that automatically

activated the iptables firewall — but with an EMPTY packet
filtering table. To see this, when you execute the following com-
mand on your Ubuntu laptop:

sudo iptables -L

you will see the following sort of output in the terminal window:

Chain INPUT (policy ACCEPT)

target prot opt source destination

Chain FORWARD (policy ACCEPT)

target prot opt source destination

Chain OUTPUT (policy ACCEPT)

target prot opt source destination

This output tells us that iptables is on and running, but there

are no rules in the firewall at this time. As to what is meant
by target, prot, opt, etc., in the output shown above will be
explained in Section 18.6.

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• To be a bit more precise, the above output tells us that there are
currently no rules in the filter table of the firewall. So, as far
as the firewall is concerned, every packet will be subject to the
policy ACCEPT. That is, every packet will get to its destination,
coming in or going out, unhindered.

• Later in this lecture, I will talk about the fact the iptables
supports four tables: filter, mangle, nat, and raw. I will
also mention later that the command ‘iptables -L’ is really a
short form for the more table-specific command ‘iptables -L -t
filter’ for examining the contents of the filter table. [So the
output shown previously tells us that there is currently nothing in only the filter table.
But note that the packets may still be subject to filtering by the rules in the other
tables. Later in this demo I will show an example in which the packets of a certain kind
will be denied entry into the Ubuntu laptop even when the filter table has nothing in
it.]

• If the output you see for the ‘iptables -L’ command is different
from what I have shown on the previous slide, please flush the
filter table (meaning get rid of the rules in the filter table) by

iptables -F
For this demo to work as I will present it, ideally you should be flushing out all of the rules (after you
have saved the rules by iptables-save using the syntax I will show later) in all of the tables by

iptables -t filter -F
iptables -t filter -X
iptables -t mangle -F
iptables -t mangle -X
iptables -t nat -F
iptables -t nat -X

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iptables -t raw -F
iptables -t raw -X

The ’-X’ option is for deleting user-defined chains. I will explain later what that means.

• Achieving Demo Goal 1:

• Now let’s go to the first goal of this demo: You don’t want
others to be able to ping your Ubuntu laptop.

• As root, execute the following in the command line

sudo iptables -A INPUT -p icmp --icmp-type echo-request -j DROP

where the ‘-A INPUT’ option says to append a new rule to the INPUT
chain of the filter table. The ‘-p icmp’ option specifies that
the rule is to be applied to ICMP packets only. The next option
mentions what specific subtype of the ICMP packets this rule
applies to. Finally, ‘-j DROP’ specifies the action to be taken for
such packets. [As I will explain later, the above command enters a rule in the
INPUT chain of the filter table. This rule says to drop all incoming icmp packets that
are of the type echo-request. As stated in Section 18.11 of this lecture, that is the
type of ping ICMP packets.]

• Now use the other machine to ping the Ubuntu laptop by using
either the ‘ping hostname’ syntax or the ‘ping xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx’ syntax
where the argument to ping is the IP address. You will notice
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that you will not get back any echos from the Ubuntu machine.
If you had pinged the Ubuntu machine prior to the entry of the
above firewall rule, you would have received the normal echos
from that machine. [On some platforms, such as Solaris, you may have to use ‘ping -s’ to
get the same behavior as what you get with ‘ping’ in Ubuntu.]

• To get ready for our second demo goal, now delete the rule you
entered above by

sudo iptables -F

Subsequently, if you execute ‘iptables -L’ again, you will see

again the empty chains of the filter table.

• Achieving Demo Goal 2:

• Recall that the objective now is to allow others to ssh into our
Ubuntu laptop, but we we do not want the Ubuntu laptop to
respond to any other service request coming from other comput-
ers. I am assuming that the SSH server sshd is running on the
Ubuntu laptop. [You can verify that the SSH server is running my executing a command like “ps
ax | grep ssh” and you should see a line for the sshd process.]

• Now, execute the following two lines in your Ubuntu laptop:

sudo iptables -A INPUT -p tcp --destination-port 22 -j ACCEPT

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sudo iptables -A INPUT -j REJECT

where the ‘-A INPUT’ option says to append the rules to the INPUT
chain of the filter table. The ‘-p tcp’ option says the rule is
to be applied to TCP packets. The next option mentions the
destination port on the local machine for these incoming pack-
ets. Finally, the option ‘-j ACCEPT’ says to accept all such packets.
Recall that 22 is the port registered for the SSH service.

• To see that you have entered two new rules in the INPUT chain of
the filter table, execute the ‘sudo iptables -L’ command as root.
You should see the following:

Chain INPUT (policy ACCEPT)

target prot opt source destination

ACCEPT tcp -- anywhere anywhere tcp dpt:ssh

REJECT 0 -- anywhere anywhere reject-with icmp-port-unreachable

Chain FORWARD (policy ACCEPT)

target prot opt source destination

Chain OUTPUT (policy ACCEPT)

target prot opt source destination

• Now when you use the other laptop to ssh into the Ubuntu laptop
with its firewall set as above, you should experience no problems.
However, if the other laptop makes any other type of access (such
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as by ping) to the Ubuntu laptop, you will receive “Port Unreach-

able” error message. If we had used DROP instead of REJECT in the
second rule we entered with the iptables command, when the
other laptop makes any access other than ssh to the Ubuntu
laptop, the other laptop would not receive back any error mes-
sages. [When we entered the second iptables command line, we did not specify
the -reject-with option, yet it shows up in the second rule in the filter table.
Note that, as opposed to DROP, the job of REJECT is to send back an error message. If
you don’t specify what this error message should be, iptables will by default use the
icmp-port-unreachable option that sends back the Dest Unreachable message.]

• To see the effect of the second rule — the REJECT rule — try
pinging the Ubuntu laptop and see what happens. The machine
that is doing the pinging will receive and display a ‘Destination
Port Unreachable’ message.

• To get ready for our third demo goal, now delete the two rules
you entered above by

sudo iptables -F

Subsequently, if you execute ’iptables -L’ again, you will see

again the empty chains of the filter table.

• Achieving Demo Goal 3:

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• Recall that the goal of this part of the demo is to reject all requests
for new connections coming from other hosts in the network. As
mentioned in Lecture 16, when a host wants to make a new con-
nection with your machine, it sends your machine a SYN packet.
To block all such packets, we could use a rule very similar to what
we have shown so far. But, just to add an interesting twist to the
demo, we will use the mangle table for the purpose. So go ahead
and execute the following command line as root:

sudo iptables -t mangle -A PREROUTING -p tcp -m tcp --tcp-flags SYN NONE -j DROP

The ‘-t’ option says that the new rule is meant for the mangle
table. We want the rule to be appended to the PREROUTING chain
(assuming that this chain was empty previously). You can check
that the rule is in the mangle table by executing the command

sudo iptables -t mangle -L

• With the above rule in place in the mangle table, use the other
laptop to try to make any sort of connection with the Ubuntu
laptop. You could, for example, try to SSH into the Ubuntu
laptop. You will not be able to do. (You will still be able the
ping the Ubuntu laptop since ping packets do not have the SYN
flag set. More accurately speaking, the rule we entered is just for the TCP protocol packets. The ping
packets belong to a different protocol — the ICMP protocol, which resides at the Network Layer, as shown in

Section 16.2 of Lecture 16. )

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• Finally, restore the Ubuntu laptop’s firewall to its original all-

accepting condition by deleting the rule you just entered in the
mangle table:

sudo iptables -t mangle -F

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18.3: THE FOUR TABLES MAINTAINED

BY THE
LINUX KERNEL FOR PACKET
PROCESSING

• Linux kernel uses the following four tables, each consisting of

rule chains, for processing the incoming and outgoing packets:

– the filter table

– the nat table

– the mangle table

– the raw table

• Each table consists of chains of rules. As to which chain

is invoked on a packet is determined by the routing direction
associated with the packet.

