Lecture 5.

KILN SYSTEMS
Process

2002
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction
Introduction.....
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1.1 Process Description.........
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1.2 Factors Influenci
Influencing
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Optimum Choice
Choice of Kiln System............
System.................
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2. Kiln Systems
Systems ..........
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2.1 SP: Suspension
Suspension Preheater
Preheater Kiln............
Kiln.................
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2.2 ILC-E: In-Line
In-Line Calciner
Calciner using Excess Air ..........
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2.3 ILC: In-Line
In-Line Calciner........
Calciner.............
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2.4 SLS-S:
SLS-S: Separate Line Calciner
Calciner - Special
Special ..........
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2.5 SLC: Separate
Separate Line Calciner........
Calciner.............
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2.6 SLC-I: Separate
Separate Line
Line Calciner
Calciner with In-line
In-line Calciner
Calciner in Kiln
Kiln String.....
String..........
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2.7 SLC-D:
SLC-D: Separate Line Calciner
Calciner - Downdraft.......
Downdraft............
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3. Type Selection
Selection Guidelines
Guidelines ..........
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3.1. Production Capacity and Investment Costs................................
Costs.........................................................
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3.2 Fuels ...........................................
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3.3 Raw Materials ..........
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3.4 Heat Economy
Economy ..........
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3.5 Pressure
Pressure Drop and Power Consumptio
Consumption....
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3.6 Operation
Operation and Maintenance
Maintenance ..........
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4. Componen
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4.1 Cyclone
Cyclone Preheater
Preheater ..........
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4.2 Calciners.....................
Calciners .............................................
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4.3 Rotary Kiln ..............................................
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4.4 Clinker
Clinker Coolers
Coolers ..........
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4.4.1 Unax Planetary Cooler ................................................
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4.4.2 Coolax Grate Cooler............................................
Cooler....................................................................
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4.4.3 Duax Rotary Underlying Cooler ............................................
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TM
4.4.4 Cross-Bar   Cooler ..............................................
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4.5 Bypass
Bypass for Kiln Gas ..........
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4.6 Accessories 62
 4.6.1 HAF Exhaust Gas Fan............................................................................................ 62
4.6.2 F.L.SMIDTH-SDR Kiln Control System............................................................... 62
4.6.3 Drier Crusher.......................................................................................................... 63
5. Conversion of Wet to Dry-Process Kiln Systems ............................................................ 63
6. Modernisation of Dry-Process Kiln Systems ................................................................... 68
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Process Description

Portland cement clinker is produced from a mixture of typically 70-90% limestone, 10-30%
clay and 0-10% corrective materials by burning in a rotary kiln. The temperature in the
 burning zone is usually 1450-1550 oC and the residence time in the kiln 10-30 minutes,
depending on the kiln system.

The raw materials are blended and proportioned in accordance with the required chemical
composition. Then they are dried and ground to a fineness of 10-15% + 0.09 mm, before
 being mixed with recuperated dust from cooling tower and electrostatic precipitator or bag-
house filter. Following this, they are then homogenized to a variation level in the chemical
composition corresponding to the obtainable analytical precision (Std.dev (LSF) = 0.5,
Std.dev (SIM) = 0.03, Std.dev (ALM) = 0.03) and finally fed to the kiln system.

The processes taking place in the kiln system consist of a temperature dependent
decomposition of the raw material minerals according to their nature, followed by a
recombination of the liberated free reactive oxides forming clinker minerals, the most
important being C4AF, C3A, C2S and C3S.
The clinker formation sequence as a function of the temperature can briefly be characterized 
as shown in following Table 1.1.

Temperature Table 1.1 Characteristic Processes Type of  

range in oC. Process

- 100 Drying, evaporation of free water Endothermic

100 - 400 Elimination of absorbed water Endothermic
 400 - 750 Decomposition of clay minerals Endothermic
Kaolinite → metakaolinite
 600 - 900 Decomposition of metakaolinite to free reactive Endothermic
oxides
 600 - 1000 Decomposition of carbonates to free reactive Endothermic
oxides
 800 - 1300 Combination of reactive oxides to form Exothermic
intermediate or final clinker minerals
1300 - 1380 Formation of clinker melt from aluminates and  Endothermic
ferrites
1250 - 1500 Formation of Alite (C 3S) - the principal clinker  Endothermic
mineral

The processes take place in an oxidizing environment. Reducing conditions are normally not
 present in the system or limited to smaller specific zones for reducing the NOx content in the
combustion gas.

Among the chemical processes described above, the reaction rate of the first five groups of 
reactions, comprising the decomposition of the minerals in the raw meal and the liberation of 
the reactive oxides, is determined by the rate of the heat transfer to the solid material. The
reaction rate of the two last groups of clinker forming reactions is determined first by the
contact rate of the mutual chemical reactive components present in different solid phases, and 
later in the burning zone by the diffusion of the reactive components in the clinker melt.
CaCO3 occurs rapidly. The normal degree of calcination of the material introduced into the
kiln is 90-95%.

The hot air from the cooler is mixed with the kiln gases prior to being used for combustion.
This means that the combustion in the calciner is sustained by a gas mixture with 11-12% O 2
only. The draught in both the kiln and the calciner is controlled by the same fan. This
necessitates a variable damper in the hot tertiary air duct in order to have some means of 
distributing the combustion air between the kiln and calciner, respectively.

In calciner kiln systems, the normal firing in the kiln is 310-330 kcal/kg clinker, depending on
the raw meal burnability. The difference up to the specific heat consumption is introduced 
into the calciner. The consequential fuel distribution between the kiln and the calciner vessel
will thus depend on the specific heat consumption of the system, as shown in Table 2.5.