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• Each packet is subject to each of the rules in a chain and the fate
of the packet is decided by the first matching rule.

• The filter table contains at least three rule chains: INPUT for
processing all incoming packets, OUTPUT for processing all outgo-
ing packets, and FORWARD for processing all packets being routed
through the machine. The INPUT, OUTPUT, and FORWARD chains of
the filter table are also referred to as the built-in chains since
they cannot be deleted (unlike the user-defined chains we will
talk about later).

• nat stands for Network Address Translation. When your machine

acts as a router, it would need to alter either the source IP address
in the packet passing through, or the destination IP address,
or both. That is where the nat table is useful. The nat table
consists of four built-in chains: PREROUTING for altering packets
as soon as they come in, INPUT for altering the incoming packets
after they have been subject to pre-routing rules if any, OUTPUT for
altering locally-generated packets before routing, and POSTROUTING
for altering packets as they are about to go out. [When your machine is
connected to your home or small-business network and you are behind, say, a wireless router/access-point, you

are likely to be in a Class C private network. The allowed address range for such networks is 192.168.0.0

to 192.168.255.255. On the other hand, when you are connected to the Purdue wireless network (PAL2 or

PAL3), you are in a Class A private network. The allowed address range for such a network is 10.0.0.0 to

10.255.255.255. When a packet in a private network is routed out to the internet at large, it is subject to

network address translation. The same things happens when a packet from the internet at large is routed

to your machine in a private network; it is also subject to NAT, which would be the reverse of the address

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]
translation carried out for the outgoing packet.

• The mangle table is used for specialized packet alteration. (Demo

3 in Section 18.2 inserted a new rule in the mangle table.) The
mangle table has five rule chains: PREROUTING for altering incoming
packets before a routing decision is made concerning the packet,
OUTPUT for altering locally generated outgoing packets, INPUT for
altering packets coming into the machine itself, FORWARD for alter-
ing packets being routed through the machine, and POSTROUTING
for altering packets immediately after the routing decision.

• The raw table is used for configuring exceptions to connection

tracking rules. [It’s like you specify a sequence of rules for connection tracking, but, at the same
time, you don’t want to expose a particular category of packets to those rules.] As to what is
meant by connection tracking will become clear later. When a
raw table is present, it takes priority over all other tables.

• We will focus most of our attention on the filter table since

that is usually the most important table for firewall security —
particularly if your focus is on protecting your laptop with a
firewall of your own design.

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18.4: HOW THE PACKETS ARE

PROCESSED BY
THE filter TABLE

• As mentioned already, the filter table contains the following

built-in rule chains: INPUT, OUTPUT, and FORWARD.

• Figure 1 shows how a packet is subject to these rule chains:

• When a packet comes in (say, through the ethernet interface) the

kernel first looks at the destination of the packet. This step is
labeled ‘routing’ in the figure.

• If the routing decision is that the packet is intended for the ma-
chine in which the packet is being processed, the packet passes
downwards in the diagram to the INPUT chain.

• If the incoming packet is destined for another network interface

on the machine, then the packet goes rightward in our diagram to
the FORWARD chain. If accepted by the FORWARD chain, the packet is
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Incoming Packets

Outgoing Packets
Routing FORWARD
Chain
Decision
Rules

OUTPUT
INPUT Chain
Chain Rules
Rules

Network Processes Running in Your Computer

Figure 1: This figure depicts how a packet is subject to

the routing rules in the INPUT, OUTPUT, and the FOR-
WARDS chains of the filter table. (This figure is from Lecture 18 of “Lecture
Notes on Computer and Network Security” by Avi Kak.)

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sent to the other interface. [If the kernel does not have forwarding enabled or
if the kernel does not know how to forward the packet, the packet is simply dropped.]

• If a program running on the computer wants to send a packet

out of the machine, the packet must traverse through the OUTPUT
chain of rules. If it is accepted by any of the rules, it is sent to
whatever interface the packet is intended for.

• In general, each rule in a chain examines the packet header, and

if the condition part of the rule matches the packet header, the
action specified by the rule is taken. Otherwise, the packet moves
on to the next rule.

• If a packet reaches the end of a chain, then the Linux kernel looks
at what is known as the chain policy to determine the fate of
the packet. In a security-conscious system, this policy usually
tells the kernel to DROP the packet.

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18.5: TO SEE IF Iptables is

INSTALLED AND RUNNING

• Execute the following command (you don’t have to be root to do

so):

lsmod | grep ip

where lsmod shows you what kernel modules are currently loaded
in. On my laptop running Ubuntu Linux, this returns

iptable_raw 3328 0
ipt_REJECT 5760 0
iptable_mangle 3840 0
iptable_nat 8708 0
nf_nat 20140 1 iptable_nat
nf_conntrack_ipv4 19724 2 iptable_nat
nf_conntrack 65288 4 xt_state,iptable_nat,nf_nat,nf_conntrack_ipv4
nfnetlink 6936 3 nf_nat,nf_conntrack_ipv4,nf_conntrack
iptable_filter 3968 1
ip_tables 13924 4 iptable_raw,iptable_mangle,iptable_nat,iptable_filter
x_tables 16260 5 ipt_REJECT,xt_state,xt_tcpudp,iptable_nat,ip_tables
ipv6 273892 21

If you do not see all these modules, that does not mean that
iptables is not installed and running on your machine. Many of
the kernel modules are loaded in dynamically as they are needed
by the application programs.

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• Another way to see if iptables is installed and running, execute

the following command:

sudo iptables -L

On my Ubuntu laptop, this command line returns (assuming this

is your very first invocation of the iptables command):

Chain INPUT (policy ACCEPT)

target prot opt source destination

Chain FORWARD (policy ACCEPT)

target prot opt source destination

Chain OUTPUT (policy ACCEPT)

target prot opt source destination

This output means that iptables is up and running, although

at this time it has no rules in its filter table.

• The invocation iptables -L shows only the filter table. In

general, if you want to see the rules in a particular table, you
would call

iptables -t filter -L (to see the filter table)

iptables -t nat -L (to see the nat table)
iptables -t mangle -L (to see the mangle table)
iptables -t raw -L (to see the raw table)

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Note that these are the only four tables recognized by the ker-
nel. (Unlike user-defined chains in the tables, there are no user-
defined tables.)

• For the filter table shown on the previous slide, note the policy
shown for each built-in chain right next to the name of the chain.
As mentioned earlier, only built-in chains have policies. Policy is
what is applied to a packet if it is not trapped by any of the rules
in a chain.

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18.6: STRUCTURE OF THE filter TABLE

• To explain the structure of the filter table, let’s first create a

new filter table for your firewall. I am assuming that this is the
first time you are playing with the iptables command on your
Ubuntu laptop.