Table 2.5. applies for all true calciner systems.

Table 2.5 Distribution of Firing between Kiln and Calciner as a Function of the Specific
Heat Consumption

Heat consumption Heat consumption Heat consumption

total kiln calciner 

kcal/kg clinker kcal/kg clinker kcal/kg clinker  

790 315 475
100% 40% 60%
700 315 385
100% 45% 55%

The ILC calciner is built into the riser pipe. The retention time of the gas in the unit should be
minimum 3.3 seconds to ensure a safe burn-out of the fuel in the vessel. The gas velocities in
the calciners are normally kept within 5-7 m/s.
The in-line calciner offers a flexibility for a by-pass between 0 and 100% of the kiln gases.
The increase in the specific heat consumption by a by-pass is 1.6-2.0 kcal/kg clinker per %
 by-pass compared to 4.5-5.5 kcal/kg clinker per % bypass in an SP or ILC-E kiln system.

When considering the use of coal with a high ash content, there is a minimum value for the
inferior calorific value of the coal (Hi) to be fired to the kiln burning zone, due to the high
temperature required, whereas for the calciner there is no minimum, as the temperature is low
(900 oC) and the ash is well mixed with the raw meal and enters as a clay-component in the
clinker.

Dependent on possible requirements for NO x emission, a special NOx reducing arrangement

can be introduced into the ILC-system. The fuel for the calciner can be introduced into an
expanded portion of the riser duct. The fuel will begin to burn in a sub-stoichiometric
atmosphere, creating CO, which in turn will reduce the NOx that was generated in the kiln.
Based on the current NOx emission regulations in North America, it is expected that all new
calciners built will have the low NOx design.

2.4 SLS-S: Separate Line Calciner - Special

The first SLC-S system was put into operation in 1988 with a capacity of 5,000 tpd. Since
then, a number of systems have been sold and commissioned.

An SLC-S kiln system can be equipped with 4-6 cyclone stages in a single or double-string
 preheater with the calciner placed parallel to the kiln riser duct.

In connection with semi-dry process systems, the preheater can be equipped with 1-3 stages
of cyclones.
An example of a modern single-string 5-stage SLC-S kiln system is shown in Figure 2.7. The
temperature and pressure profile is shown on the flow sheet in Figure 2.8 and a typical heat
 balance in Table 2.6.
 Table 2.6 Heat Balance for Coal-Fired 4,500 tpd SLC-S Kiln

Heat balance (reference temp. = 0 oC) kcal/kg clinker  

Heat in smoke gas and dust from preheater 158.6

+ Radiation loss from preheater 26.0
+ Radiation loss from kiln 27.1
+ Heat of reaction 385.0
+ Free water 4.6
+ VDZ cooler loss 115.2
+ Heat in clinker at ambient temperature 2.6
- Sensible heat in raw meal, air and fuel 28.2

 Net specific heat consumption of kiln 690.9

Firing in kiln 307.2

Firing in calciner 383.7

This type of calciner is often used for uprating existing single and double string preheater 
kilns. As the calciner is located outside the preheater, the installation of the calciner and the
tertiary air duct can be completed while the existing kiln system is still operating, and stop
time is only required for connecting the tertiary air duct to the grate cooler and the calciner 
outlet to the top of the riser duct, respectively.

The SLC-S system has the following features and advantages:

Features:
•  Normal capacity range 1,500-5,000 tpd clinker for one preheater string and 10,000
tpd clinker for two preheater strings.
• Firing ratio to calciner: 55-60%.
• Maximum variation in the by-pass of kiln gases: 0-30%.
Advantages:
• High material and gas retention time in calciners which dimensions are moderate,
since kiln gases do not pass through the calciner.
• Very well suited for all normal fuel types including even pulverized low-volatile coal
with or without high ash content, as the combustion takes place in hot atmospheric
air.
• The combustion temperature in the calciner can be controlled independently of the
temperature of the calcined material fed to the kiln.
• Low refractory costs due to the low thermal kiln load and stable kiln coating.
• Smallest possible tower dimensions, as the calciner can be installed separated from
the main cyclone tower.
• The two-string version of the system allows production down to 40% of the rated 
capacity.

The kiln system described above has a calciner with combustion in hot atmospheric air drawn
from the grate cooler through a separate tertiary air duct which is an advantage when using,
for instance, low grade fuels or petrocoke.

Furthermore, the system offers the very advantageous feature that the temperature in the
calciner vessel and the riser pipe can be adjusted by means of the material dividing gate
 below the next lower preheater stage.

With difficult-burnable coal, as for example petrocoke, anthracite etc., the temperature in the
calciner can be increased to 1000-1100 oC by sending more material to the riser pipe and less
to the calciner. Owing to this feature, optimum control of coating in the riser pipe, burn-out of 
the fuel, stability of preheater etc. is obtained without changes in the preheater temperature
 profile.

The gas retention time in the calciner vessel and duct should be minimum 2.7 seconds to
ensure safe burn-out of the fuel. By operating the calciner with increased temperatures the
required retention time is decreased.
The gas velocity in the calciner is usually 6.5-8.0 m/s.

The exhaust gases from the kiln and the calciner are mixed before being introduced into the
cyclone preheater. The gas temperature of the lower preheater stage is in the normal range of 
870-900 oC. With this temperature level, the obtainable degree of calcination is 90-95%.

However, the SLC-S kiln system is not particularly suitable when a very high by-pass range is
required. A by-pass can be fitted to the kiln string but only a range of 0-30% by-pass of the
kiln gas is recommended.