• Go ahead and create the following shell script anywhere in your

personal directory. The name of the script file is myfirewall.sh.
At this point, do not worry about the exact syntax I have used
for the iptables commands — the syntax will become clear
later in the lecture.

#!/bin/sh

# A minimalist sort of a firewall for your laptop:

# Create a new user-defined chain for the filter table: Make sure you first
# flush the previous rules by ’iptables -t filter F’ and delete any
# previously user-defined chains by ’iptables -t filter -X’
iptables -t filter -N myfirewall.rules

# Accept all packets generated locally:

iptables -A myfirewall.rules -p all -i lo -j ACCEPT

# Accept all ICMP packets regardless of source:

iptables -A myfirewall.rules -p icmp --icmp-type any -j ACCEPT

# You must not block packets that correspond to TCP/IP protocol numbers 50
# (ESP) and 51 (AH) for VPN to work. (See Lecture 20 for ESP and AH.). VPN

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# also needs the UDP ports 500 (for IKE), UDP port 10000 (for IPSec
# encapsulated in UDP) and TCP port 443 (for IPSec encapsulated in
# TCP). [Note that if you are behind a NAT device, make sure it does not
# change the source port on the IKE (Internet Key Exchange) packets. If
# the NAT device is a Linksys router, just enable "IPSec Passthrough":
iptables -A myfirewall.rules -p 50 -j ACCEPT
iptables -A myfirewall.rules -p 51 -j ACCEPT
iptables -A myfirewall.rules -p udp --dport 500 -j ACCEPT
iptables -A myfirewall.rules -p udp --dport 10000 -j ACCEPT

# The destination port 443 is needed both by VPN and by HTTPS:

iptables -A myfirewall.rules -p tcp --dport 443 -j ACCEPT

# For multicast DNS (mDNS) --- allows a network device to choose a domain
# name in the .local namespace and announce it using multicast. Used by
# many Apple products. mDNS works differently from the unicast DNS we
# discussed in Lecture 17. In mDNS, each host stores its own information
# (for example its own IP address). If your machine wants to get the IP
# address of such a host, it sends out a multicast query to the multicast
# address 224.0.0.251.
iptables -A myfirewall.rules -p udp --dport 5353 -d 224.0.0.251 -j ACCEPT

# for the Internet Printing Protocol (IPP):

iptables -A myfirewall.rules -p udp -m udp --dport 631 -j ACCEPT

# Accept all packets that are in the states ESTABLISHED and RELATED (See
# Section 18.11 for packet states):
iptables -A myfirewall.rules -p all -m state --state ESTABLISHED,RELATED -j ACCEPT

# I run SSH server on my laptop. Accept incoming connection requets:

iptables -A myfirewall.rules -p tcp --destination-port 22 -j ACCEPT

# sendmail running on my laptop requires port 25

#iptables -A myfirewall.rules -p tcp --destination-port 25 -j ACCEPT

# Does fetchmail need port 143 to talk to IMAP server on RVL4:

#iptables -A myfirewall.rules -p tcp --destination-port 143 -j ACCEPT

# I run Apache httpd web server on my laptop:

iptables -A myfirewall.rules -p tcp --destination-port 80 -j ACCEPT

# Drop all other incoming packets. Do not send back any ICMP messages for
# the dropped packets:
iptables -A myfirewall.rules -p all -j REJECT --reject-with icmp-host-prohibited

iptables -I INPUT -j myfirewall.rules

iptables -I FORWARD -j myfirewall.rules

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• Now, make the shell script executable by

chmod +x myfirewall.sh

and execute the file as root.

• To see the rule structure created by the above shell script, execute
the following command

iptables -L -n -v --line-numbers

where the ‘-n’ switch suppresses address lookup and display all
IP address in the dot-decimal notation and the switch ‘–line-
numbers’ displays a line number at the beginning of each line
in a rule chain. The switch ‘-v’ is for the verbose mode. This
command will generate the following display for the filter table
in your terminal window:

Chain INPUT (policy ACCEPT 53204 packets, 9375K bytes)

num pkts bytes target prot opt in out source destination
1 568 74832 myfirewall.rules 0 -- * * 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0

Chain FORWARD (policy ACCEPT 0 packets, 0 bytes)

num pkts bytes target prot opt in out source destination
1 0 0 myfirewall.rules 0 -- * * 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0

Chain OUTPUT (policy ACCEPT 76567 packets, 9440K bytes)

num pkts bytes target prot opt in out source destination

Chain myfirewall.rules (2 references)

num pkts bytes target prot opt in out source destination
1 327 34807 ACCEPT 0 -- lo * 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0
2 0 0 ACCEPT icmp -- * * 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0 icmp type 255
3 0 0 ACCEPT esp -- * * 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0

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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

4 0 0 ACCEPT ah -- * * 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0

5 0 0 ACCEPT udp -- * * 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0 udp dpt:500
6 0 0 ACCEPT udp -- * * 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0 udp dpt:10000
7 0 0 ACCEPT tcp -- * * 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0 tcp dpt:443
8 6 426 ACCEPT udp -- * * 0.0.0.0/0 224.0.0.251 udp dpt:5353
9 0 0 ACCEPT udp -- * * 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0 udp dpt:631
10 228 38248 ACCEPT 0 -- * * 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0 state RELATED,ESTABLISHED
11 1 48 ACCEPT tcp -- * * 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0 tcp dpt:22
12 6 1303 REJECT 0 -- * * 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0 reject-with icmp-host-prohib

• In the output shown above, note that the last column, with no
heading, contains ancillary information related to a rule. It may
mention a port (as in tcp dpt:443, where dpt stands for “des-
tination port”), the state of a packet, etc.

• Here are the meanings to be associated with the various column

headers shown in the display produced by executing the command
‘iptables -L -n -v --line-numbers’:

num : The rule number in a chain.

pkts : The packet count processed by a rule so far.

bytes : The byte count processed by a rule so far.

target :
The action part of a rule. The target can be one of the following: ACCEPT, DROP,
REJECT, REDIRECT, RETURN, or the name of the chain to jump to.
DROP means to drop the packet without sending an error message to the origi-
nator of that packet. REJECT has the same effect as DROP, except that the
sender is sent an error message that depends on the argument supplied to this tar-
get. REDIRECT means to send the packet to a new destination (used with NAT).
RETURN means to return from this chain to the calling chain and to continue ex-
amining rules in the calling chain where you left off. When RETURN is encountered
in a built-in chain, the policy associated with the chain is executed.

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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

proto :
The protocol associated with the packet to be trapped by this rule. The protocol
may be either named symbolically or specified by a number. Each standard protocol
has a number associated with it. The protocol numbers are assigned by Internet
Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).

opt : optional

in : The input interface to which the rule applies.

out : The output interface to which the rule applies.

source : The source address(es) to which the rule applies.

destination : The destination address(es) to which the rule applies.

Note that when the fifth column (the proto column) mentions
a user-defined service as opposed to a protocol, then the last
column (without a title) must mention the port specifically. On
the other hand, for packets corresponding to standard services,
the system can figure out the ports from the entries in the file
/etc/services.

• In the display produced by executing the command ‘iptables -L

-n -v --line-numbers’, note the three rule chains in the filter
table: INPUT, FORWARD, and OUTPUT. Most importantly, note how the
INPUT chain jumps to the user-defined myfirewall.rules chain.
The built-in FORWARD chain also jumps to the same user-defined
chain.

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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

• Note the policy declaration associated with each chain. It is

ACCEPT. As mentioned previously, the policy sets the fate of a
packet it it is not trapped by any of the rules in a chain.

• Since both the built-in INPUT and the built-in FORWARD chains jump
to the user-defined myfirewall.rules chain, let’s look at the first
rule in this user-defined chain in some detail. This rule is:
num pkts bytes target prot opt in out source destination
1 327 34807 ACCEPT 0 -- lo * 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0

The source address 0.0.0.0/0 means all addresses. [The for-

ward slash in the source and the destination IP addresses is explained on Section
18.11.] Since the input interface mentioned is lo and since no
ports are mentioned (that is, there is no entry in the unlabeled
column at the very end), this means that this rule applies only
to the packets generated by the applications running on the local
system. (That is, this rule allows the loopback driver to work.)
Therefore, with this rule, you can request any service from your
local system without the packets being denied.

• Let’s now examine the rule in line 2 for the user-defined chain
myfirewall.rules shown in the display produced by the command
‘iptables -L -n -v --line-numbers’ command:

num pkts bytes target prot opt in out source destination

2 0 0 ACCEPT icmp -- * * 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0 icmp type 255

As mentioned in Lecture16, ICMP messages are used for error

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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

reporting between host to host, host to a gateway (such as a

router), and vice versa, in the internet. (Between gateway to
gateway, a protocol such as the Gateway to Gateway protocol
(GGP) may be used for error reporting.) [The three types of commonly
used ICMP headers are type 0, type 8, and type 11. ICMP echo requests coming to
your machine when it is pinged by some other host elsewhere in a network are of type
8. If your machine responds to such a request, it echos back with an ICMP packet of
type 0. Therefore, when a host receives a type 8 ICMP message, it replies with a type
0 ICMP message. Type 11 service relates to packets whose ’time to live’ (TTL) was
exceeded in transit and for which you as sender is accepting a ’Time Exceeded’ message
that is being returned to you. You need to accept type 11 ICMP protocol messages if
you want to use the ’traceroute’ command to find broken routes to hosts you want to
reach. ICMP type 255 is unassigned by IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority);
it is used internally by iptables to mean all ICMP types. See Section 18.11
for additional ICMP types.]

• With regard to the other rules in the myfilter.rules chain,

their purpose should be clear from the comments in the myfil-
ter.sh shell script.

• Let’s now examine the OUTPUT chain in the filter table. [(See the
output shown earlier in this section that was produced by the command ‘iptables
-L -n -v --line-numbers’ command.) There are no rules in this
chain. Therefore, for all outbound packets, the policy associated
with the OUTPUT chain will be used. This policy says ACCEPT,
implying that all outbound packets will be sent directly, without
further examination, to their intended destinations.
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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

• About the FORWARD chain, note that packet forwarding only

occurs when the machine is configured as a router. (For IP
packet forwarding to work, you also have to change the value of
net.ipv4.ip_forward to 1 in the /etc/sysctl.conf file.)

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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

18.7: STRUCTURE OF THE nat TABLE

• Let’s now examine the output produced by the command line

iptables -t nat -n -L

we get

Chain PREROUTING (policy ACCEPT)

target prot opt source destination

Chain POSTROUTING (policy ACCEPT)

target prot opt source destination

Chain OUTPUT (policy ACCEPT)

target prot opt source destination

• The nat table is used only for translating either the packet’s
source address field or its destination address field.

• NAT (which stands for Network Address Translation) allows a

host or several hosts to share the same IP address. For exam-
ple, let’s say we have a local network consisting of 5-10 clients.
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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

We set their default gateways to point through the NAT server.

The NAT server receives the packet, rewrites the source and/or
destination address and then recalculates the checksum of the
packet.

• Only the first packet in a stream of packets hits this table. After
that, the rest of the packets in the stream will have this network
address translation carried out on them automatically.

• The ‘targets’ for the nat table (meaning, the actions that are
permitted for the rules) are
DNAT
SNAT
MASQUERADE
REDIRECT

• The DNAT target is mainly used in cases where you have a single
public IP for a local network in which different machines are
being used for different servers. When a remote client wants to
make a connection with a local server using the publicly available
IP address, you’d want your firewall to rewrite the destination
IP address on those packets to the local address of the machine
where the server actually resides.

• SNAT is mainly used for changing the source address of packets.

Using the same example as above, when a server residing on one
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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

of the local machines responds back to the client, initially the

packets emanating from the server will bear the source address
of the local machine that houses the server. But as these packets
pass through the firewall, you’d want to change the source IP
address in these packets to the single public IP address for the
local network.

• The MASQUERADE target is used in exactly the same way as SNAT,

but the MASQUERADE target takes a little bit more overhead to
compute. Whereas SNAT will substitute a single previously spec-
ified IP address for the source address in the outgoing packets,
MASQUERADE can substitute a DHCP IP address (that may vary
from connection to connection).

• Note that in the output of iptables -t nat -n -L shown at

the beginning of this section, we did not have any targets in the
nat table. That is because my laptop is not configured to serve
as a router.

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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

18.8: STRUCTURE OF THE mangle TABLE

• The mangle table is used for specialized packet alteration, such

as for changing the TOS (Type of Service) field, the TTL (Time
to Live) field, etc., in a packet header.

On my Linux laptop, the command

iptables -t mangle -n -L

returns
Chain PREROUTING (policy ACCEPT)
target prot opt source destination

Chain INPUT (policy ACCEPT)

target prot opt source destination

Chain FORWARD (policy ACCEPT)

target prot opt source destination

Chain OUTPUT (policy ACCEPT)

target prot opt source destination

Chain POSTROUTING (policy ACCEPT)

target prot opt source destination

• Earlier, toward the end of Section 18.2, I showed an example of

a rule for the PREROUTING chain of the mangle table that used
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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

the DROP target. The rules in the PREROUTING chain are applied
before the operating system applies a routing decision to a packet.

• The following targets can only be used in the mangle table.

1. TOS — Used to change the TOS (Type of Service) field

in a packet. (This is the second byte in the IP header) Not
understood by all the routers.

2. TTL — The TTL target is used to change the TTL (Time

To Live) field of the packet.

3. MARK — This target is used to give a special mark value

to the packet. Such marks are recognized by the iproute2
program for routing decisions.

4. SECMARK — This target sets up a security-related

mark in the packet. Such marks can be used by SELinux
fine-grained security processing of the packets.

5. CONNSECMARK — This target places a connection-

level mark on a packet for security processing.

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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

18.9: STRUCTURE OF THE raw TABLE

• If you execute the following command

iptables -t raw -L

you will see the following output:

Chain PREROUTING (policy ACCEPT)
target prot opt source destination

Chain OUTPUT (policy ACCEPT)

target prot opt source destination

This output shows that the raw table supports only two chains:
PREROUTING and OUTPUT.

• As mentioned earlier, the raw table is used for specifying the ex-
emptions from connection tracking that we will talk about later.
When rules are specified for the raw table, the table takes priority
over the other tables.