The draught in both the kiln and the calciner is created by the same fan. This necessitates a
variable damper in the riser pipe in order to distribute the combustion air between the kiln and 
the calciner.

The SLC-S system is especially suitable for secondary non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) of 
 NOX by ammonia injection, since the optimum reaction temperature (950-980 oC) is easily
adjusted.

2.5 SLC: Separate Line Calciner

The SLC system was introduced in 1977. Since then quite a number of systems have been put
into operation with capacities up to 10,000 tpd.

An SLC kiln system can be equipped with 4-6 cyclones stages in a double or triple-string
 preheater. This kiln type is mainly used for large units above 4,500 tpd clinker, where at least
a double string preheater would be used in any case. By using separate strings for kiln and 
calciner, some very important operational advantages are obtained - among others can be
mentioned the independent and accurate draught control for the kiln and calciner strings,
adjusting the speed of the individual fans without having a damper in the tertiary air duct.
The calciner vessel is placed parallel to the kiln riser duct and is very well suited for all types
of fuels including low-volatile fuels such as petroleum coke and anthracite, because the
combustion takes place in hot atmospheric air. As an option for difficult burnable
combustibles, the calciner can be operated as a high temperature calciner. The material from
the second or maybe the third lowermost cyclone may be divided between the top and the
 bottom of the calciner, whereby the combustion temperature can be controlled independently.

The gas retention time in the calciner unit should be minimum 2.7 seconds to ensure safe
 burn-out of the fuel inside the calciner. The gas velocities in the calci ner are usually 5.5-7.5
m/s.

The system shown in Figure 2.11 is a triple-string F.L.SMIDTH-SLC pre-calcining kiln

system with two calciners. Two systems of this type designed for a production of 10,000 tpd 
are in operation in Thailand.

The system is very flexible regarding production level due to the possibility of operating 1, 2
or 3 strings, giving the continuous production range 20-100% of full capacity.

2.6 SLC-I: Separate Li

Line Ca
Calciner wi
with In
In-line Ca
Calciner in
in Ki
Kiln
String

In order to increase the production capacity of the double-string SLC system, a small ILC
calciner can be included in the kiln string, resulting in similar size cyclones in the kiln and 
calciner string, which is an advantage, especially when high production capacities are
considered.

The first SLC-I system was commissioned in 1994 and since a number of others have been
commissioned.

The SLC-I kiln system can be equipped with 4-6 stages of cyclones with comparable sizes in
each of the two strings in the double-string preheater/calciner.
An example of a modern 5-stage SLC-I kiln system is shown in Figure 2.12. The temperature
and pressure profile is shown on the flow sheet in Figure 2.13 and a typical heat balance in
Table 2.8.

Table 2.8 Heat Balance for Coal-Fired 6,000 tpd SLC-I

SLC-I Kiln

Heat balance (reference temp. = 0 oC) kcal/kg clinker  

Heat in smoke gas and dust from ILC preheater string 76.7
Heat in smoke gas and dust from SLC calciner string 80.9
+ Radiation loss from preheater 33.0
+ Radiation loss from kiln 24.5
+ Heat of reaction 385.0
+ Free water 4 .6

+ VDZ cooler loss 116.1

+ Heat in clinker at ambient temperature 2 .6
- Sensible heat in raw meal, air and fuel 28.3

 Net specific heat consumption of kiln 695.1

Firing in kiln 307.7

Firing in SLC calciner 325.1
Firing in ILC calciner 62.3

The SLC-I kiln system has the following features and advantages:

Features:
•  Normal capacity range: 5,500-10,000 tpd clinker.
• Firing in SLC
SLC calciner: 40-50%.
• Firing in ILC calciner: 10-15%.
• By-pass range of kiln gases: 0-30%
Advantages:
• High material and gas retention time in the calciner, which dimensions are moderate
since kiln gas does not pass through it.
• Very well suited for all fuel types, even very low volatile fuels, as the combustion
takes place in hot atmospheric air and (as an option) the temperature in the calciner 
can be controlled independently of the temperature of the calcined material to the
kiln.
• Low refractory costs due to low thermal load and stable kiln coating.
• Independent draught control for kiln and calciner string, for example by adjusting the
speeds of the individual preheater string fans.
• Production up to 50% using the kiln string only, operating as an ILC-E kiln.
• Well suited for high capacity systems, where a triple-string SLC system is not
wanted and the flexibility of the SLC system is desired.

Dependent on possible requirements for NO x emission, special arrangements can be

introduced into the SLC-I system. The tertiary air duct is split into two ducts, entering the
calciner at different positions in order to establish a zone with reducing combustion in the
 bottom part of the SLC calciner. Similarly, a zone with reducing combustion can be
introduced into the ILC calciner.

2.7
2.7 SLC-
SLC-D:
D: Se
Sepa
para
rate
te Line
Line Calc
Calcin
iner
er - Down
Downdr
draf
aftt

The SLC-D is a derivation of the SLC-S calciner. The SLC-D was designed specifically for 
difficult to burn fuels and for low NOx operation. Several SLC-D systems have been sold,
with the first commissioned in 1999.

The SLC-D kiln system can be equipped with 4-6 cyclone stages in a single or double-string
 preheater with the calciner placed
plac ed parallel to the kiln riser duct.

In connection with semi-dry process systems, the preheater can be equipped with 1-3 stages
of cyclones.
An example of a modern single-string 5-stage SLC-D kiln system (shown on Figure 2.14)
with a typical temperature and pressure profile is shown in Figure 2.15. A typical heat balance
is given in Table 2.9.