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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

18.10: WHAT ABOUT THE FACT THAT

THE DIFFERENT TABLES CONTAIN
SIMILARLY NAMED CHAINS?

• The reader might ask: What happens to a packet coming into

your machine when both the filter and the mangle tables have
rules in their respective INPUT chains? Which chain gets to decide
the fate of the packet?

• For the answer, the INPUT chain of the mangle table has priority
over the chain of the same name in the filter table.

• Along the same lines, the OUTPUT chain of the mangle table
has priority over the OUTPUT chain of the filter table.

• For a more complete description of the relative priorities of the

different chains of the same name in the different tables, see the
Iptables tutorial by Oskar Andreasson at http://www.faqs.
org/docs/iptables/index.html.

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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

18.11: HOW THE TABLES ARE

ACTUALLY CREATED

• The iptables are created by the iptables command that is run

as root with different options. To see all the option, say

iptables -h

• Here are some other optional flags for the iptables command and
a brief statement of what is achieved by each flag:

iptables -N chainName Create a new user-defined chain

iptables -X chainName Delete a user-defined chain; must have

been previoiusly emptied of rules by
either the ’-D’ flag or the ‘-F’ flag.

iptables -P chainName .... Change the policy for a built-in chain

iptables -L chainName List the rules in a chain. If no

chain specified, it lists rules in all
the chains in the filter table. Without
the ‘-t’ flag, the filter table is the
default.

iptables -F chainName Flush the rules out of a chain

When no chain-name is supplied as the
argument to ‘-F’, all chains are flushed.

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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

iptables -Z chainName Zero the packet and byte counters

on all rules in the chain

iptables -A chainName .... Append a new rule to the chain

iptables -I chainName pos .... Insert a new rule at position ‘pos’

in the specified chain)

iptables -R chainName .... Replace a rule at some position in

the specified chain

iptables -D chainName .... Delete a rule at some position in

the specified chain, or the first that
matches

iptables -P chainName target Specify a target policy for the chain.

This can only be done for built-in
chains.

• After the first level flags shown above that name a chain, if this
flag calls for a new rule to be specified (such as for ‘-A’ flag)
you can have additional flags that specify the state of the packet
that must be true for the rule to apply and specify the action
part of the rule. We say that these additional flags describe the
filtering specifications for each rule.

• Here are the rule specification flags:

-p args
for specifying the protocol (tcp, udp,
icmp, etc) You can also specify a protocol
by number if you know the numeric protocol
values for IP.

-s args

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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

for specifying source address(es)

--sport args
for specifying source port(s)

-d args
for specifying destination address(es)

--dport args
for specifying destination port(s)
(For the port specifications, you can supply
a port argument by name, as by ‘www’, as
listed in /etc/services.)

--icmp-type typename
[ for spcifying the type of ICMP packet as
described in the standards documents RFC792
and RFC 4884. The icmp type names can be
found by the comamnd

iptables -p icmp --help

it returns the following for the icmp types

Valid ICMP Types:

any
echo-reply (pong) (type 0)
destination-unreachable (type 3)
network-unreachable (code 0)
host-unreachable (code 1)
protocol-unreachable (code 2)
port-unreachable (code 3)
fragmentation-needed (code 4)
source-route-failed (code 5)
network-unknown (code 6)
host-unknown (code 7)
network-prohibited (code 8)
host-prohibited (code 9)
TOS-network-unreachable (code 10)
TOS-host-unreachable (code 11)
communication-prohibited (code 12)
host-precedence-violation
precedence-cutoff
source-quench (type 4)

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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

redirect (type 5)
network-redirect
host-redirect
TOS-network-redirect
TOS-host-redirect
echo-request (ping) (type 8)
router-advertisement (type 9)
router-solicitation (type 10)
time-exceeded (ttl-exceeded)(type 11)
ttl-zero-during-transit (code 0)
ttl-zero-during-reassembly (code 1)
parameter-problem (type 12)
ip-header-bad
required-option-missing
timestamp-request (type 13)
timestamp-reply (type 14)
address-mask-request (type 17)
address-mask-reply (type 18) ]

-j args
the name of the target to execute when
the rule matches; ‘j’ stands for ‘jump to’

-i args
for naming the input interface (when an
interface is not named, that means all
interfaces)

-o args
for specifying an output interface

(Note that an interface is the physical

device a packet came in on or is going
out on. You can use the ifconfig command
to see which interfaces are up.)

(Also note that only the packets traversing the

FORWARD chain have both input and output
interfaces.)

(It is legal to specify an interface that

currently does not exist. Obvously, the
rule would not match until the interface
comes up.)

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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

(When the argument for interface is followed

by ‘+’, as in ‘eth+’, that means all
interfaces whose names begin with the
string ‘eth’.)

(So an interface specified as

-i ! eth+
means none of the ethernet interfaces.)

-f (For specifying that a packet is

a second or a further fragment. As mentioned
in Lecture 16 notes, sometimes, in order
to meet the en-route or destination
hardware constraints, a packet may have
to be fragmented and sent as multiple
packets. This can create a problem for
packet-level filtering since only the first
fragment packet may carry all of the headers,
meaning the IP header and the enveloped
higher-level protocol header such as the TCP,
or UDP, etc., header. The subsequent fragments
may only carry the IP header and not mention
the higher level protocol headers. Obviously,
such packets cannot be processed by rules that
mention higher level protocols. Thus a rule
that describes the source-port specification
-p TCP --sport www
will never match a fragment (other than the
first fragment). Neither will the opposite
rule
-p TCP --sport ! www

However, you can specify a rule specifically

for the second and further fragments, using
the ‘-f’ flag. It is also legal to specify
that a rule does not apply to second and
further fragments, by preceding the ‘-f’ with
‘!’.

Usually it is regarded as safe to let second

and further fragments through, since filtering
will effect the first fragment, and thus
prevent reassembly on the target host;

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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

however, bugs have been known to allow

crashing of machines simply by sending
fragments.)

(Note that the ‘-f’ flag does not take any

arguments.)

--syn (To indicate that this rule is meant for

a SYN packet. It is sometimes useful to allow
TCP connections in one direction, but not
in the other. As explained in Lecture 16,
SYN packets are for requesting new connetions.
These are packets with the SYN flag set, and
the RST and ACK flags cleared. By
disallowing only the SYN packets, we can
stop attempted connections in their
tracks. The ‘-syn’ flag is only valid for
rules which specify TCP as their protocol.
For example, to specify TCP connection
attempts from 192.168.1.1:

-p TCP -s 192.168.1.1 --syn

This flag can be inverted by preceding it

with a ‘!’, which means every packet other
than the connection initiation.)

-m match (This is referred to as a rule seeking an

‘extended match’. This may load extensions
to iptables.)

-n (This forces the output produced by the

‘-L’ flag to show numeric values for
the IP addresses and ports.)

• Many rule specification flags (such as ‘-p’, ‘-s’, ‘-d’, ‘-f’ ‘–syn’, etc.)
can have their arguments preceded by ‘!’ (that is pronounced
‘not’) to match values not equal to the ones given. This is referred
to as specification by inversion. For example, to indicate
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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

all sources addresses but a specific address, you would have

-s ! ip_address

• For the ‘-f’ option flags, the inversion is done by placing ‘!’ before
the flag, as in

! -f

The rule containing the above can only be matched with the first
fragment of a fragmented packet.

• Also note that the ‘–syn’ second-level option is a shorthand for

--tcp-flags SYN,RST,ACK,FIN SYN

where --tcp-flags is an example of a TCP extension flag. [The

--tcp-flags usage must correspond to the syntax: ’--tcp-flags mask comp’ where mask declares

what flags should be examined for the packet and where comp declares the flags that must be set. Both

mask and comp are comma separated lists. The declaration shown above calls for the SYN, RST, ACK,

and FIN flag to be examined and, of these, the SYN flag must be set and the rest unset. Do ’man

iptables-extensions’ and search for ’--tcp-flags mask comp’ to see this information in greater

detail. ] Note that ‘-d’, and ‘-s’ are also TCP extension flags. These

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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

flags work only when the argument for the protocol flag ‘-p’ is
‘tcp’.

• The source (‘-s’, ‘–source’ or ‘–src’) and destination (‘-d’, ‘–destination’

or ‘–dst’) IP addresses can be specified in four ways:

1. The most common way is to use the full name, such as localhost
or www.linuxhq.com.

2. The second way is to specify the IP address such as 127.0.0.1.

3. The third way allows specification of a group of IP addresses

with the notation 199.95.207.0/24 where the number after the
forward slash indicates the number of leftmost bits in the 32
bit address that must remain fixed. Therefore, 199.95.207.0/24
means all IP addresses between 199.95.207.0 and 199.95.207.255.

4. The fourth way uses the net mask directly to specify a group
of IP addresses. What was accomplished by 199.95.207.0/24
above is now accomplished by 199.95.207.0/255.255.255.0.

• If nothing comes after the forward slash in the prefix notation

for an IP address range, the default of /32 (which is the same
as writing down the net mask as /255.255.255.255) is assumed.
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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

Both of these imply that all 32 bits must match, implying that
only one IP address can be matched. Obviously, the opposite
of the default /32 is /0. This means all 32 address bits can be
anything. Therefore, /0 means every IP address. The same is
meant by the specifying the IP address range as 0/0 as in

iptables -A INPUT -s 0/0 -j DROP

which will cause all incoming packets to be dropped. But note

that -s 0/0 is redundant here because not specifying the ‘-s’
flag is the same as specifying ‘-s 0/0’ since the former means all
possible IP addresses.

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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

18.12: CONNECTION TRACKING BY

iptables
AND THE EXTENSION MODULES

• A modern iptables-based firewall understands the notion of a

stream. This is made possible by the connection-tracking feature
of iptables.

• Connection tracking is based on the notion of ‘the state of a

packet’.

• If a packet is the first that the firewall sees or knows about, it

is considered to be in state NEW [as would be the case for, say, a
SYN packet in a TCP connection (see Lecture 16)], or if it is part
of an already established connection or stream that the firewall
knows about, it is considered to be in state ESTABLISHED.

• States are known through the connection tracking system, which

keeps track of all the sessions.

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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

• It is because of the connection-tracking made possible by the

rule in line 10 of the myfirewall.rules chain in the display
produced by executing ‘iptables -L -n -v --line-numbers’ in
Section 18.6 that when I make a connection with a remote
host such as www.nyt.com that I am able to receive all the
incoming packets. That rule tells the kernel that the incoming
packets are of state ESTABLISHED, meaning that they belong
to a connection that was established and accepted previously.

• Connection tracking is also used by the nat table and by its

MASQUERADE target in the tables.

• Let’s now talk about extension modules since it is one of those

extensions to iptables that makes it possible to carry out con-
nection tracking.

• When invoking iptables, an extension module can be loaded

into the kernel for additional match options for the rules. An
extension module is specified by the ‘-m’ option as in
the following rule we used in the shell executable file Section 18.6
of this lecture:

iptables -A myfirewall.rules -p all -m state --state ESTABLISHED,RELATED -j ACCEPT

• As the above rule should indicate, a most useful extension module

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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

is state. This extension tries to interpret the connection-tracking

analysis produced by the ip_conntrack module.

• As to how exactly the interpretation of the results on a packet

produced by the ip_conntrack module should be carried out
is specified by the additional ‘--state’ option supplied to the
‘state’ extension module. See the rule example shown above
that uses both the ‘-m state’ option and the ‘--state’ subop-
tion.

• The ‘--state’ suboption supplies a comma-separated list of states

of the packet that must be found to be true for the rule to apply,
and as before, the ‘!’ flag indicates not to match those states.
These states that can be supplied as arguments to the ‘--state’
option are:
NEW A packet which creates a new connection.

ESTABLISHED A packet which belongs to an existing

connection (i.e., a reply packet, or
outgoing packet on a connection which
has seen replies).

RELATED A packet which is related to, but not

part of, an existing connection, such as
an ICMP error, or (with the FTP module
inserted), a packet establishing an ftp
data connection.

INVALID A packet which could not be identified

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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

for some reason: this includes running

out of memory and ICMP errors which
don’t correspond to any known connection.
Generally these packets should be dropped.

• Another example of a rule that uses the ‘state’ extension for

stating the rule matching conditions:
iptables -A FORWARD -i ppp0 -m state ! --state NEW -j DROP

This says to append to the FORWARD chain a rule that applies

to all packets being forwarded through the ppp0 interface. If
such a packet is NOT requesting a new connection, it should be
dropped.

• Another extension module is the ‘mac’ module that can be used

for matching an incoming packet’s source Ethernet (MAC) ad-
dress. This only works for for packets traversing the PREROUTING
and INPUT chains. It provides only one option ‘--mac-source’
as in
iptables -A INPUT -m mac --mac-source 00:60:08:91:CC:B7 ACCEPT

or as in
iptables -A INPUT -m mac --mac-source ! 00:60:08:91:CC:B7 DROP

The second rule will drop all incoming packets unless they are
from the specific machine with the MAC address shown.

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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

• Yet another useful extension module is the ‘limit’ module that is

useful in warding off Denial of Service (DoS) attacks. This module
is loaded into the kernel with the ‘-m limit’ option. What the
module does can be controlled by the subsequent option flags
‘--limit’ and ‘--limit-burst’. The following rule will limit a
request for a new connection to one a second. Therefore, if DoS
attack consists of bombarding your machine with SYN packets,
this will get rid of most of them. This is referred to as “SYN-
flood protection”.
iptables -A FORWARD -p tcp --syn -m limit --limit 1/s -j ACCEPT

• The next rule is a protection against indiscriminate and nonstop

scanning of the ports on your machine. This is referred to as
protection against a “furtive port scanner”:
iptables -A FORWARD -p tcp --tcp-flags SYN,ACK,FIN,RST \
-m limit --limit 1/s -j ACCEPT

• The next rule is a protection against what is called as the “ping

of death” where someone tries to ping your machine in a non-
stop fashion:
iptables -A FORWARD -p icmp --icmp-type echo-request \
-m limit --limit 1/s -j ACCEPT

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18.13: USING iptables FOR PORT

FORWARDING

• Let’s say that you have a firewall computer protecting a LAN.