Table 2.9
Heat Balance for Coal-Fired 4,500 tpd SLC-D Kiln

Heat balance (reference temp. = 0 oC) kcal/kg clinker  

Heat in smoke gas and dust from preheater 158.6

+ Radiation loss from preheater 26.0

+ Radiation loss from kiln 27.1

+ Heat of reaction 385.0

+ Free water 4.6

+ VDZ cooler loss 115.2

+ Heat in clinker at ambient temperature 2.6

- Sensible heat in raw meal, air and fuel 28.2

 Net specific heat consumption of kiln 690.9

Firing in kiln 307.2

Firing in calciner 383.7

This type of calciner can be used for upgrading existing single and double string preheater 
kilns as well as increasing the retention time of existing ILC calciners. As the calciner is
located outside the preheater, the installation of the calciner and the tertiary air duct can be
completed while the existing kiln system is still operating, and stop time is only required for 
connecting the tertiary air duct to the grate cooler and the calciner outlet to the top of the riser 
duct, respectively.

The SLC-D system has the following features and advantages:

•  Normal capacity range 1,500-5,000 tpd clinker for one preheater string and 4,500-10,000
tpd clinker for two preheater strings.
• Firing ratio to calciner: 55-60%.
• Maximum variation in the by-pass of kiln gases: 0-30%.
• Design to operate under reducing and/or high temperatures for NOx reduction.

Advantages:

• High material and gas retention time in calciners which dimensions are moderate, since
kiln gases do not pass through the calciner.
• Specifically designed for pulverized low-volatile coal with or without high ash content, as
the flame combustion takes place in hot atmospheric air.
• The combustion temperature in the calciner can be controlled independently of the
temperature of the calcined material fed to the kiln.
• Low refractory costs due to the low thermal kiln load and stable kiln coating.
• Smallest possible tower dimensions, as the calciner can be installed separated from the
main cyclone tower.
• The two-string version of the system allows production down to 40% of the rated 
capacity.
• The ability to operate the calciner under high temperature or reducing atmosphere to
reduce NOx without impacting fuel consumption, CO emissions, or top stage temperature.

The kiln system described above has a calciner with combustion in hot atmospheric air drawn
from the grate cooler through a separate tertiary air duct which is an advantage when using,
for instance, low grade fuels or petcoke.

Furthermore, the system offers the very advantageous feature that the temperature in the
calciner vessel and the riser pipe can be adjusted by means of the material dividing gate
 below the next lower preheater stage.
With difficult-burnable coal, as for example petcoke, anthracite etc., the temperature in the
calciner can be increased to 1000-1100 oC by sending more material to the riser pipe and less
to the calciner. Owing to this feature, optimum control of coating in the riser pipe, burn-out of 
the fuel, stability of preheater etc. is obtained without changes in the preheater temperature
 profile.

The gas retention time in the calciner vessel and duct should be minimum 3.0 seconds to
ensure safe burn-out of the fuel. By operating the calciner with increased temperatures the
required retention time is decreased.

The gas velocity in the calciner is usually 5.0-6.0 m/s.

3. TYPE SELECTION GUIDELINES

Choosing the right kiln system configuration for a given project is a complicated task 
involving a number of considerations. However, to give some idea of how to choose a new
kiln system, a number of criteria should be taken into consideration. The most important are
listed below.

3.1. Production Capacity and Investment Costs

With a given production capacity, a pre-calcining system requires considerably smaller kiln
dimensions than the simple suspension preheater kiln system.

F.L.SMIDTH normally recommend a rotary kiln diameter preferably smaller than 5 m and not
exceeding 6 m in order to ensure a reasonably long lining life.

Thus, it is advisable to employ a pre-calcining system with tertiary air duct for kiln
 productions above 3,500 tpd.

On the other hand, the simplicity of the SP kiln system equipped with planetary cooler makes
it the cheapest solution for small kiln production capacities up to 2,500 tpd clinker. The semi-
Table 4.1 Comparison between Lowermost Cyclone Performance in a 4-Stage ILC
Preheater for:
A) LP cyclone design without efficiency increasing precautions.
B) LP cyclone with triangular cut.
C) LP cyclone with central tube.
D) LP cyclone with both triangular cut and central tube.

A B C D

Cyclone efficiency (%) 77 81 87 87

Cyclone pressure drop
coefficient (%) 100 120 120 135
Heat of re-carbonization
(kcal/kg clinker) 27 22 15 15
Gas temperature after third 
stage cyclone (oC) 764 752 736 736
Volume of exit gas after first
stage cyclone (%) 100 98.4 96.2 96.2
Mass of exit gas after first
stage cyclone (%) 100 99.5 98.8 98.8
Gas temperature after first
stage cyclone (oC) 362 355 345 345
Heat consumption of kiln (%) 100 99.5 98.8 98.8
Preheater pressure drop (%) 100 100.6 97.2 98.5
I.D.-fan power consumption
without cooling tower (%) 100 98.5 93.0 94.7
I.D.-fan power consumption
with cooling tower (%) 100 99.0 94.3 96.1
4.2 Calciners

All F.L.SMIDTH calciners consist of a cylindrical vessel with a conical bottom. This design
allows for ample internal calciner volume, while keeping the calciner weight and surface heat
loss at a minimum.

The ILC-E calciner is shown in Figure 4.4.

In the ILC-E and ILC systems, kiln exhaust gas enters the calciner axially in the bottom cone,
and the calciner exhaust gas leaves the calciner through a side outlet at the top. Due to the
rapid increase in the cross sectional area in the conical calciner bottom a strong vortex is
created, ensuring an effective mixing of fuel, raw meal and gas.