Let’s also say that you are providing a web server on one of
the LAN computers that is physically different from the firewall
computer. Further, let’s assume that there is a single IP ad-
dress available for the whole LAN, this address being assigned
to the firewall computer. Let’s assume that this IP address is
123.45.67.89.

• So when a HTTP request comes in from the internet, it will

typically be received on port 80 that is assigned to HTTP in
/etc/services. The firewall would need to forward this request
to the LAN machine that is actually hosting the web server.

• This is done by adding a rule to the PREROUTING chain of the

nat table:
iptables -t nat -A PREROUTING -p tcp -d 123.45.67.89 \
-dport 80 -j DNAT --to-destination 10.0.0.25

where the jump target DNAT stands for Destination Net-

work Address Translation. We are also assuming that the
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LAN address of the machine hosting the HTTP server is 10.0.0.25

in a Class A private network 10.0.0.0/8.

• If multiple LAN machines are simultaneously hosting the same

HTTP server for reasons of high traffic to the server, you can
spread the load of the service by providing a range of addresses
for the ’–to-destination’ option, as by

--to-destination 10.0.0.1-10.0.0.25

This will now spread the load of the service over 25 machines,
including the gateway machine if its LAN address is 10.0.0.1.

• So the basic idea in port forwarding is that you forward all the
traffic received at a given port on our firewall computer to the
designated machines in the LAN that is protected by the firewall.

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18.14: USING LOGGING WITH iptables

• So far we have only talked about the following targets: AC-

CEPT, DENY, DROP, REJECT, REDIRECT, RETURN, and
chain name to jump to for the filter table, and SNAT and
DNAT for the nat table.

• One can also use LOG as a target. So if you did not want to
drop a packet for some reason, you could go ahead and accept it
but at the same time log it to decide later if your current rule for
such packets is a good rule. Here is an example of a LOG target
in a rule for the FORWARD chain:
iptables -A FORWARD -p tcp -j LOG --log-level info

• Here are all the possibilities for the ‘–log-level’ argument:

emerg
alert
crit
err
warning
notice
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info
debug

• You can also supply a ‘–log-prefix’ option to add further informa-

tion to the front of all messages produced by the logging action:
iptables -A FORWARD -p tcp -j LOG --log-level info \
--log-prefix "Forward INFO "

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18.15: SAVING AND RESTORING YOUR

FIREWALL

• As I showed in Section 18.6, you can write a shell script with the
iptables commands in it for creating the different rules for your
firewall. You can load in the firewall rules simply by executing
the shell script. If this is the approach you use, make sure
you invoke ‘iptables -F’ and ‘iptables -X’ for each of the
tables before executing the script.

• A better way to save your firewall rules is by invoking the iptables-save

command:

iptables-save > MyFirewall.bk

Subsequently, when you reboot the machine, you can restore the
firewall by using the command iptables-restore as root:

iptables-restore < MyFirewall.bk

• When you save a firewall with the iptables-save command, the

text file that is generated is visually different from the output
produced by the ‘iptables -L’ command. If I use iptables-save
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to save the firewall I created with the shell script in Section 18.6,
here is what is placed in the MyFirewall.bk file:

# Generated by iptables-save v1.3.6 on Fri Apr 4 18:23:31 2008

*raw
:PREROUTING ACCEPT [96159:19721033]
:OUTPUT ACCEPT [91367:10876335]
COMMIT
# Completed on Fri Apr 4 18:23:31 2008
# Generated by iptables-save v1.3.6 on Fri Apr 4 18:23:31 2008
*mangle
:PREROUTING ACCEPT [173308:40992127]
:INPUT ACCEPT [173282:40986202]
:FORWARD ACCEPT [0:0]
:OUTPUT ACCEPT [160626:19665486]
:POSTROUTING ACCEPT [160845:19695621]
COMMIT
# Completed on Fri Apr 4 18:23:31 2008
# Generated by iptables-save v1.3.6 on Fri Apr 4 18:23:31 2008
*nat
:PREROUTING ACCEPT [6231:908393]
:POSTROUTING ACCEPT [10970:640894]
:OUTPUT ACCEPT [10970:640894]
COMMIT
# Completed on Fri Apr 4 18:23:31 2008
# Generated by iptables-save v1.3.6 on Fri Apr 4 18:23:31 2008
*filter
:INPUT ACCEPT [53204:9375108]
:FORWARD ACCEPT [0:0]
:OUTPUT ACCEPT [112422:12698834]
:myfirewall.rules - [0:0]
-A INPUT -j myfirewall.rules
-A FORWARD -j myfirewall.rules
-A myfirewall.rules -i lo -j ACCEPT
-A myfirewall.rules -p icmp -m icmp --icmp-type any -j ACCEPT
-A myfirewall.rules -p esp -j ACCEPT
-A myfirewall.rules -p ah -j ACCEPT
-A myfirewall.rules -p udp -m udp --dport 500 -j ACCEPT
-A myfirewall.rules -p udp -m udp --dport 10000 -j ACCEPT
-A myfirewall.rules -p tcp -m tcp --dport 443 -j ACCEPT
-A myfirewall.rules -d 224.0.0.251 -p udp -m udp --dport 5353 -j ACCEPT
-A myfirewall.rules -p udp -m udp --dport 631 -j ACCEPT
-A myfirewall.rules -m state --state RELATED,ESTABLISHED -j ACCEPT
-A myfirewall.rules -p tcp -m tcp --dport 22 -j ACCEPT
-A myfirewall.rules -j REJECT --reject-with icmp-host-prohibited
COMMIT
# Completed on Fri Apr 4 18:23:31 2008

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This format is obviously still readable and still directly editable.

On Red Hat machines, what is produced by iptables-save is
directly accessible from the file /etc/sysconfig/iptables. So
to restore a previously created firewall on a Red Hat machine, all
you have to do is to invoke iptables-restore and direct into
it the contents of /etc/sysconfig/iptables.

• Note that when a system is rebooted, the firewall rules are au-
tomatically flushed and reset — in most cases to empty tables
(implying really no firewall protection).

• For Ubuntu Linux, if you want the system to automatically save

the latest firewall on shutdown and then also automatically re-
store the firewall at startup, you would need to edit your

/etc/network/interfaces

network configuration file and enter in it the appropriate pre-

up and post-down commands for each of the interfaces that
are meant to be protected by the firewall.

• If, say, eth0, is the ethernet interface on your Ubuntu laptop,

you’d need to enter the following pre-up and post-down lines in
the /etc/network/interfaces file so that its eth0 entry
looks like:

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auto eth0
iface eth0 inet dhcp
pre-up iptables-restore < /etc/iptables.rules
post-down iptables-save > /etc/iptables.rules

The iptables.rules file, initially created manually with the

iptables-save command, must already exist in the /etc/ folder
before the automatic save and reload procedure can work. [The file
/etc/network/interfaces contains the network interface configuration information for
the Ubuntu distribution of Linux. Do ’man interfaces’ to see how to configure this
file for static and DHCP-provided IP addresses. In this file, lines beginning with auto
are used to identify the physical interfaces to be brought up at system startup. With
respect to each interface, a line beginning with pre-up specifies the command that must
be executed before the interface is brought up. By the same token, a line beginning with
post-down specifies the command that must be executed after the interface is taken
down.]

• Note that on Red Hat Linux and its variants, you can start and
stop iptables by

/etc/init.d/iptables start
/etc/init.d/iptables stop
/etc/init.d/iptables restart

Also on Red Hat Linux, if you are doing NAT, make sure you
turn on IP packet forwarding by setting

net.ipv4.ip_forward = 1

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in the /etc/sysctl.conf file.

• Some other points to remember:

– Note that the names of built-in chains, INPUT, OUTPUT, and FOR-
WARD, must always be in uppercase.

– The ‘-p tcp’ and ‘-p udp’ options load into the kernel the TCP and
UDP extension modules.

– Chain names for user-defined chains can only be up to 31 characters.

– User-defined chain names are by convention in lower-case.

– When a packet matches a rule whose target is a user-defined chain,

the packet begins traversing the rules in that user-defined chain. If
that chain doesn’t decide the fate of the packet, then once traversal
on that chain has finished, traversal resumes on the next rule in the
current chain.

– Even if the condition part of a rule is matched, if the rule does not
specify a target, the next rule will be considered.

– User-defined chains can jump to other user-defined chains (but don’t

make loops: your packets will be dropped if they’re found to be in a
loop).

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18.16: A CASE STUDY: DESIGNING

IPTABLES FOR A NEW LAN

Let’s say that you want to create a firewall to protect a Class C

192.168.1.0/24 private LAN that is connected to the rest of the in-
ternet by a router and a gateway machine as shown.

local_machine_1 local_machine_2 ..... local_machine_N

| | | LAN addresses:
\ | / 192.168.1.0/24
\ | /
\ | /
-----------------------------------
| ROUTER |
-----------------------------------
|
|
|
| interface eth1, IP adress: 192.168.1.1
-----------------------
| |
| Gateway | loopback: localhost
| Machine | addess: 127.0.0.1
| (firewall computer) | interface: lo
| |
-----------------------
| interface eth0, IP address: 123.45.67.89
|
|
internet

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We will also assume that the gateway machine has its IP address
assigned dynamically (DHCP) by some ISP. We will assume that the
gateway machine is using Linux as its OS and that iptables based
packet filtering software is installed. We want the firewall installed
in the gateway machine to allow for the following:

• It should allow for unrestricted internet access from all the ma-
chines in the LAN.

• Allow for SSH access (port 22) to the firewall machine from out-
side the LAN for external maintenance of this machine.

• Permit Auth/Ident (port 113) that is used by some services like

SMTP and IRC. (Note that port 113 is for Auth (authentication). Some old
servers try to identify a client by connecting back to the client machine on this port and
waiting for the IDENTD server on the client machine to report back. But this port is
now considered to be a security hole. See http://www.grc.com/port 113.htm. So, for
this port, ACCEPT should probably be changed to DROP.)

• Let’s say that the LAN is hosting a web server (on behalf of
the whole LAN) and that this HTTPD server is running on the
machine 192.168.1.100 of the LAN. So the firewall must use NAT
to redirect the incoming TCP port 80 requests to 192.168.1.100.

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• We also want the firewall to accept the ICMP Echo requests (as
used by ping) coming from the outside.

• The firewall must log the filter statistics on the external interface
of the firewall machine.

• We want the firewall to respond back with TCP RST or ICMP

Unreachable for incoming requests for blocked ports.

• Shown below is Rusty Russell’s recommended firewall that has

the above mentioned features:
#! /bin/sh

# macro for external interface:

ext_if = "eth0"
# macro for internal interface:
int_if = "ath0"

tcp_services = "22,113"
icmp_types = "ping"

comp_httpd = "192.168.1.100"

# NAT/Redirect
modprobe ip_nat_ftp
iptables -t nat -A POSTROUTING -o $ext_if -j MASQUERADE
iptables -t nat -A PREROUTING -i $ext_if -p tcp --dport 80 \
-j DNAT --to-destination $comp_httpd

# filter table rules

# Forward only from external to webserver:
iptables -A FORWARD -m state --state=ESTABLISHED,RELATED -j ACCEPT
iptables -A FORWARD -i $ext_if -p tcp -d $comp_httpd --dport 80 --syn -j ACCEPT

# From internal is fine, rest rejected

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Computer and Network Security by Avi Kak Lecture 18

iptables -A FORWARD -i $int_if -j ACCEPT

iptables -A FORWARD -j REJECT

# External can only come in to $tcp_services and $icmp_types

iptables -A INPUT -m state --state=ESTABLISHED,RELATED -j ACCEPT
iptables -A INPUT -i $ext_if -p tcp --dport $tcp_services --syn -j ACCEPT
for icmp in $icmp_types; do
iptables -A INPUT -p icmp --icmp-type $icmp -j ACCEPT
done

# Internal and loopback are allowed to send anything:

iptables -A INPUT -i $int_if -j ACCEPT
iptables -A INPUT -i lo -j ACCEPT
iptables -A INPUT -j REJECT

# Place iptables in routing mode:

echo "1" > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward

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18.17: HOMEWORK PROBLEMS

1. In modern high-speed networks, packet filtering can be carried

out only if support for TCP/IP is built directly into the operating
system of a machine. Why?

2. What is the difference between a packet-filtering firewall and a

proxy-server firewall? Can the two be used together?

3. What are the four tables maintained by the Linux kernel for
processing incoming and outgoing packets?

4. How does an iptables based firewall decide as to which packets

to subject to the INPUT chain of rules, which to the FORWARD
chain of rules, and which to the OUTPUT chain of rules? Addi-
tionally, which part of a packet is examined in order to figure out
whether or not the condition part of a rule is satisfied?

5. As a packet is being processed by a chain of rules, what happens

to the packet if it does not satisfy the conditions in any of the
rules? What is meant by a chain policy?
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6. Show how you would use the iptables command to reject all
incoming SYN packets that seek to open a new connection with
your machine?

7. What is the option given to the iptables command to flush all

the user-defined chains in a table? How do you flush all the rules
in a table?

8. If you see the string ‘icmp type 255’ at the end of a line of the
output produced by the ‘iptables -L’ command, what does
that mean?

9. What are the icmp-types associated with the echo-request (ping)

and with the echo-reply (pong) packets?

10. The raw table is used for specifying exemptions to connection

tracking. What does that mean?

11. What is the iptables command if you want your machine to

accept only the incoming connection requests for the SSHD server
you are running on your machine? (You want your machine to
drop all other connection request packets from remote clients.)

12. What is connection tracking? How does an iptables-based fire-

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wall know that the incoming packets all belong to the same on-
going connection?

13. What are the different packet states recognized by the connection
tracking iptables extension module state?

14. Programming Assignment:

Design a firewall for your Linux machine using the iptables

packet filtering modules. Your homework consists of writing ipt-
ables rules to do the following:
• Place no restriction on outbound packets.
• Allow for SSH access (port22) to your machine from only the
purdue.edu domain.
• Assuming you are running an HTTPD server on your machine
that can make available your entire home directory to the
outside world, write a rule that allows only a single IP address
in the internet to access your machine for the HTTP service.
• Permit Auth/Ident (port 113) that is used by some services
like SMTP and IRC.
• Accept the ICMP Echo requests (as used by ping) coming
from the outside.
• Respond back with TCP RST or ICMP unreachable for in-
coming requests for blocked ports.

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