In the ILC calciner, shown on Figure 4.5, the mixing of fuel, raw meal and gas is further 
enhanced by the introduction of the tertiary air duct tangentially on the calciner bottom cone.
The resulting moderate swirl in the calciner further increases the particle retention time in the
calciner.

The SLC calciner is shown in Figure 4.6 and the SLC-S calciner is shown in Figure 4.7.

In the SLC and SLC-S systems, the hot tertiary air from the cooler enters the calciner through
the central inlet in the bottom cone and the exhaust gas leaves the calciner either through a
side outlet or - if high temperature operation is anticipated - through an outlet cone connected 
to a central outlet pipe. For the same production capacity the calciners of the SLC and SLC-S
systems are smaller in dimensions than the ILC calciner, as no kiln exhaust gas is led through
the calciner. Also the calciners of the SLC and SLC-S systems are characterized by a strong
vortex formation in the bottom cone, ensuring an effective mixing of raw meal, coal and 
tertiary air and a high ratio between particle and gas retention time (estimated at
approximately 4 in an industrial scale calciner).
For improving the combustion when firing with low-volatile coals such as pet coke or 
anthracite in precalciner systems, a down-draft calciner can be installed in front of the regular 
ILC calciner.

The SLC-D system shown in Figure 4.8 also uses hot tertiary air from the cooler. However,
the tertiary air from the cooler enters the top of the down-draft calciner where also the fuel is
added through a specially designed burner. As the air enters the calciner tangentially, it
creates as swirl of air and material around the outside walls. This high concentration of meal
 protects the refractory from the high temperature that is cre ated in the center of the calciner 
with the two channel burner. The calciner exhaust gas and meal exits the bottom and enters
into the kiln riser duct area at a 135 degree angle from the kiln exit gases which ensures
complete mixing. If NOx reduction is required, staged combustion can be applied between the
down draft and the regular calciner.

All F.L.SMIDTH calciners can be fired with liquid, gaseous or solid fuels, the calciner 
 burners being placed so as to ensure good distribution of fuel across the calciner cross secti on
and rapid ignition of the fuel.

A unique feature of the SLC-S system is that the temperature level inside the calciner is
independently controlled by the position of the dividing gate effecting the distribution of raw
meal conducted to the calciner and the kiln riser duct, respectively.

Thus, by leading a relatively large amount of raw meal to the kiln riser duct, keeping the fuel
input to the calciner constant, the mean temperature in the calciner vessel can be increased to
950-1100 oC. The temperature of the exhaust gas and the degree of calcination of the raw
meal leaving the calciner will also increase.

However, on mixing with the kiln exhaust gas still containing un-calcined raw meal before
entering the calciner cyclone, the temperature of the gas/particle suspension is reduced to
approximately 900 oC. Thus, a normal temperature level is maintained in the calciner cyclone.
Similarly, a normal degree of calcination of 90-95% is maintained for the raw meal supplied 
to the kiln.
The increased temperature in the calciner ensures effective combustion even of fuels with low
reactivity, for example low-volatile coals such as petroleum coke and anthracite.

A similar control of the temperature level in the calciner for the SLC system can be effected 
 by a dividing gate controlling the distribution of raw meal from the second lowest cyclone
stage in the calciner string between the calciner bottom and the calciner outlet pipe.

High temperature calciners comply with the same overall design as normal calciners.

The tertiary air from the cooler enters the top of the down-draft calciner where also the fuel is
added through a specially designed burner.

If NOx reduction is required, staged combustion can be applied between the down draft and 
the regular calciner.

4.3 Rotary Kiln

The F.L.SMIDTH programme of rotary kilns includes 28 standard kilns with shell diameters
ranging from 3.30 m to 6.0 m.

Previously the effective length of the kilns was selected to be approximately 17 times the
diameter of the kiln inside lining, and the kiln was supplied with three supports, as shown in
Figure 4.8, as well as an extra support behind the cooler, if the kiln was equipped with
 planetary cooler.

However, as the development and market conditions are constantly changing, F.L.SMIDTH
will today supply a two-support kiln with a length/diameter ratio of 12 - 13 as standard. The
two-support kiln is today supplied with state of the art components, inlet and outlet seals, self 
aligning bearingssupport, tangential suspension of the live ring and kiln drive via the
supporting rollers, which all minimise the mechanical risks associated with running a short
kiln. This type of kiln, which in certain cases can be reduced to 10 in length/diameter ratio is
The inclination of the three-support rotary kiln is normally 3.5% in the SP and ILC-E kiln
systems and 4% for the kilns of the ILC, SLC-S, SLC and SLC-I systems. The corresponding
maximum speeds are 2.5 rpm and 5.0 rpm, respectively.

The two-support kilns have an inclination of 3.5% and a maximum speed of 5.0 rpm.

4.4 Clinker Coolers

The F.L.SMIDTH programme comprises three different types of clinker coolers, the Unax
 planetary cooler, the Coolax grate cooler and the Duax rotary cooler.

4.4.1 U na x P
 x Planet ar 
 y C 
 y C ooler 

The Unax cooler is a planetary cooler consisting of tubes mounted on the kiln shell. The
cooler can handle clinker of greatly varying particle size, and all the cooling air is used as
secondary air in the combustion process. Thus, no dedusting system is required. This type of 
cooler is normally used with SP and ILC-E kiln systems.

4.4.2 C oola x G
 x Gr at e  C 
C ooler 

Grate coolers for precalciner kiln systems have been used for many years.

Based on operational experience from more than 4000 grate coolers supplied by F.L.Smidth
and F.L.Smidth and considerable research and development, the design of a new basis cooler,
named COOLAX, has been completed. The new Coolax grate cooler, which replaces the
 previous Folax grate cooler, is shown in Figure 4.25.

The new cooler is characterised by a very high thermal efficiency, reliability, durability, and 
easy maintenance. The improved thermal efficiency is obtained by the use of the newly
developed controlled flow grate (CFG) plates, shown in Figure 4.26. The CFG plates have
transversal slots to improve the heat transfer from clinker to air and are used in the heat
recuperation zone. The CFG grate plates are cooled by the air passing through specially
The philosophy is to feed both the soft material (chalk, marl) with its natural moisture
content and the dry additives directly into the drier crusher and hereby obtain the raw mix
composition in the drier crusher/preheater.

By this procedure a compact system is obtained avoiding the installation of slurry filters.

An example of a group 4 system is enclosed as Figure 5.4.

The conversion of wet process plants is treated in more detail in a separate paper.
6. MODERN
DERNIISAT
SATION
ION OF
OF DR
DRY-PR
Y-PROC
OCES
ESS
S KI
KILN SYST
SYSTE
EMS

The F.L.SMIDTH equipment described in the previous chapters 2 to 5 represents the state of 
art in clinker pyroprocessing technology.

The system configurations and components described do not only apply to new kiln
installations, but the described concepts and components may also be applied to
modernisation of existing production lines.

The purpose of modernising an existing plant is generally to uprate the production capacity
and simultaneously increase the energy efficiency and, in consequence, reduce the production
costs as well as the maintenance costs.

Uprating of the production capacity often involves modification of the kiln system to a system
with higher volumetric kiln load as for example converting an SP kiln system to an ILC-E
system or an SLC system.

For larger production increases such modernisation may require modification or replacement
of the clinker cooler, for example when the system is converted from a system without tertiary
air duct to a system with tertiary air duct, which requires a grate cooler.

Increased heat efficiency can be obtained by various means, as for example by replacing the
normal refractory brick-lining with a highly insulating refractory lining, thus decreasing the
radiation loss from the surface, by adding more cyclone stages to the preheater, by increasing
the separation efficiency of existing cyclones, by increasing the thermal efficiency of the
clinker cooler, and by reducing the entrance of false and primary air to the kiln system.

Replacing the existing cyclones, especially the top and lower- most cyclone stages, with LP
(low pressure drop) cyclones results in a lower pressure drop over the preheater and,
consequently, lower power consumption of the kiln ID fan.
Some old ID fans have straight, radial impeller blades with efficiencies of about 65-70% only.
By replacing the impeller with a modern, high efficient impeller with backwards curved 
 blades the efficiency can be increased to 80-85%.

For long dry process kilns and 1 or 2-stage SP kilns with demanding maintenance kiln
internals, a considerable reduction in maintenance costs can be obtained by converting the
system to 2 or more stages SP kilns without internals.

It is, thus, in many cases advantageous to modernize existing kiln systems using the
components and equipment described in Section 4.

Most kiln conversion projects have resulted in a greatly increased production capacity as well
as considerable savings in specific heat and power consumptions and maintenance costs.

F.L.SMIDTH have successfully carried out numerous kiln conversion projects including
conversion of wet process and long dry process as well as one and two stage SP kilns to
modern dry-process kiln systems incorporating 4 or 5-stage preheaters.

Most of these conversions have involved shortening the existing kiln and connecting it to a
completely new preheater tower. As the production capacity is usually boosted by the
conversion, it has often been necessary to uprate or modify the existing clinker cooler as well.
In order to keep kiln downtime at a minimum, the new preheater tower is usually erected 
above the existing un-shortened kiln while still in operation.

Four and 5-stage SP kiln systems can also be uprated. One method is to increase the capacity
of the existing preheater by replacing one or more cyclones with the space saving
F.L.SMIDTH-LP type, possibly at the same time installing an ILC-E, ILC or SLC-S calciner.

Another possibility is to install a completely new calciner-preheater string parallel with the
existing preheater tower, thus converting the kiln system to an SLC type. This conversion is
illustrated in Figure 6.1.
The latter conversion method has the advantage of a very short downtime, as the new
 preheater tower can be completely erected without this affec ting the production in the existing
kiln. The actual connection of the new calciner string to the existing system is extremely
simple.

The feasibility of such conversions may be critical, and it is recommended to carefully

evaluate the existing possibilities.

The F.L.SMIDTH kiln specialists have the necessary expertise and experience to assist in
evaluating the possibilities of any kiln conversion project.

Modernisation of dry process kiln systems is treated in more detail in a separate paper.
 ICPS - 2002

Henrik Rask Sønderborg

Process Engineer 
Cement Engineering
Process Design

F.L.Smidth A/S
Vigerslev Allé 77 • DK-2500 Valby • Copenhagen • Denmark
Tel +45 36 18 10 00 • Direct line +45 36 18 19 40
Fax +45 36 17 10 91
[email protected]
Wednesday - May 29, 2002

Please deliver your laundry at the reception, and pick up your laundry from Monday, May
27.

7:30 - 8:30 Breakfast

8:30 - 9:30 Kiln Systems - Process Mr. Henrik R. Sønderborg

9:30 - 9:45 Coffee Break  

9:45 - 10:30 Kiln Systems - Process Mr. Henrik R. Sønderborg

10:30 - 10:45 Coffee Break  

10:45 - 12:15 Kiln Systems - Mechanical Mr. Keld Hjortshøj

12:00 - 13:00 Lunch

13:15 - 14:15 Kiln Systems - Process Mr. Henrik R. Sønderborg

14:30 - 14:45 Coffee Break  

14:30 - 16:00 Dedusting of Cement Plants Mr. Jørgen H. Lind 

FLS MILJØ

16:00 - 16:15 Coffee Break  

16:15 - 17:30 Discussion Groups Mr. Tom Thestrup

18:00 - 19:00 Dinner  

Thursday - May 30, 2002

7:30 - 8:30 Breakfast

8:30 - 10:00 Cooling of Clinker Mr. Bo Bentsen

10:00 - 10:15 Coffee Break  

10:15 - 11:15 Influence of Operating Parameters on Heat

& Power Consumption of Kiln Systems

11:15 - 12:00 Panel Discussion Mr. Bo Bentsen

Mr. Keld Hjortshøj
Mr. Henrik R. Sønderborg

12:00 - 13:00 Lunch

13:00 - 14:15 Kiln Systems – Group Work Part 1 Mr. Henrik R. Sønderborg

14:15 - 14:30 Coffee Break  

14:30 - 15:30 Kiln Systems – Group Work Part 1 Mr. Henrik R. Sønderborg
 continued 

15:30 - 15:45 Coffee Break  

15:45 - 16:30 Presentation of Group Work Results Part 1 Mr. Henrik R. Sønderborg

18:00 - 19:00 Dinner  

 ICPS - K il
ilnn s y s t em s
Introduction
 –  Process
 Process descripti on
 –  Factors
 Factors influencing choic e of kil n system

Kiln systems
 –  SP
  SP Su s p en s i o n Pr eh eat er K i l n
 –  IL
 IL C-E In -L i n e Cal c i n er u s i n g Ex c es s A i r  
 –  IL
 IL C In -L i n e Cal c i n er  
 –  SL
 SL C-S Sep ar at e L i n e Cal c i n er - Sp ec i al
 –  SL
 SL C-D Sep ar at e L i n e Cal c i n er - Do w n d r af t
 –  SL
 SL C Sep ar at e L i n e Cal c i n er  
 –  SL
 SL C-I Sep ar at at e L i n e Cal ci
ci n er w i th
th In -l i ne
ne Cal c i n er in
in t h e K i ln
ln St r in
in g

Selection guide
 –  Capacity
 Capacity and Investment
 –  Fuel
 Fuel
 –  Raw
 Raw materials
m aterials
 –  Heat
 Heat econom y
 –  Power
 Power cons umption

Cyclone characteristic
 –  Desig
 Design n
 –  Pressur
 Pressur e dro
dropp
 –  Separa
 Separatiotion
n effic iency
Charact
haracteeristi
ri stic
c Pro
Processe
cesses s withi
wit hin
n the  P
Pyroprocessing
 Pyro
yropro
proce
cessin
ssing
g
Syste
yst em as a FunFunct
ctio
ionn of Process
ro cess
roce ss Temp
Te
Tempe
mp erature

TEMPERATURE TYPE OF
RANGE IN C CHARACTERISTICS PROCESSES PROCESS
- 100 Dr yi n g , ev ap o r at i o n o f f r ee w at er En d o t h er m i c
100 - 400 El i m i n at i o n o f ab s o r b ed w at er En d o t h er m i c
400 - 750 Dec o m p o s i t i o n o f c l ay m i n er al s Endothermic
Kaolinite metakaolinite
600 - 900 Dec o mp
mp os os i t io
io n o f m et ak ao lili n it
it e t o f re
ree Endothermic
reactive oxides
600 - 1000 Decom
com posi
positi tion
o n of carb
carbon
onaates
tes to fre free Endothermic
reactive oxides
800 - 1300 Coommbi
bina
nati tion
o n of reareactiv
ctive
e oxid
oxide es to form
form Exothermic
intermediate or f inal clin ker minerals
1300 - 1380 Formu
ormulalatition
on of of clin
cl inkekerr melt
melt fro
f rom m alu
alumimina
nate
tes
s Endothermic
and ferrites
1250 - 1500 Fo r m at i o n of
of AlAl i t e (C3S) — th e princ ipal Endothermic
clink er mineral
mineral
 Theoretical Heat of Reaction

kcal/kg
Hea
Heat of
o f Reacti
Reaction
on Clinker 

Ev ap o r at i o n o f c o m b i n ed w at er 20

D e c o m p o s i t i o n o f c l a y m i n er a l s 35

D e c o m p o s i t i o n o f c ar b o n a t e s 475
— Heat o f f o r m at i o n o f c l i n k er m i n er al s -1 3 0
— Heat o f c o m b u s t i b l e i n r aw m eal -1 5
To t al h eat o f r eac t i o n 385
Specific Heat Consumption for Different Kiln Systems

Kcal/kg
Specific Heat Consumpti on for Diff erent Kiln Systems Clinker 
Wet Process Kiln with Internals 1400
Long Dry-Process Kiln with Internals 1100
1-stage cyclone preheater with kiln internals 1000
2-stage cyclone preheater without kiln internals 900
4-stage cyclone preheater without bypass 800
Modern semi-dry process plant with preheater and calciner 1100
Modern 5-stage preheater/calciner system without bypass with satellite or  725
traditional grate cooler for clinker 
Modern 5-stage preheater/calciner system without bypass high efficiency 690
(third generation) grate cooler 
 Drying Capacity of Kiln Exit as a Function of the
Number of Preheater Stages
Raw Material Number of Stages Comments
Humidity in the Pre-Heater 
0 — 3% 5 or 6 See 1) and 2) below
0 — 5% 5 See 2) below
0 — 8% 4 or 5 See 2) and 3) below
0 — 12% 3 or 4 See 3) below
0 — 16% 2 or 3 See 3) below
0 — 22% 1 or 2 See 4) below

1) The choi ce is determined by the relation between fuel and power costs.
2) The installation cost s and possible limits of investment may prevail over 
long-term optimum choice
3) Depends on seasonal variations.
4) Split of feed nor mally made between stages 1 and 2 to control t he preheater 
exit temperature.
Factors to Consider When Choosing Kiln System Size and Type

Market
Market Conditions
Conditions
• Production Capacity TPD
• Product Quality
• Future capacity requirements
• Emission/environmental requirements

Raw Materials
• Quarry lifetime and homogeneity
• Minor components
• Bad actors
actor s in raw mix, e.g.. volatiles , pyrite, carbon, etc.

Fuel
•  Availability
• Quality
Volumetric and Thermal Load of Kiln as Function of Type of 
Kiln System

Kiln System Volumetric Load Burning Zone Load

tpd/m3 106 kcal/h/m2
SP 1.8 - 2.3 2.8 - 5.5
ILC-E 1.8 - 2.5 2.8 - 6.0
ILC 3.6 - 5.0 2.4 - 4.8
SLC 3.6 - 5.0 2.4 - 4.8
SLC-I 3.6 - 5.0 2.4 - 4.8
SLC-D 3.6 - 5.0 2.4 - 4.8
BURNING ZONE LOAD VS. KILN SYSTEM
CAPACITY IN TPD CLINKER

Figur e 3.2
TPD Production

Kiln dimension
13000
One String
3 - Support 2 - Support
T
wo Strings
12000
Three Strings
Unlikly configuration
for new klin system
11000

10000 6,00 x 95

9000
5,75 x 91

8000
5,50 x 87
7000
5,25 x 82 5,50 x 66
6000
5,00 x 78 5,25 x 62
5000
4,75 x 74 5,00 x 60

4000 4,55 x 71 4,75 x 56

4,35 x 67 4,55 x 54
3000 4,15 x 64 4,35 x 51
3,95 x 60 4,15 x 49
3,75 x 57 3,95 x 46
2000
3,60 x 54 3,75 x 44
3,30 x 49 3,45 x 40
1000

0 SP ILC-E ILC SLC SLC-I SLC-D

SP - Suspension
preheater kiln
SP - Suspension preheater kiln
ILC - In-Line
Calciner 
 ILC low NOx

REDUCTION ZONE
 ILC Calciner
For burning of petcoke

70-85% of 
180° bend for  material
improved mixing

Part of 
raw meal to
top of calciner 
Restriction for 
improved mixing

Oxidizing zone High temp.

 bottom part
Tertiary air 

Reducing zone

Fuel
15-30% of 
material
ILC - In-Line Calciner 
 Heat Balance for Coal-Fired
4000 TPD ILC Kiln

Heat Balance (reference temp. = 0 C) kcal/kg clinker 

Heat in smoke gas and dust from preheater 159.9
+ Radiation loss from preheater 24.0
+ Radiation loss from kiln 30.4
+ Heat of reaction 385.0
+ Free water 4.6
+ VDZ cooler loss 115.5
+ Heat in clinker at ambient temperature 2.6
Sensible heat in raw meal, air and fu el 28.2
Net specific heat consumption of kiln 693.8
Firing in kiln 330.4
Firing in calciner 363.4
SLC-S Calciner 
SLC-S Calciner 
 Heat Balance for Coal-Fired
4500 TPD SLC-S Kiln
Heat Balance (reference temp. = 0 C) kcal/kg clinker 

Heat in smoke gas and dust from preheater 158.6

+ Radiation loss from preheater 26.0
+ Radiation loss from kiln 27.1
+ Heat of reaction 385.0
+ Free water 4.6
+ VDZ cooler loss 115.2
+ Heat in clinker at ambient temperature 2.6
Sensible heat in raw meal, air and fuel 28.2
Net specific heat consumption of kiln 690.9
Firing in kiln 307.2
Firing in calciner 383.7
 SLC - S Calciner 
• Features
 –  Normal capacity range 1500 - 5000 tpd clinker for one preheater string and 10,000 tpd
clinker for two preheater strings
 –  Firing ratio to calciner: 55% - 60%
 –  Maximum variation in the by-pass of kiln gases: 0% - 30%

•  Advantages
 –  High material and gas retention time in  calciners
calciners which
which dimensions are moderate,
since kiln gases do not pass through the calciner 
 –  Very well suited for all normal fuel types including even pulverized low-volatile coal with
or without high ash content, as the combustion takes place in hot atmospheric air 
 –  The combustion temperature in the calciner can be controlled independently of the
temperature o f the calcined
the calcined material
material fed to the kiln
 –  Low refractory costs due to the low thermal kiln load and stable kiln coating
 –  Smallest possible tower dimensions, as the calciner can be installed separated from
the main cyclone tower 
 –  The two-string version of the system allows production down to 40% of the rated
capacity
SLC-D - Separate Line
Calciner - Downdraft
SLC-D - Downdraft Calciner 
 SLC-D system
 Calciner with Separate Combustion Chamber
Burner with Primary Air 

Combustion Chamber  3

6 Riser Pipe after Restrictor 

2

Tertiary Air Duct after Raw Meal add .

4 Outlet Combustion Chamber 

Restrictor 
Tertiary Air Duct 1
5 Riser Pipe before Restrictor 
SLC-D - Separate Line Calciner - Downdraft
Hydraulic Thrust Roller 
Kiln Drive with Girth Gear 
and Pinion
Conventional Live Ring
Tangential Tyre Suspension
KILN TYRES

Figure 4.11
 Cast Central Tubes

• Lowest stage : mat. 25 cr  14

14 N
 Temp.
Temp. 850°C < t <1100°C

• 2nd lowest stage : mat. 20 cr 

Temp. Max. 900°C